Barajlar Kitabı

8/13/2019 Barajlar Kitab

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BARAJLAR KTABI BOOK OF DAMS


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Like the tiger, the engineer of power must have the physical means with which to crush

his victims. And the agro-managerial despot does indeed possess such means The

monster projects of the Qin emperor expressed so well, the effectiveness of hydraulic

economy and government-directed mass-labor. Karl A. Wittfogel1

The means of combating and conquering nature have entailed increasingly sophisticated

systems of irrigation, ood control, water conservation and power genera tion. Togenerate power however, (to unlock energy from wind, water, sun a nd the earth),

another kind of POWER has been nec essary and instrumental: the political power and

authority of a monarch, empire or more recently the territorial nation-state.

It was as much slavery as pre-modern engineering ingenuity that erected the

monumental aqueducts of the Roman Empire across the Mediterranean world.

The complex irrigation systems and waterworks of ancient China would not have

been possible without the absolute power of the emperors. Many thinkers see these

HYDRAULIC EMPIRES of the ancient world as the archetypes of the grand water-

management projects of modern nation-states in the 20th century, especially under

authoritarian regimes.

In his compelling critique of high-modernist SOCIAL ENGINEERING programs

of modern nation-states, historian James C. Scott argues that this most visionary and

ultimately devastating ideology of the 20th century nds its analog in the scienticand technological domination of nature which tends to reduce the ecologically complex

reality of the natural world into a legible, measurable, calculable and ultimately

controllable resource as for example, in scientic forest management which disregards

the bio-diversity of plant species in a natural forest in favor of the monoculture of thelogging industry.2

Gc elinde tutan kiinin, tpk bir kaplan gibi, kurbanlarn ezip geecei z ikselimknlar olmaldr. Ve tarm-ynetimsel despot bylesi imknlarn bilil sahibidir

in imparatorunun devasa projeleri, hidrolik ekonomi ile iktidar gdml kitlesel

emein etkinliini ok iyi bir ekilde gstermitir. Karl A. Wittfogel1

Doayla mcadele etme ve onu kontrol altna alma yntemleri, sulama, takn denetimi,su tasarrufu ve enerji retimi gibi giderek sostike hle gelen sistemleri gerektirmitir.

Ancak enerji retmek (rzgr, su, gne ve topraktaki enerjiyi ortaya karmak) iinbaka tipte bir G gerekli ve etkilidir: Bir kraliyetin, bir imparatorluun ya da (ok

daha yakn dnemde) teritoryal bir ulus-devletin politik gc ve otoritesi.

Bu, Roma mparatorluunun tm Akdenizde ykselen antsal su kanallarn tesis edenmodern ncesi mhendislik becerisi olduu kadar klelik anlamna da gelmekteydi.Eski inin karmak sulama sistemleri ve su ebekesi, imparatorlarn mutlak gcolmakszn gerekletirilemezdi. Pek ok dnr, antik dnyann bu HDROLK

MPARATORLUKLARn, zellikle otoriter rejime sahip 20. yzyl modern ulus-devletlerinin byk su ynetimi projelerinin arketipleri olarak grmektedir.

James C. Scott, modern ulus-devletlerin yksek-modernist TOPLUM

MHENDSL programlarna ilikin arpc eletiri yazsnda, 20. yzyln buen vizyoner ve kesinlikle tahripkr ideolojisinin analojizisini, bilimsel ve teknolojik

anlamda doaya hkimiyette bulduunu savunur. Bu hkimiyet, doal dnyannekolojik bakmdan kompleks gerekliini okunabilir, llebilir, hesaplanabilir ve

sonuta kontrol edilebilir bir kaynaa indirgeme eilimindedir; doal bir ormandakibitki trlerinin biyolojik eitliliini, tomruk endstrisinin mono-kltr iin hie sayan

bilimsel orman ynetimi rneinde olduu gibi.2

Hydraulic Empiresand Modern Nation-States

Hidrolik mparatorluklarve Modern Ulus-Devletler


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The experience [of Sublime], when it occurs, has a basic structure. An object, natural

or man-made, disrupts ordinary perception and astonishes the senses, forcing the

observer to grapple mentally with its immensity and power. David Nye3

In his classicA Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime

and the Beautiful(1756) Edmund Burke has described the sublime as the strongestemotion human beings are capable of feeling, produced by the awe-inspiring power

of gigantic objects like the Egyptian pyramids, vast expanses of space like deserts or

glaciers, or natural calamities like earthquakes, hurricanes a nd oods. Whereas naturewas the primary source of the sublime for Enlightenment thinkers like Kant and Burke,by the second half of the 19 thcentury man-made constructions like canals, dams and

industrial landscapes came to represent the TECHNOLOGICAL SUBLIME of themodern age modern constructions that were as fascinating, as powerful and as awe-

inspiring as the timeless grand canyons, monumental waterfalls or terrifying volcanoes

of nature. Furthermore, whereas for Burke, the feelings of terror and dangerdistinguished the sublime from the more pleasant feelings evoked by the beautiful,

the modernist avant-garde of the early 20 thcentury merged the two feelings together. In

the fantastic imaginings of Italian Futurists and Soviet Constructivists or in the utopian

renderings of the Industrial City like those of Tony Garnier or Antonio SantElia, an

electricity grid, a turbine or a gigantic hydroelectric dam were celebrated as the new

sources of ART in the modern age, both sublime and beautiful at the same time.

Ycelik [sublime] hissinin temel bir yaps vardr. Doal ya da insan retimi birnesne, bykl ve gcyle izlemcisini zihinsel bir mcadeleye iterek sradan algy

altst eder ve duyular artr. David Nye3

Edmund Burke, 1756 tarihliA Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas ofthe Sublime and the Beautiful (Yce ve Gzel Kavramlarmzn Kayna HakkndaFelse Bir Soruturma4) adl klasik eserinde, yceliki insann hissedebilecei en

gl duygu olarak tanmlar. Bu duygunun temelinde, Msr piramitleri gibi devasa

nesneler, l ya da buzullar gibi engin alanlar veya deprem, kasrga ve sel gibi doalafetlerin byleyici gc yatar. Kant ve Burke gibi Aydnlanma a dnrleri

iin yceliin birincil kayna doa iken, 19. yzyln ikinci yars itibariyle kanal,baraj ve endstriyel peyzajlar gibi insan retimi yaplar modern an TEKNOLOJK

YCELKini temsil etmeye balamtr. Bu modern yaplar, doadaki bykkanyonlar, antsal elaler ya da dehet verici volkanlar kadar etkileyici, gl ve

byleyicidir. stelik, Burkee gre dehet ve tehlike duygular yceyi, gzelolann uyandrd daha ho duygulardan ayrrken, erken 20. yzyln modernist

avangard her iki nitelii birletirmitir. talyan Ftristleri ile Sovyet Yapsalclarnnfantastik imgeleminde ya da Tony Garnier veya Antonio SantEliannkiler gibi topik

Endstriyel Kent tasarlarnda bir elektrik ebekesi, bir trbin ya da ok byk birhidroelektrik baraj, modern adaki SANATn ayn anda hem yce hem de gzel yeni

kaynaklar olarak kutlanmtr.

The Technological SublimeTeknolojik Ycelik


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There is something in the mere cant of a dam, seen from below, that makes one thinkof the Pyramids of Egypt Here is modern architecture at its mightiest and best.

Lewis Mumford4

The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) initiative is a historical symbol of a technocraticstates belief in government planning and regional development to alleviate the effects

of the Great Depression. Established in 1933 as a project for hydroelectric power

generation, ood control and soil conservation, the TVA became a grand experiment insocial engineering shaped by the collective vision of reformist planners, a rchitects,

engineers, social scientists, conservationists and progressive politicians. As the

rst and most ambitious project of the New Deal under the Franklin D. RooseveltAdministration, between 1933 and 1943, under the auspices of the TVA, 40,000 squaremiles of worn-out, over-farmed land in seven southern states of the country were re-

planted, re-seeded and re-vitalized; eighteen dams were built on the mainstream and thetributaries of the Tennessee River; 650 miles of wild river was turned into still-water

lakes; and transmission wires were stretched to carry electricity to one of the most ruraland poorest regions of the United States.

In 1941 the Museum of Modern Art in New York organized a special exhibitiondedicated to the TVA, including the work of TVAs head architect Roland Wank, aHungarian modernist designer who rejected classically ornamented dam design in favor

of the pure modern forms and raw beauty of these engineering structures sweeping

concrete curves, the vast cages of electricity grids and the visual power of monumental

gantry cranes and giant turbines.

Its new synthesis of technology and landscape constitutes TVAs greatest legacy,disseminating the idea of planned landscape as a way of restoring the natural

equilibrium damaged by human activity. The TVA eventually became a center forwartime atomic research and a signicant producer of nuclear power, before its nal

demise in the post-war era when it came to be seen by many as an un-Americantendency towards state-socialism. Outside the United States, TVAs dams becamemodels for hydroelectric projects in Europe and the Soviet Union in the interwar period

and in China, India and other decolonizing nations elsewhere a fter the Second WorldWar, making TECHNOCRATIC HYDRO-POLITICS the most powerful ideology of the

modern age, above and beyond differences of political regime.

Bir barajn alelade pahnda, aadan bakldnda insana Msr Piramitlerinidndren bir ey vardr te bu, en iyi ve muazzam hliyle modern mimaridir.Lewis Mumford5

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) inisiyati, teknokratik devletin, hkmet planlamasve blgesel kalknmayla Byk Bunalmn etkilerini haetme inancnn tarihsel

bir semboldr. 1933 ylnda hidroelektrik enerji retimi, takn denetimi ve toprakkorumasna ynelik bir proje olarak balatlan TVA, reformcu planlamaclar, mimarlar,

mhendisler, toplumbilimciler, evreciler ve ilerlemeci politikaclarn biimlendirdiitoplum mhendislii iin byk bir tecrbe alan haline geldi. 1933-1943 yllarnda,

TVAnn himayesi ve Franklin D. Roosevelt Ynetimi altnda ilk ve en iddial NewDeal (Yeni Dzen) projesi hayata geirildi. Proje kapsamnda lkenin gneyindeki

yedi eyalette 103.600 km2yorgun, fazla ilenmi toprak yeniden ekildi, tohumland vecanlandrld; Tennessee Nehrinin ana damar ve kollarna 18 baraj ina edildi;

1046 kmlik vahi nehir durgun su rtlerine dntrld; Birleik Devletlerin en

krsal ve yoksul blgelerine elektrik tayacak transmisyon kablolar ekildi.

New Yorkta bulunan Museum of Modern Art, 1941 ylnda TVAya adanm zelbir sergi dzenledi. Sergi, TVAnn ba mimar, Macar modernist tasarmc Roland

Wankin ilerini de kapsyordu. Klasik baraj tasarmn reddeden Wank, bu mhendislikyaplarnn yaln modern formlarnn gzelliini -panoramik beton kavisler, geni

elektrik ebekesi kafesleri, antsal vinler ve devasa trbinlerin grsel gcn kutlamt.

nsan aktivitesi ile zarar grm doal dengeyi iyiletirmenin bir yolu olarak planlpeyzaj krinin yaylmasna dayal teknoloji ile peyzajn yeni sentezi, TVAnn en

byk mirasn oluturmaktadr. TVA neticede, sava sonras dnemde pek oklartarafndan devlet sosyalizmine ynelmi Amerikan kart bir eilim olarak grlmeye

baland son safhasna dek, sava zaman atom aratrmalar iin bir merkez venemli bir nkleer enerji reticisi olagelmitir. TVAnn barajlar Birleik Devletler

dnda Avrupada ve savalar aras dnemde Sovyetler Birlii, in ve Hindistan ilekinci Dnya Sava sonrasnda smrgelikten kurtulup bamszlna kavuan dierdevletlerdeki hidroelektrik projelerine rnek tekil etmeye balayarak, TEKNOKRATK

HDRO-POLTKALAR tm siyasi rejim farkllklarnn tesinde, modern an engl ideolojisi hline getirmitir.

USATVA: New Deal and Hydro-Politics in America

ABDTVA: Amerikada Yeni Dzen ve Hidro-Politika


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Lenins point was that to be modern was to be large-scale and to be large-scalewas to introduce the material conditions for the transformation f rom capitalism

to communism The falls of the Dnieper River, once dominated by a fortress of

Ukrainian Cossacks, became the site of a mammoth Soviet hydroelectric project the

showpiece of the new Soviet technology policy and an epic chapter in the history of

technology transfer. Thomas P. Hughes5

Dnieprostroi, the gigantic hydroelectric dam over the Dnieper R iver, was dedicated

to Lenin whose view of technology as a neutral force that can serve capitalism and

communism alike led to a period of most unlikely cooperation between two rival

ideologies during the 1920s and 1930s. American ideas of organizational rationality,especially Fordism and Taylorism were imported to the Soviet Union to jump-start its

industrial machinery. Hugh Cooper, an American engineer, was invited as the chief

consulting engineer for the Dnieprostroi project and in 1932, was a warded with the

Order of the Red S tar, the highest honor of the Soviet State. American companiessupplied the equipment (steam shovels, hoists, cranes, locomotives and rock drills),

as well as the technical know-how; International General Electric built the ve giantgenerators and the Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company constructed

the nine 85,000 horsepower turbines. The Dam was conceived as the centerpiece of alarge-scale hydroelectric regional complex, including a nitrogen-xation plant, a cementworks, an aluminum production plant and a steel-producing complex knit together

by high voltage power lines and an electried railroad network. It also involved theconstruction of a system of canals around the falls and the Dam, to make unbroken

navigation possible from Northern Russia to the Black Sea.

Constructed between 1927 and 1932, the Dnieper Dam was not only a marvel of

modern engineering, but a sublime aesthetic object in the design of which prominent

Constructivist architects the Vesnin Brothers ( Victor, Leonid and Alexander Vesnin)were also involved. The heroism of the Soviet workers who realized the project becamean epic story, narrated by revolutionary poets like Mayakovski, depicted by Sovietartists like in Nikolaj Dormidontovs 1931 painting titledDnieprostroiand retold in

beautifully illustrated childrens books. The immense scale and the awe-inspiring power

of the construction were captured by the black and white photographs of the American

photographer Margaret Bourke-White who visited the site in 1931.

Lenine gre, modern olmak byk lekli olmak, byk lekli olmak isekapitalizmden komnizme gei iin gerekli ziki koullar salamak demekti

Bir zamanlar bir Ukraynal Kazak kalesinin hkmettii Dinyeper Nehri elaleleri,Sovyetlerin muazzam bir hidroelektrik projesinin alan hline geldi Yeni Sovyet

teknolojisi politikasnn en iyi rnei ve teknoloji transferi tarihinde efsanevi bir devir.Thomas P. Hughes6

Dinyeper Nehri zerindeki devasa Dnieprostroi hidroelektrik baraj Lenine adanmt.Leninin teknolojiyi, kapitalizm ve komnizme benzer ekilde hizmet edebilecektarafsz bir g olarak grmesi, 1920ler ve 1930larda birbirine rakip iki ideoloji

arasnda beklenmedik bir i birlii dnemiyle sonuland. Sovyetler Birlii, endstriyelmekanizmay bir an nce devreye sokmak zere Amerikallarn rasyonel rgtlenmekirlerini -zellikle de Fordizm ve Taylorculuk- ithal etti. Amerikal mhendis HughCooper, en st dzey danman mhendis olarak Dnieprostroi projesine davet edildi

ve 1932 ylnda Sovyet devletinin en yksek dereceli madalyas Kzl Yldz Nianile dllendirildi. Amerikan rmalar hem ekipman (buharl ekskavatrler, ykasansrleri, vinler, lokomotier ve kaya delme makineleri) hem de teknik bilgi salad;

International General Electric dev gibi be jeneratr, Newport News Shipbuilding andDrydock Company ise 85.000 beygirgcnde dokuz trbin kurdu. Baraj, yksek voltajl

enerji nakil hatt ve elektrikli demiryolu ayla birbirine balanan azot tespit tesisi,imento imalathanesi, alminyum retim iletmesi ile elik retim tesisini ieren byk

lekli bir blgesel hidroelektrik kompleksin en nemli blm olarak tasarlanmt.Proje ayrca, Kuzey Rusyadan Karadenize kesintisiz seferleri mmkn klmak zere

baraj evresindeki kanal sistemlerinin yapmn da kapsamaktayd.

1927 ile 1932 yllar arasnda ina edilen baraj, yalnzca bir modern mhendislikharikas deil, ayn zamanda tannm Yapsalc mimarlar Vesnin Kardelerin (Victor,

Leonid ve Alexander Vesnin) tasarmna dhil olduu grkemli bir estetik objeydi.Projeyi hayata geiren Sovyet iilerin kahramanlklar, Mayakovski gibi devrimci

airlerce kaleme alnan, Nikolai DormidontovunDnieprostroi(1931) adl resmindekigibi Sovyet sanatlarca tasvir edilen ve ho izimli ocuk kitaplarnda tekrar tekrar

anlatlan destans bir hikyeye dnt. naatn muazzam lei ve hayranlk ver icigc, alan 1931 ylnda ziyaret eden Amerikal fotoraf Margaret Bourke-Whiten

siyah-beyaz fotoraaryla da belgelendi.

SOVIET UNIONDnieprostroi: The Soviet Mega-machine

SOVYETLER BRLDnieprostroi: Sovyet Mega-makinesi


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The Fascists built their towns in Italy not to afrm control gained by military action,but to conrm control over land reclaimed for productive uses through hydraulic,agricultural and industrial enterprises. Diane Ghirardo6

Dams and waterworks have a double r esonance in Italian national imaginary: they

connect modern Italians to both the historical aqueducts of the Roman Empire and to

the fantastic drawings of dams and power plants by the Futurist artist Antonio SantElia

produced at the eve of World War I. After Benito Mussolinis march to Rome in 1922which brought Fascism to power in Italy, both of these precedents were evoked by the

new regime which portrayed itself as a progressive and modernizing force capable ofrealizing the dreams of the Futurists and r estoring Italy to its former Roman imperialglory. Battle metaphors were extensively used to describe the required combat withnature to turn unproductive land into cultivated elds and the term colonizationreferred to both the colonization of territories abroad (during the colonial adventures ofItaly in Libya and Ethiopia) as well as the colonization of the terrain at home throughmodern irrigation systems. Like in Kemalist Turkey around the same time, frequent

analogies were drawn between the sword and the plough as instruments of the twodifferent kinds of combat and peasants were idealized as the true essence of the nation.Very similar photographs of Atatrk and Mussolini posing with peasants, drivingtractors or trashing the harvest testify to these historical parallels.

This Fascist vision of rural modernization was realized in the form of massive land-reclamation and irrigation schemes, thirteen new towns and more than sixty rural

settlements built between 1928 and 1940. The most ambitious and paradigmatic ofthese projects was the Agro Pontino the draining of the Pontine Marshes in the Lazioregion of central Italy to eradicate malaria, to control oods, to reclaim new land foragriculture and to settle landless peasants and their families. Contemporary with the

Tennessee Valley Authority project of the New Deal in America, the Agro P ontinoproject was conceived and administered by the veterans organization Opera NazionaleCombattenti (ONC) and publicized through their chief propaganda magazine, LeConquista della Terra[The Conquest of the Terrain] whose very title evoked the battle

metaphors central to the project. On the reclaimed marshlands of Agro Pontino, themodel Fascist new town, Sabaudia was built in 1933-34 by the architects of Gruppo

Urbanisti Romani (GUR) including Luigi Piccinato, Gino Cancelotti and Alfredo

Scalpelli. Like in the case of Dnieprostroi Dam in the Soviet Union, Agro Pontino was

to become an epic story celebrated in arts such as the 1940 paintingAgro Pontino

Redento[The Agro Pontino Redeemed] by Antonio Federico Leonardi.

Barajlar ve su ebekeleri, talyann ulusal imgeleminde iki ynl bir arma sahiptir:Her ikisi de modern talyanlar hem Roma mparatorluunun tarihi su kemerleriyle

hem de Ftrist sanat Antonio SantElia tarafndan Birinci Dnya Sava arifesindeyaplm ahane baraj ve enerji santrali izimleriyle ilikilendirir. Bu iki emsal, Benito

Mussolininin 1922 ylnda talyada faizmi iktidara tayan Romaya yryntakiben yeni rejimin gndeminde yer ald. Yeni rejim kendini ftristlerin hayallerini

gerekletirebilecek ve talyay yeniden Roma mparatorluunun grkeminekavuturabilecek ilerlemeci ve modernletirici bir g olarak tanmlamt. Verimsiz

topraklarn ilenmi tarlalara dnm iin gerekli doayla mcadeleyi betimlemekzere yaygn ekilde sava metaforlar kullanlyor; kolonizasyon terimi (talyann

Libya ve Etiyopyadaki smrgecilik maceralar sresince) yurtdndaki topraklarkadar -modern sulama sistemleri araclyla- yurt topraklarnn da kolonizasyonuna

iaret ediyordu. Yaklak ayn dnemde Kemalist Trkiyede olduu gibi, sklkla ikifarkl mcadelenin aralar olarak kl ile saban arasnda benzetmeler yaplyordu.Atatrkn ve Mussolininin kyllerle poz veren, traktr kullanan ya da ekin bien son

derece benzer fotoraar bu tarihi paralelliklerin birer gstergesidir.

1928 ile 1940 yllar arasnda byk arazi slahlar ve sulama sistemleriyle faistkrsal modernizasyon gerekletirildi; 13 yeni kent ve 60tan fazla krsal yerleim

alan kuruldu. Bu projelerden en iddial ve paradigmatik olan, Orta talyannLazio blgesindeki Pontine Bataklklarnn malaryann kkn kazmak amacyla

kurutulmas, taknlarn denetlenmesi, tarm iin yeni alanlarn kazanlmas ve evsizkyllerin yerleime kavuturulmasn kapsayan Agro Pontino projesiydi. AmerikanTVAnn Yeni Dzen projesinin ada olan Agro Pontino, sava gazilerinin rgt

olan Opera Nazionale Combattenti (ONC) tarafndan tasarlanp yrtlm ve tantm,organizasyonun propaganda maksatl dergisiLe Conquista della Terraaraclylayaplmt. Derginin topran fethi anlamna gelen ad, proje iin merkez neme

sahip bir metafor olan sava artrmaktayd. Pontine Bataklklarnn geri kazanlmalanlarnda 1933-1934 yllarnda; aralarnda Luigi Piccinato, Gino Cancelotti ve AlfredoScalpellinin de yer ald Gruppo Urbanisti Romani (GUR) mimarlarnca yeni bir faist

kent modeli niteliindeki Sabaudia ina edildi. Sovyetler Birliindeki DnieprostroiBarajnn durumuna benzer ekilde, Agro Pontino da sanatla kutlanan epik bir hikyeye

dnmekteydi; Antonio Federico Leonardinin 1940 tarihliAgro Pontino Redento[Kurtarlm Pontine Bataklklar] adl resminde olduu gibi.

ITALYAgro Pontino: Fascism and the Conquest of Terrain

TALYAAgro Pontino: Faizm ve Topran Fethi

talyada faistler, askeri harektla ele geirdikleri yerleri ynetmekten ziyade, hidrolik,tarmsal ve endstriyel giriimlerle verim alnmas amacyla iyiletirilmi toprak

zerindeki hkimiyetlerini ilan etmek iin kendi ehirlerini kurdular. Diane Ghirardo7


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National liberation movement means the transformation of a backward society into an

advanced and organized nation. [In this] the rea l struggle is not between man and ma n, butbetween man and nature. evket Sreyya Aydemir7

1930s newspapers in Ankara often published articles and photographs celebrating Ankaras

seas and shores as modern recreational spaces of the new capital. Ankara, at the

time, an arid, drought-ridden steppe, was grafted with these shores and seas which

were, in fact, modern hydraulic infrastructures, part of the modernization project of theTurkish Republic: the reservoirs of the Atatrk Model Farm (Black Sea & Marmara Sea)built for irrigation, the ubuk Dam (Bosporus of Ankara) built for potable water supply

and the large articial lake of the Youth Park for public recreation.

These modern projects of a modern geography are cultivars, propagated by grafting an

Ottoman scion onto an Anatolian root: stanbuls waterfront geography, onto Ankarasbarren land. Despite being modern and with ties to the past ideologically severed, these

new landscapes nevertheless regenerated the urban practices of the old capital in the new

one. The singular Ministry of Public Works of the 1930s, which propagated the cultivars

of Ankara, proliferated into a complex machine of multiple ministries and government

organizations to develop regional development plans through the 1950s. As a result, thecultivar of Ankara was re-grafted all over the country. Multiplied in a massive scale on

the riverbeds of Anatolia and Eastern Thrace, and culminating in the vast Southeastern

Anatolia Project (GAP established in 1989), the cultivars, consequently, transformed andmutated into a wild species of aggressive and invasive nature.

Today, there are over 700 dam lakes in Turkey. Over 700 grafts.

Milli kurtulu hareketi, geri ve dank bir cemiyetin ileri ve tekilatl bir millete istihalesidemek olduuna gre, bu mcadelede a slolan ey, mcadele ve tezadn insanlarla insanlar

arasnda deil, tabiatla insanlar arasnda olmasdr. evket Sreyya Aydemir8

1930lar Ankarasnda kan gazeteler, sk sk yeni bakentin modern rekreasyon alanlarolarak kentin deniz ve kylarn kutlayan makale ve fotoraar yaymlyordu. O

dnemde tarma elverisiz, kurak bir bozkr olan kent, bu ky ve denizlerle alanmt.Bu alar, Trkiye Cumhuriyetinin modernleme projesinin bir paras olan modernhidrolik altyap tesisleriydi: Atatrk Orman iftliinin sulama ama l rezervuarlar

(Karadeniz ve Marmara Denizi), ime suyu temini iin yaplan ve Ankarann Boaziisi

olarak bilinen ubuk Baraj, Genlik Park iindeki suni gl.

Modern corafyann modern projeleri, ayn zamanda Anadolulu analara alananOsmanl kalemleriyle oaltlm kltivarlar, yani Ankarann kra topraklarna nakledilen

stanbulun ky corafyasyd. Gemile balar kesilmi bu modern peyzajlar, teyandan, eski bakentin kentsel pratiklerinin yeni bakentte yeniden retimini salamt.

Ankara kltivarn oaltan 1930larn mnferit Nafa Vekaleti, 1950ler boyunca blgeselkalknma planlarn gelitirecek birden ok bakanlk ve devlet kurumundan oluan

karmak bir makine retti. Ankara kltivar tm lkeye aland. Bunun sonucunda,Anadolu ile Dou Trakyadaki nehir yataklarnda byk lekte oalan ve 1989 ylnda

balatlan geni apl Gneydou Anadolu Projesi (GAP) ile dorua ulaan kltivarlaryaylc ve yabani bir tre dnt.

Bugn Trkiyede 700n zerinde baraj gl ve dolaysyla bir o kadar a bulunmaktadr.

REPUBLIC OF TURKEYTurkish Graft: Waterworks of Ankara & GAP

TRKYE CUMHURYETTrk As: Ankarann Su ebekesi ve GAP


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The building of the High Dam was a landmark in Egypts history, a moment of truth

in the epic struggle between the river and those who benet from it. As a r esult of thebuilding of the dam, Egypt was freed from the whims of the river. The terror of the Old

Kingdom and the curse of the Middle Kingdom were nally no more. The Nile had beentamed. Taha Abdel-Alim8

The map of Egypt illustrates the life-giving power of the River Nile: a narrow band of

green irrigated land on the two banks, snaking along the vast expanse of the desert.

95% of the population of Egypt lives within 12 miles of the Nile. Controlling the annual

oods of the Nile and collecting its waters for times of draught has been the perennialproject of Egyptians, from the time of the Pharaohs to the rise of Egyptian nationalism in

the 20thcentury.

For Gemal Abdel Nasser, the nationalist leader who came to power in 1952, the economicbenets of the Aswan High Dam project (expanding irrigated land and providinghydroelectric power for the whole country) were matched by its political advantages

(enhancing the new regimes prestige among the Egyptian population). When the loans

initially promised by the U.S. Government were abruptly withdrawn in 1955, the Soviet

Union stepped in to fund the project with $1,120,000,000 at 2% interest, in addition to

providing technicians and heavy machinery, making the dam a symbol of the rivalry

between the two powers during the Cold War.

The 3830 meters-long and 11 meters-high embankment dam was constructed between1960 and 1970. The 5250 km2area submerged by its waters necessitated the displacement/

resettlement of 100,000 people, as well as the relocation of major archaeological sites

(including the Temple of Abu Simbel) to higher ground under an UNESCO rescue

operation. The hydroelectric and irrigational benets of the Dam were countered bycoastline erosion, reduction of soil fertility (due to the nutrients in the silt that Nile oods

deposited), decrease of the sh catch in the Mediterranean and increase of schistosomiasis,a parasitic disease resulting from contact with contaminated water. Yet, to this day, the

epic construction of the Aswan High Dam, along with the nationalization of the S uezCanal in 1956, remains a historical source of Egyptian pride.

Yksek Barajn inas Msr tarihinde bir dnm noktas, nehir ile ondan yararlananlararasndaki epik mcadelede bir gereklik anyd. Barajn yapm sonucunda Msr, nehrin

arzularndan arndrlmt. Artk ne Eski Krallkn terr ne de Orta Krallkn lanetivard. Nil ehliletirilmiti. Taha Abdel-Alim9

Msr haritas Nil Nehrinin hayat veren gcn resmeder: ki set zerinde sulanmyeil alanlardan oluan birer dar erit, ln geni yzeyleri boyunca kvrlr. Msr

nfusunun %95i, Nile 19 km mesafe iinde yaamaktadr. Firavunlar zamanndan Msrulusalclnn ykseldii 20. yzyla, Msrllar iin nehrin yllk taknlarn denetlemek,

kuraklk zamanlar iin su saklamak daimi bir sorumluluk olmutur.

1952 ylnda iktidara gelen ulusalc lider Cemal Abdl Nsra gre, Asvan Yksek Barajprojesinin ekonomik yararlar (sulanan alann bymesi ve lkenin tamamna hidroelektrik

enerji salanmas) ile politik avantajlar (Msr halknn gznde yeni rejimin itibarnnartrlmas) rtmekteydi. Amerika Birleik Devletleri Hkmetinin sz verdii kredinin1955 ylnda aniden geri ekilmesiyle devreye giren Sovyetler Birlii, projeye %2 faizle1.120.000.000 dolarlk fonun yan sra teknisyen ve ar i makineleri salaynca, baraj

Souk Sava dneminde iki g arasndaki rekabetin sembol hline geldi.

3830 metre uzunluunda ve 11 metre yksekliindeki dolgu baraj, 1960 ile 1970 yllararasnda ina edildi. 5250 km2alann sular altnda kalmas, 100.000 kiinin yerinden

edilmesi/yeniden yerletirilmesi sorununu beraberinde getirdi. te yandan, Abu SimbelTapna dhil olmak zere byk arkeolojik sitler UNESCOnun kurtarma operasyonuyla

daha yksek yerlere tand. Barajn hidroelektrik ve sulamaya ynelik yararlarnakarn ky erozyonu, (Nil taknlarnn biriktirdii balktaki besinlerden dolay) toprak

verimlilii ile Akdenizde yetien balk saysnda azalma ve kirli suyla temas sonucuortaya kan bir parazit hastal olan sistozomyas vakalarnda art meydana geldi. Tmbunlara ramen, Asvan Yksek Barajnn destans yaps, 1956 ylnda kamusallatrlan

Svey Kanalyla birlikte Msrn tarihi bir gurur kayna olmay srdrmektedir.

EGYPTAswan Dam: The Pride of Egyptian Nationalism

MISIRAsvan Baraj: Msr Ulusalclnn Gururu


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13 14


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Great plans are afoot:

A bridge will y to span the north and south,Turning a deep chasm into a thoroughfare;Walls of stone will stand upstream to the west

To hold back Wushans clouds and rain

Till a smooth lake rises in the narrow gorges.

The mountain goddess if she is still there

Will marvel at a world so changed.

Mao Zedong9

Bearing the legacy of an ancient hydraulic empire China today has more than halfof the worlds almost 50,000 large dams. The idea of building a dam on the YangtzeRiver, the third longest river in the world, had preoccupied the nationalist leader Sun Yat

Sen in 1919, and communist Chairman Mao Zedong in the late 1950s, but neither had

been able to go beyond conception and preliminary study stages. Halted by economichardships, the Depression of 1960 and the turmoil of the Cultural Revolution (1966-76),

the project was put aside, then revived af ter the economic reforms of 1978 and nallyapproved in 1992. With the triple purpose of preventing catastrophic oods, generatingelectrical power for Chinas growing cities and allowing access to the interior hinterland

of the country by increasing navigational capacity through a system of locks, the Three-

Gorges Dam was built between 1994 and 2009 as a symbol of Chinese ascendance on

the world scene as an economic and technological superpower. The displacement of

1.3 million people and the ecological and environmental effects of the Dam have made

it one of the most controversial mega projects extensively criticized by archaeologists,ecologists and human rights advocates.

Location: Township of Sandouping, Yiling District, Yichang City, Hubei ProvinceDam Height: 185 meters (607 ft) above sea levelDam Length: 2,335 m (7,661 ft)

Installed Power Generation Capacity: 18.2 million kilowatts, equivalent to 84.7 billion kWh annuallyGenerators: totally 32 generators (14 on the north side, 12 on the south side, and an additional 6underground), Francis turbines each with a capacity of 700 MW

Project Investment: RMB 203.9 billion (US$ 24.65 billion)Concrete Consumption: 27,200,000 cubic metresSteel Structure: 463,000 tones (63 times the weight of Eiffel Tower)Earthwork: 102,600,000 cubic meters (134,200,000 cu yd)

Byk planlar hazrlanmakta:Bir kpr kuzey ile gneyi balamak iin uacak,

Derin bir uurumu suyoluna dntrecek;Batda akntya kar koymak iin tatan duvarlar dikilecek

Wushann bulutlarn ve yamurunu saklamak iinTa ki dar boazlarda sakin bir gl ykselene dek.

Da tanras oradaysa hlBu denli deimi bir dnyaya hayret edecek.

Mao Zedong10

Antik hidrolik imparatorluk mirasn tayan in, bugn dnyadaki yaklak 50.000byk barajn yarsndan fazlasna sahiptir. Dnyann en uzun nc nehri olanYangtze zerine bir baraj yapma kri, 1919 ylnda ulusalc lider Sun Yat Senin,

1950lerin sonunda ise Bakan Mao Zedongun tasarlar arasnda yer alm, ancak

ikisi de kirsel dzeydeki ilk almalarn tesine geememiti. Ekonomik skntlar ve1960 Bunalmnn yan sra Kltrel Devrimin (1966-1976) hengmesiyle aksayan

ve rafa kaldrlan proje, 1978 ylndaki ekonomik reformlarla yeniden gndeme geldive nihayetinde 1992 ylnda onayland. Boaz Baraj, felaket getiren taknlar

engellemek, inin bymekte olan ehirleri iin elektrik enerjisi retmek ve bir havuzsistemi zerinden navigasyon kapasitesinin artrlmasyla lkenin i blgelerine ulam

salamak amacyla 1994 ile 2009 yllar arasnda, dnya sahnesinde bir ekonomik veteknolojik sper g olan inin egemenliinin bir sembol olarak ina edildi.

1.3 milyon insann yerinden edilmesine neden olan baraj projesi, ayrca ekolojik veevresel etkileri dolaysyla sklkla arkeologlar, ekoloji uzmanlar ve insan haklar

savunucular tarafndan eletirilen en tartmal mega projelerden biri oldu.

Konum: Sandouping, Yiling Blgesi, Yichang ehri, Hubei EyaletiBaraj Ykseklii:Deniz seviyesinden 185 metre yukarda

Baraj Uzunluu: 2335 metre

Kurulu Enerji retim Kapasitesi: 18.2 milyon kilovat, yllk 84.7 milyar kv/saat ile edeerdeJeneratrler: Toplam 32 jeneratr (14 kuzey, 12si gney kesimde; ek olarak 6 adet yeraltnda), herbirinin kapasitesi 700 MW olan Francis trbinler

Proje Yatrm: 203.9 milyar RMB (24.65 milyar ABD dolar)Beton Tketimi: 27.200.000 m3

elik Strktr:463.000 ton (Eyfel Kulesinin 63 kat arlnda)Hafriyat: 102.600.000 m3

PEOPLES REPUBLIC OF CHINAThree-Gorges Dam: Taming the Yangtze River

N HALK CUMHURYET Boaz Baraj: Yangtze Nehrinin Ehliletirilmesi


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1 Karl A. Wittfogel, Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power,New

Haven: Yale University Press, 1963, cited in Jonathan D. Spence, The Chans Great

Continent, New York: W. W. Norton, 1998, pp.214-217

2 James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the HumanCondition Have Failed, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998

3 David Nye,American Technological Sublime,Cambridge MA: The MIT Press,

1996, p.15

4 Lewis Mumford, The Architecture of Power, New Yorker, 7 June 1941, p.58, citedin Sarah Bonnemaison and Christine Macy,Architecture and Nature: Creating theAmerican Landscape, 2003, p.162

5Thomas P. Hughes,American Genesis, New York: Penguin Books, 1989, p.251

6 Diane Ghirardo,Building New Communities: New Deal America and Fascist Italy,

Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989, p.27

7 evket Sreyya Aydemir, Beynelmilel Fikir Hareketleri Arasnda TrkNasyonalizmi, Kadro, Issue 21, August 1933, p.13

8 Taha Abdel-Alim, Egypts High Dam 50 Years On,Al-Ahram Weekly,14-20 January 2010

From http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2010/981/fo1.htm accessed on 14 May 2012

9 Mao Zedong, Swimming, June 1956

From http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/poems/poems23.

htm accessed on 14 May 2012

1 Karl A. Wittfogel, Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power, New

Haven: Yale University Press, 1963 [Aktaran: Jonathan D. Spence, The Chans Great

Continent, New York: W. W. Norton, 1998, ss.214-217]

2 James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the HumanCondition Have Failed, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998

3 David Nye,American Technological Sublime, Cambridge MA: The MIT Press,

1996, s.15

4 Edmund Burke, Yce ve Gzel Kavramlarmzn Kayna Hakknda Felse BirSoruturma, Ankara: Bilgesu Yaynlar, ev.: M. Bar Gmba, 2008

5 Lewis Mumford, The Architecture of Power, New Yorker, 7 Haziran 1941, s.58

[Aktaran: Sarah Bonnemaison ve Christine Macy, Architecture and Nature: Creating theAmerican Landscape, 2003, s.162]

6 Thomas P. Hughes,American Genesis, New York: Penguin Books, 1989, s.251

7 Diane Ghirardo,Building New Communities: New Deal America and Fascist Italy,

Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989, s.27

8 evket Sreyya Aydemir, Beynelmilel Fikir Hareketleri Arasnda TrkNasyonalizmi, Kadro, Say: 21, Austos 1933, s.13

9 Taha Abdel-Alim, Egypts High Dam 50 Years On,Al-Ahram Weekly,14-20 Ocak 2010

http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2010/981/fo1.htm (Eriim: 14 Mays 2012)

10 Mao Zedong, Swimming, Haziran 1956http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/poems/poems23.htm

(Eriim: 14 Mays 2012)

ENDNOTESDPNOTLAR


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1. Urfa Channel, GAP, 1999

Photo Aslhan Demirta

2. Dam 269 by Antonio SantElia, Luciano Caramel and Alberto Longatti eds.,

Antonio SantElia: Complete Works, New York: Rizzoli, 1987, p.81

3. Tony Garnier, Une Cite Industrielle: etude pour la construction des villes, (1904),

New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1989, plate 1, p.19

4. Poster, Out of Water Power Comes Air Power: These TVA Dams Are Needed

for Victory, c. 1942

Design attributed to Alfred Clauss (American, b. Germany, 1907-1988)Published by War Production Board, Ofce for Emergency Management, Washington, DCScreenprint, 101 x 71 cm

The Wolfsonian-Florida International University, Miami Be ach, FL,Gift of Marc Dessauce, 2003.5.3

Photo: Silvia Ros

5. Periodical, The Roosevelt Record: A New Deal in Facts: August 18, 1936,

T.V.A.Yardstick of Progress, 1936Published by Record Publishing Co, Washington, DC, 22 x 17 cm

The WolfsonianFlorida International University, Miami Beach, FL,The Mitchell Wolfson, Jr. Collection, XC2001.05.22.31

Photo: Silvia Ros

6. Photograph, Cherokee Dam, TVA, June 1942Arthur Rothstein (American, 1915-1985)Produced for Ofce of War Information, Washington, DCGelatin silver print, 24 x 18 cmThe WolfsonianFlorida International University, Miami Beach, FL,The Mitchell Wolfson, Jr. Collection, XX1990.2486Photo: Silvia Ros

1. Urfa Kanal, GAP, 1999Fotoraf Aslhan Demirta

2. Baraj 269, Antonio SantElia, ed. Luciano Caramel ve Alberto Longatti,Antonio SantElia: Complete Works, New York: Rizzoli, 1987, s.81

3. Tony Garnier, Une Cite Industrielle: etude pour la construction des villes, (1904),

New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1989, 1. etiket, s.19

4. A, Out of Water Power Comes Air Power: These TVA Dams Are Neededfor Victory, takriben 1942

Tasarm: Alfred Clauss (Almanya doumlu Amerikal, 1907-1988)Yaymlayan: War Production Board, Ofce for Emergency Management, Washington, DC

Serigraf bask, 101 x 71 cmThe Wolfsonian-Florida International University, Miami Beach, FL,

Marc Dessauce Ba, 2003.5.3Fotoraf: Silvia Ros

5. Sreli yayn, The Roosevelt Record: A New Deal in Facts: August 18, 1936,T.V.A.Yardstick of Progress, 1936

Yaymlayan: Record Publishing Co, Washington, DC, 22 x 17 cmThe WolfsonianFlorida International University, Miami Beach, FL,

The Mitchell Wolfson, Jr. Collection, XC2001.05.22.31

Fotoraf: Silvia Ros

6. Fotoraf, Cherokee Dam[Cherokee Bara j], TVA, Haziran 1942Arthur Rothstein (Amerikal, 1915-1985)

Ofce of War Information, Washington, DC iin re tilmitir.Gm jelatin bask, 24 x 18 cm

The WolfsonianFlorida International University, Miami Beach, FL,The Mitchell Wolfson, Jr. Collection, XX1990.2486

Fotoraf: Silvia Ros

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSGRSEL LSTES


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7. Dnieprostroi Dam under construction, State Archives of Russian Federation

8. War with Dnieper River, childrens book, 1933, McGill Digital Archives

9. Map cover,Littoria and Agro Pontino, 1934

Published by Ente Nazionale Industrie Turistiche, 25 x 12 cmThe WolfsonianFlorida International University, Miami Beach, FL,The Mitchell Wolfson, Jr. Collection, XC1994.4096

10. Painting,Agro pontino redento [The Agro Pontino Redeemed], 1940

Antonio Federico Leonardi (Italian, 1901-1977)

Oil on canvas, 100 x 150 cm

The WolfsonianFlorida International University, Miami Beach, FL,The Mitchell Wolfson, Jr. Collection, XX1989.91Photo: Silvia Ros

11. Karakaya Dam, GAP, 1999


12. Karakaya Dam, GAP, 1999


13. Aswan Dam, 1958

14. Lake Nasser from International Space Station, NASA

15. Chen Man, Young Pioneers at Three Gorges Dam, 2009Despite all efforts the artist could not be reached for notication.

16. Dam #6, Three Gorges Dam Project, Yangtze River, 2005Photo Edward Burtynsky, courtesy Nicholas Metivier, Toronto

7. na hlindeki Dnieprostroi Baraj, Rusya Federasyonu Devlet Arivleri

8. Dinyeper Nehriyle Sava, ocuk kitab, 1933, McGill Dijital Arivleri

9.Harita kapa,Littoria and Agro Pontino, 1934Yaymlayan: Ente Nazionale Industrie Turistiche, 25 x 12 cm

The WolfsonianFlorida International University, Miami Beach, FL,The Mitchell Wolfson, Jr. Collection, XC1994.4096

10. Resim,Agro pontino redento[Kurtarlm Pontine Bataklklar], 1940Antonio Federico Leonardi (talyan, 1901-1977)

Tuval stne yal boya, 100 x 150 cmThe WolfsonianFlorida International University, Miami Beach, FL,

The Mitchell Wolfson, Jr. Collection, XX1989.91Fotoraf: Silvia Ros

11. Karakaya Baraj, GAP, 1999Fotoraf Aslhan Demirta

12. Karakaya Baraj, GAP, 1999Fotoraf Aslhan Demirta

13. Asvan Baraj, 1958

14. Uluslararas Uzay stasyonundan Nsr Gl, NASA

15. Chen Man, Boaz Barajnda Gen nderler, 2009Tm abalara ramen sanatya ulalamad iin bilgilendirme yaplamamtr.

16. Baraj No. 6, Boaz Baraj Projesi, Yangtze Nehri, 2005Fotoraf Edward Burtynsky, Nicholas Metivierin (Toronto) izniyle

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSGRSEL LSTES


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Metin / Text by Sibel Bozdoan, Aslhan Demirtaeviri / Translated by Pelin Dervi

Edit / Edited by Baak akaTasarm / Designed by Ali Cindoruk

Modern Denemeler 5:A(25 Mays-26 Austos 2012; SALT Galata) kapsamnda hazrlanmtr. Published in the context of Modern Essays 5:Graft (May 25-August 26, 2012; SALT Galata).

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