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Main reasons for environmental problems are not technical, but economic and political環境問題的主因並不是技術性的，而是經濟性和政治性的

For example, developing countries receive profits from accepting developed countries' toxic wastes例如，發展中國家從接收發達國家有毒廢料中獲利

Environmental Law環境法

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Developing countries don‘t want to alienate foreign investors by requiring clean environment發展中國家不想因為要求有清潔的環境而阻礙了外國投資者

Reflected in 1972 UN Declaration on the Human Environment (Stockholm Declaration)在 1972 年《聯合國人類環境宣言》 ( 《斯德哥爾摩人類環境宣言》 ) 中反映出來

Many delegates argued that developing countries shouldn’t be forced to be anti-pollution很多代表認為， 發展中國家不應受迫去抵制污染

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Argued that environmental concerns should not be used by developed countries to deny developing countries market access認為發達國家不應該以關注環境為由 , 阻礙發展中國家的市場準入

Some international agencies do evaluate environmental impact of projects they finance一些國際組織確實評估其資助項目的環境後果

UN Environmental Programme has pushed certain conventions, e.g. Endangered Species Treaty聯合國環境計劃已促進了某些協約，例如《瀕危物種條約》

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endangered species

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UNEP has set up “Earthwatch System” that includes Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS) to monitor pollutants聯合國環境計劃成立了「地球觀察系統」，其中包括用於監察污染物的「全球環境監察糸統」

Also has INFOTERRA to provide information for environmental planning還有為環境規劃的提供信息的全球環境資訊交流網路(INFOTERRA)

Under Stockholm Declaration, states, for most part, are free to adopt own environmental rules據《斯德哥爾摩人類環境宣言》，多數情況下國家有權制訂自己的環境政策

Most states have taken few preventative measures大部分國家很少實施預防措施

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environmental monitoring system

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I.L. comes into play where pollution from a country impacts its neighbors當一個國家的污染影響了鄰國，國際法便會發揮其功能

Source of problem may be obvious Example: acid rain.

問題的根源可能很明顯，例如酸雨

But often hard to lay blame for pollution on individual statesExample: ozone depletion但是通常難以將污染歸咎於某個國家 , 例如臭氧耗盡

State responsible for pollution where actual damage shown對造成實際損失的污染國家要承擔責任

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In Trail Smelter Case (Arbitration 1939), pollution from Canadian smelter damaged farmers‘ trees and crops in U.S.在特萊爾冶煉廠案（ 1939仲裁）中，加拿大冶煉廠的污染物損害了美國農民的樹和農作物

Held that no state can permit use of its territory in way that causes injury by fumes to interests of another state任何國家都不容許其領土開發產生的廢氣污染損害另一國家的利益

Could hold states strictly liable for environmental damage. True for damage caused by falling satellites由國家對環境損害承擔嚴格責任是可能的 . 衛星墜落造成的損失就是這樣 .

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General standard of liability is “due diligence” in controlling sources of harm.責任的一般標準是能否在控制損害來源時「恪盡職守」

This standard takes into account remoteness of element causing the pollution, ability to foresee injury該標準考慮了污染源的距離， 損害預見能力

Party claiming to have been damage must make its case by clear and convincing evidence當事方只有持清晰且有說服力的證據，才可聲稱受損害

Damage must be to property or human health. Aesthetic damage not enough受損的必須是財產或身體健康，審美的破壞不構成充分理由

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States must ensure that treaty duties respected on their territory國家必須承擔該國領土內的條約責任

State must take responsibility for damaging activities國家必須對破壞性行為負責

Must also cooperate with other states to reduce threat of injury必須與其他國家合作以減低損害的威脅

Example: Corfu Channel Case (1949): Albania failed to warn UK of mines in Corfu Channel. Held: Albania liable for damages以科孚海峽案﹝ 1949﹞ 為例：阿爾巴尼亞因沒有對科孚隧道內的水雷向英國發出警告，而被判負責賠償損失

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Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Convention of 1979 provides for consultations 1979 年《長程越界空氣污染公約》提供了諮詢

Convention on Law of the Sea requires immediate notification《聯合國海洋法公約》需要即時通知

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development requires transfer of information「經濟合作與發展組織」要求信息溝通

With accidents at hazardous installations, particularly necessary to exchange emergency plans, give warnings, etc.當危險設備發生意外時，尤其需要交換緊急計劃， 發出警告等

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Protocol to the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution on Heavy Metals (1998 Protocol on Heavy Metals)

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Duty to give information on new or increasing pollution is now considered part of customary law對新出現的或嚴重化的污染提供信息的責任， 現在被視為國際慣例的組成部分

States must due environmental impact studies國家必須對環境影響進行研究

Even where activity is not, in itself, contrary to international law, under doctrine of “international liability,” state may still be liable即使活動本身不違反國際法，根據國際責任論，國家可能仍需負責

Activity can continue, but state must pay damages活動可以繼續，但國家必須負責賠償

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Under Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution treaty, states must reduce air pollution, but state liability not covered據《長程越界空氣污染公約》，國家必須減少空氣污染，但不包括國家責任 .

Under 1980s protocols to treaty there is co-operative programme for monitoring and evaluating long-range pollutants in Europe. 據八十年代的條約議定書，歐洲有一個對遠程污染進行監察及評估的合作項目 .

Helsinki Protocol of 1985 requires reducing sulphur emissions by 30% 1985 年《赫爾辛基議定書》要求將硫磺排放量減少百分之三十

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Sophia Protocol of 1988 required that parties control nitrogen oxide emissions so that at end of 1994 they did not exceed those of 1987 1988 年《蘇菲亞議定書》要求各方控制氧化氮的排放量，目標是到 1994年末不超出 1987年時的排放量

Ultra-hazardous activity, e.g. using dynamite, involves potential great damage and requires strict liability極危險的活動，例如使用炸藥，可能造成嚴重損失，要求承擔嚴格負責

Burden of proof and burden of loss shifts from victim to injuring party舉證責任和損害後果由受害方轉移到肇事方

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Nuclear activities definitely ultra-hazardous; so are allowing satellites to fall to Earth核活動必然是極度危險的，容許衛星跌落地球也是一樣

Some international organizations regulate nuclear activities一些國際組織規範核活動

International Atomic Energy Agency used help develop nuclear power; now does safety work「國際原子能組織」過去幫助開發核能量，現在進行安全工作

Under Convention on Assistance in Cases of Nuclear Emergency (1986), IAEA issues guidelines on building and maintaining nuclear power plants.根據 1986 年《核事故或輻射緊急援助公約》，國際原子能組織負責頒布有關建立和管理核電廠的手則

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The Chernobyl Nuclear Accident On April 26th, 1986, an explosion at a nuclear power plant at Chernobyl, on the border between Ukraine and Belarus. Many tons of radioactive materials were thrown into the air. A quarter of the country's best farmlands and forests have been poisoned for hundreds of years by caesium 137 and strontium 90.

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Standards don‘t have force of law標準並無法律效力

Under Vienna Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident, affected states notified either directly or through IAEA依據《及早通報核事故公約》，事發國家應直接或透過國際原子能組織通告

Under Vienna convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident, help is to be rendered by states not responsible for injury依據《核事故或輻射緊急援助公約》，對傷害不負責的國家才能提供援助

IAEA must help states needing assistance and coordinates help at international level國際原子能組織必須援助需要幫助的國家並且統籌國際援助

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Some regional treaties require that party injured in nuclear accident be allowed to sue in courts of offending state一些區域性條約容許核事故受害方對肇事國家提出訴訟

Many states‘ courts not equipped to deal with complicated nuclear issues很多國家的法庭沒有能力處理複雜的核案件

IAEA and OECD Paris Convention provide that nuclear operators directly liable for damages國際原子能組織和經合組織之《巴黎公約》列明 , 核經營人應對損壞負直接責任

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Brussels Convention on Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships has strict liability provision《核動力船舶經營人責任公約》有嚴格責任條款

Treaties require nuclear operators to have insurance, but liability limited to US$120 million條約要求核經營人購買保險，但責任限於一億二千萬美元

Few states have joined the nuclear safety treaty systems很少國家參加核安全條約系統

Oslo Convention on Prevention of Marine Pollution (1972) bans dumping at sea of hazardous wastes by ships and planes 1972 年《防止海洋污染奧斯陸公約》禁止船隻 \飛機把有害廢料傾瀉海中

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marine pollution

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London Convention on Prevention of Marine Pollution (1972) covers dumping wastes from other sources 1972 年《防止海洋污染倫敦公約》規範其他來源的廢物傾瀉

Basle Convention on Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes (1989) requires states to prohibit export to states that have banned import of wastes 1989 年《跨境有害廢料轉移的巴賽爾公約》要求國家禁止向禁止廢料入口的國家出口廢料

Marine pollution first covered by International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil (1954)海洋的污染是首先受 1954 年《防止海洋受石油污染國際公約》 規範

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International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (1973) covers non-accidental pollution from ships, apart from dumping.《防止船隻污染海洋國際公約》（ 1973）規範傾瀉以外的非事故性船隻污染

Covers oil, noxious liquids, sewage, garbage包括油、毒液、污水、廢物

1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea provides that states must legislate to prevent, reduce and control marine pollution from ships flying their flag. 1982 年《聯合國海洋法公約》 指出國家必須立法防止、減少和控制懸掛該國國旗的船隻造成的海洋污染

Coastal states may inspect and charge ships in their waters沿海國家可以監察和檢控其水域內的船隻

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Includes ships in port that are suspected of polluting high seas包括停泊在港口內涉嫌污染公海的船隻

Convention on Intervention on the High Seas (1960) permits states on high seas to prevent, mitigate or eliminate pollution danger 1960 年《公海干預公約》容許公海上的國家防止、減輕或消除污染

Result of 1964 Torrey Pine oil spill1964 年 Torrey Pine漏油事件的結果

Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (1969) provides for strict liability for damage, but liability is limited 1969 年《國際油污損害民事責任公約》提出賠償的嚴格責任，但責任是有限的

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Oil Pollution

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Under 1990 treaty on Oil Pollution Preparedness, ships must carry emergency plans and report spills依據 1990 年《國際油污防備、反應和合作公約》，船隻必須對漏油預設緊急計劃和作出報告

1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer 1985 年《保護臭氧層維也納公約》

Parties must take measures to prevent destruction of ozone layer當事者必須採取措施以防止對臭氧層的毀壞

Must gather and exchange information and formulate common legislative or administrative action必須搜集和交換資料，並制定一般立法或行政措施

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Under 1987 Montreal Protocol, phased reduction of CFCs根據 1987 年《蒙特利爾議定書》，分期減少 CFCs 的使用

Consumption frozen at 1986 levels and then reduced; by 1998 consumption is to be 20% lower than 1986使用量涷結在 1986年的水平，然後減少；到 1998年， 使用量比 1986年減少百分之二十

Under 1989 Helsinki Declaration, CFC production and consumption to be phased out by 2000.依據 1989 年《赫爾辛基宣言》，到 2000 年 CFC 的生產和使用將被禁止 .

EU has prohibited production of CFCs after June 30, 1997歐盟在 1997 年 6 月 30日就已經禁止生產 CFCs

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UN resolution on global warming in 19881988年聯合國全球溫室效應決議案

24 states signed Hague Declaration on Environment of 1989, calling for new authority to negotiate treaties on global warming 二十四國簽署了 1989 年《海牙環境宣言》，要求新的權力以協商有關全球溫室效應的條約