Volume 5, Issue 1

issn 2185 7822volume 5, issue 1

さいたま市教育家会ジャ

ナル

I

さいたま市教育家会ジャーナルThe

Journal of Saitama City Educators (JSCE)

A さいたま市教育家会 (SCE) Publication

Published in Saitama City, Japan

ISSN: 2185-7822

Volume 5, Issue 1

March 2015

Editor: John FinucanePeer Reviewrs: john finucane, robert rowland & tyson rodeIssue Editors: john finucaneTranslator: Sanae oda-sheehan, brad semans & rosa suenProofreading: matthew shannonDesign & Layout: John FinucaneFind out more at:

http://www.SaitamaCityEducators.org

http://www.saitamacityeducators.org/

Foreword

A Chara,

Volume 5 marks the 5th year of jsce.

Since 2010 we have published 22 issues

containing more than 100 articles from

over 70 contributors. Many of them first-

time authors. As Editor, it has been a priv-

ilege to watch jsc grow in quality, scope

and ambition.

With design, layout, proofreading, trans-

lation and editing all being done by sce

Contributors volunteering their time and

expertise, jsce can claim to be a truly

grassroots project.

My sincere thanks for a great issue go to:

Brad Holmes, Sanae Oda-Sheehan,

Robert Rowland, Rosa Suen,

Matthew Shannon, Brad Semans

and Tyson Rode.

Le Meás, John

john finucane is a co-founder of sce,

Editor of jsce and creator of Let’sDebate.jp

Find out more at:

http://www.john-finucane.com/

robert rowland is an efl professional,

translator and interpretor.

Find out more at:

http://www.robertjsrowland.com/

Tyson Rode is an efl professional and

creator of Verbalize.jp

Find out more at:

http://tysonrode.com/

Contents

Rosa Suen

Student Motivation and Teaching

Practices that Influence Student

Achievement when Teaching to the

toeic Test at the College Level to

Non-English Foreign Language Majors

Page 1

Brad Holmes

Music as a Motivator- Songs in esl Classrooms

4

Sanae Oda-Sheehan

Raising Pragmatic Awareness through

Explicit Grammar Instruction

Page 40

ロサウイングサム・スエン

TOEIC準備コースを履修する非英語専攻の外国語

学部生の学習意欲と担当教員の指導方法による

学生の成績への影響について

ブラット・ホルムズ

意欲を起きさすれ音楽：英語の授業での歌

シーハン小田・早苗

明示的文法指導を通した語用論的意識の改善

Peer Reviewers

2

rosa suen - student acheivement

1

Student Motivation and Teaching Practices that Influence Student Achievement when Teaching to the TOEIC Test at the College Level to Non-English Foreign Language Majorsrosa suen

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to iden-

tify the effect of student motivation and

teaching practices on non-English for-

eign language major students’ achieve-

ment in terms of studying for the toeic

test. A motivational factors questionnaire

(mfq) was conducted to devise a curricu-

lum that would be motivational to teach-

ing this particular category of students.

Quantitative data from course work and

quizzes were then collected for analysis to

verify the teaching practices employed in

delivering this curriculum. Results from

the questionnaire analysis revealed that

students were unable to make connec-

tions of their English studies to its real

world usefulness, and thus were not keen

on making effort in their studies.

The study revealed that with the inte-

gration of appropriate learner-centered

teaching practices, students’ motivation

could be enhanced and in turn have

a positive influence on their academic

achievement.

要旨

本論文は、学生の学習意欲と先生の指導法が

TOEIC準備課程を履修する非英語専攻の大学生

の学習達成度を如何に影響するかについて論じ

たものである。研究方法に関しては、学生が記入

した学習意欲アンケートの結果を基にカリキュラ

ムを作成し、データ分析によってその実用性を検

証した。学習達成度を上げるためには学習者中

心の指導法が効果的であることをこの研究で判

明した。

about

テンプル大学tesol修士課程卒業。埼玉県教育

委員会高校教育指導課国際交流員兼埼玉県立総

合教育センター英語助手を歴任後、現職に至る。

現在、明海大学総合教育センター専任講師として

実用英語やtoeic準備コースを担当

Introduction

As a practicing teacher in Japan, I always

find it beneficial to my own teaching to

have knowledge as to how my students

view foreign language learning, especially

when it comes to teaching to the toeic

test to students who are non-English for-

eign language majors. Their views on for-

eign language learning is important to me

in creating a customized curriculum that

would guarantee their success in learning

because learners are faithful to their own

beliefs and these beliefs then guide them

on how they interpret their learning expe-

riences and how they behave as language

learners (Rubin, 1975). Prior research

has proven that if what learners believe do

not match the beliefs demonstrated in the

teaching that takes place in their classroom,

then some degree of friction or dysfunction

is bound to occur, which would directly

influence the degree of success these

students can achieve in language learning

(Abraham and Vann, 1987). Indeed, these

beliefs which learners hold will directly

shape their attitude and motivation in and

outside the classroom (Riley, 1996).

The above findings by renowned scholars

in the sla field serve as the origins to my

determination in devising a customized

curriculum, which would guarantee a pos-

itive learning experience for the non-Eng-

lish foreign language majors in my toeic

preparation class. In this curriculum, the

contents covered were consequently deliv-

ered in class with carefully calculated

teaching practices that matched the stu-

dents’ beliefs and motivation levels.

3 4

JSCE - Volume 5 Issue 1 rosa suen - student acheivement

Literature Review

In order to better understand the com-

plex relationship among the concepts of

teaching practices, student motivation

and student achievement in the context

of teaching to the toeic test, I found the

literature on self-determination theory

and learner-centered teaching practices

to be of most relevance to the purpose of

this study. Most social-cognitive models

of motivation assume that students’ moti-

vation is influenced by classroom inter-

actions, activities, practices and culture

(Pintrich, 2003). Therefore, the teacher’s

instructional practice has a crucial role

in facilitating students’ motivation. Below

is a brief explanation of the self-determi-

nation theory, learner-centered teaching

practices, and Japanese students’ percep-

tions on English studies. In this section,

their relevance to enhancing student

achievement levels will be discussed.

Self-Determination Theory

In the late 1970s, American psychologists

Edward Deci and Richard Ryan developed

an influential theory of human motiva-

tion. This theoretical model evaluates the

nature and quality of language learning

motivation, while taking into account the

sources of motivational influence that

come from the instrumental setting of

the classroom. (Ryan & Deci, 2000a).

According to Deci and Ryan, foreign lan-

guage learners have three basic psycho-

logical needs: the needs for competence,

relatedness, and autonomy. First and

foremost, learners want to feel competent

in regard to their interactions with their

learning environment. Consequently, they

desire the feeling of relatedness with oth-

ers in a secure community in that particu-

lar environment. Most importantly, they

want autonomy that allows them to be in

control of their own actions and activities.

Research from self-determination theory

has demonstrated the importance of per-

ceptions of autonomy and competence in

relations to learners’ desire for relatedness.

In fact, students who believe they have the

ability to do well, are more expected to

be motivated, to have persistence and to

adapt behaviors that enhance learning

than students who believe that they can-

not do well and are hopeless to succeed

(Kaplan & Midgey, 1997). For this reason,

the provision of some autonomy, choice,

and control for learners in the classroom

is highly encouraged.

Learner-Centered Teaching Practices

An approach to teaching, called learner-

centered practices, is consistent with

self-determination theory’s construct of

autonomy (Sarwar, Zerpa, Hachey, Simon

& Barneveld, 2012). As the term suggests,

when teachers adopt learner-centered

practices, they focus on their learn-

ers’ needs, interests, skills, and learning

styles. In other words, what teachers do

is important only in terms of how those

actions address learning. If the goal of

teaching is to promote learning, then the

role the teacher takes to accomplish that

goal changes considerably as opposed to

the teacher-centered approach. Teachers

no longer function as exclusive content

experts or authoritarian classroom man-

agers as the learner-centered approach

encourages teachers to acknowledge their

learners’ fundamental need for autonomy

in their own learning. Oftentimes, this

also means teachers would need to teach

their learners some study skills in order

for them to truly enjoy their autonomy.

Learning skills as sophisticated as those

needed by autonomous self-regulated

learners do not develop simply through

exposure to the content introduced in

class. They must be taught, especially

for students who arrive in college with-

out even the most basic skills. In the

long run, the skills they acquire and the

awareness of themselves as learners that

they develop during their formal educa-

tional experiences will be used through-

out the course of their professional and

personal lives. For this reason, the use of

5 6


learner-centered practices alongside the

teaching of study skills is believed to help

develop learners who are motivated and

most likely to succeed in their language

learning.

Perceived Learner Motivation

in Japan

English education at the secondary

level in Japan is usually seen by students

as content for a series of (overwhelm-

ingly written) examinations that holds a

significant weight in determining their

future academic or career prospects

(Brown & Yamashita, 1995). Nevertheless,

despite its importance, many high school

students are not particularly enthusiastic

in learning the English language due to

its boring nature in the classroom; the

English language in the classroom is usu-

ally taught in such a way that represents

the acquisition of mathematical formulae

than as a tool for communication (Ryan,

2009). In addition to this fact is that

learners in Japan, in general, have little

direct contact with an English-speaking

community (Dörnyei, 1990). As a result,

there is little or no need for them to mas-

ter the English language going through

their day-to-day lives in the efl context of

Japan. According to this reality, it would

be logical to assume that non-English for-

eign language majors at universities most

likely have had experienced such demo-

tivating English teaching methods com-

ing from their respective high schools.

Investigation of the exact factors contrib-

uting to their current motivation levels

after entering university would be use-

ful in generating data that could be used

for designing a curriculum that tailors to

their needs.

According to Yonesaka and Tanaka (2013),

university first-year students show a high

tendency in expecting their native English

teachers to be able to provide explanations

in Japanese, and use Japanese when nec-

essary. In addition, they strongly believe

that in order to understand an English

utterance, translation into Japanese is

necessary. By these findings, it is appar-

ent that Japanese students who have been

through high school English education

via the traditional grammar-translation

approach have developed primacy of

their first language in English acquisition.

In relation to these findings, the study

also revealed students’ low expectations

of their school education; they did not

expect that the amount of English they

learned at school to be enough for them

to understand and speak English well. In

short, students do not see the connection

between English education at school and

its real-world usefulness. These beliefs

held by students have a negative influence

on their willingness to learn and must be

dealt with by the course instructor, so to

put students in the right mindset to work

hard in class.

The literature on self-determination the-

ory, learner-centered learning practices

and learner perceptions of English edu-

cation in Japan, provides the necessary

basis for exploring how teaching prac-

tices and student motivation influence

student achievement.

The Study

This section presents the data sources

and the rationale behind the selection of

items from the motivational factors ques-

tionnaire. Descriptive analysis from the

questionnaire and the implications of the

findings as to the appropriate teacher prac-

tices to be implemented in the classroom

for teaching students enrolled in toeic

preparation courses are also provided.

7 8


Participants

Participants for this study were 24 fresh-

men non-English foreign language major

students at a small private university in

Japan who were enrolled in a toeic prepa-

ration course. They were roughly the same

age, mostly from the same area, and from

similar socio-economic backgrounds. In

general, these students study English (par-

ticularly concentrating on preparing for

the toeic test) because it is a compulsory

element of their university studies.

Method Used in Conducting the

Motivational Factors Questionnaire

This study had two fundamental aims.

The first was to determine the beliefs

and motivation levels held by non-English

majors in the author’s toeic class, and

the second was to devise teaching prac-

tice for teaching this particular class that

are consistent with the enrolling students’

beliefs and motivation levels that pro-

motes student achievement. In order to

achieve these two goals, an adaptation of

the Motivational Factors Questionnaire

(mfq) designed by Stephen Ryan (2009)

was used. The original questionnaire had

100 six-point Likert-type items ranging

across 18 motivational variables. In this

study, however, items pertaining to the

following two variables were subjectively

taken out: Willingness to Communicate

in L1 and Willingness to Communicate

in English. These variables were deemed

irrelevant to studying for the toeic test as

the toeic test is not a speaking test and

thus would not provide useful data for

the purpose of this particular study. With

the elimination of these two variables, the

questionnaire used in this study consisted

of only 85 items (See the Appendix for the

list of variables and items in both English

and Japanese). Moreover, unlike the six-

point scale used in the original question-

naire, the questionnaire for this study

used only a four-point Likert scale. All

the items included on the questionnaire

were measured with a 4-point Likert-type

scale labeled as 4 strongly agree, 3 Agree,

2 Disagree, or 1 Strongly disagree. This

change was made to help participants

choose their answers in a timely man-

ner and stay focused throughout the

process of completing the questionnaire.

An even-point scale was used in order

to make the middle option of “Neither

agree nor disagree” unavailable. This

way, the neutral option, which is seen

as an easy option to take when a partici-

pant in the study is unsure, was therefore

removed. Thus, increasing the validity

of the data collected thereof.

Procedure for Conducting the

Motivational Factors Questionnaire

In the beginning of the 2014 academic

year, the mfq was administered during the

second class meeting of the school year.

Students were informed of the purpose of

the survey and were requested to partici-

pate. They were given written instructions

on a consent form to participate in this

study, which included an explanation that

results would be anonymous and would

not impact their grades in any way. There

were no questions from the participants,

and it took them approximately 20 min-

utes to complete the survey. Originally

questionnaires were given to 30 partici-

pants to fill out. However, 6 participants

had decided to withdraw from this study

and therefore the data collected from

their questionnaires were discarded, leav-

ing 24 valid response sets that were used

to compile data for this study.

Analysis for the Motivational

Factors Questionnaire

The Appendix shows the descriptive

statistics for the 85 items on the ques-

tionnaire. The broad range of mean

responses shows that the participants of

this study took the questionnaire seri-

ously. In general, the participants agreed

most strongly with items that refer to

their travel orientation. Although the

Instrumentality items received the second

highest mean scores, some of the items

9 10


also had the lowest sd of all items, so some

participants disagreed quite strongly with

the concept that studying English serves

an instrumental purpose in regard to

their future. Nonetheless, participants in

general agreed to the usefulness of the

English language when traveling outside

Japan, but seemed to hold varying views

as to the benefits of being competent in

English in regard to their career pros-

pects after graduating college.

Participants disagreed most strongly with

items that refer to the milieu surrounding

their English studies, with all items receiv-

ing mean scores that are under 2.5 and

sd ranging from 0.81 to 0.98 on the high

scale. Items that received the second low-

est mean scores belong to the Intended

Learning Effort variable with most of the

items receiving a mean score under 2.5

and sd ranging from 0.71 to 1.06. This

shows that in general the participants are

aware of the importance of learning the

English language yet they do not intend

to put much effort into its studies. In par-

ticular, they strongly disagreed with 85 If

English were not taught in school, I would

try to go to English classes somewhere else,

which received a mean score of 1.63 and a

sd value of 0.71. This could be interpreted

as an indication that a majority of the

participants have fairly low motivation in

regard to their English studies, as they do

not see their value outside the classroom

in the case that they were not required to

study English. Furthermore, items that

fall under the L2 Self Confidence vari-

able received mean scores under 3.00 and

sd values ranging from 0.88 to 1.00, show-

ing that participants in general were in

agreement that they have low confidence

in their ability to learn and use English.

The observations shown above point out

that the toeic preparation curriculum

for teaching the non-English foreign lan-

guage majors in this study must be one that

incorporates teaching practices that both

raises their awareness of the usefulness of

English studies and brings up their confi-

dence levels. Subsequently, it is expected

that these participants would then make

diligent efforts in studying English and

attain better achievements as a result.

Course Design of a toeic Curriculum

for non-English Foreign Language

Majors

The mfq was distributed to the partici-

pants of this study in order to devise a

curriculum motivational enough to teach

this category of students. As a means to

raise student awareness, business maga-

zine and newspaper articles on the impor-

tance and usefulness of a decent toeic

score for the purpose of job hunting and

advancements were distributed to stu-

dents in the first semester. On the other

hand, in order to allow students to gain

confidence in studying for the toeic test,

they needed to first be familiarized with

the vocabulary and grammar usage that

frequently appear on the test. A Japanese

textbook specifically designed for toeic

preparation was chosen for this purpose.

In terms of the usage of this course text-

book, students only went through the

vocabulary building and grammar review

sessions for all units of the book in the

first semester. Supplementary handouts

to reinforce understanding of gram-

mar points were also given out to stu-

dents as homework assignments. Then

in the second semester, students focused

on practice solving the different toeic-

type questions in the course textbook.

Introduction of the textbook content in

this particular order was to ensure that

students had enough knowledge of both

English vocabulary and grammar before

they tackled the toeic practice questions.

In addition to the course textbook, an

online toeic preparation program was

also used in both semesters. Exercises

from the online program can be accessed

by smart phones and other electronic

devices with an Internet connection. The

accessibility of this program allowed

11 12


students to work on the online exercises

at their own convenience anytime, any-

where. As well, the online exercises come

in various formats. For example: match-

ing, crossword puzzles, categorizing, fill

in the blanks, etc. The variation in terms

of exercise types enables students to work

through them without getting bored,

which is an important factor in encourag-

ing students to put in the effort to attempt

the exercises. Moreover, the fact that this

online program has a built-in automatic

feedback function was also motivating for

students, as they could immediately see

and keep track of their own achievements

every time they had completed an exer-

cise. In the first semester, only exercises

that corresponded to the vocabulary and

grammar points studied in the course

textbook were assigned to students to

complete in class. In the second semes-

ter, exercises were assigned to students

in class and also as homework. Students

were encouraged to work through all the

in-class exercises, but were not penalized

if they failed to do so. This was to ensure

that all students had autonomy in their

learning and could learn at their own

pace in class where they had easy access

to the teacher’s assistance.

The evaluation scheme for both the first

and second semester was designed in a

way that encouraged student confidence

and attainment. In both semesters, stu-

dents had to take a quiz in almost all

class meetings except for the days when

tests were scheduled. In the first semes-

ter course, each quiz was worth two per-

cent of their final grade. For each quiz,

students who achieved a score of 70%

accuracy or higher received that two per-

cent. The fact that students were able to

achieve a perfect score toward their final

grade for each quiz they had taken by

answering only 70% of the questions cor-

rect was motivating for them. Many stu-

dents started out with low confidence in

their English proficiencies and 70% accu-

racy was the right level of expectation in

order to raise their confidence level. In

the first semester, quizzes given contained

questions on vocabulary and grammar

points taken from the course textbook.

In the second semester, questions on quiz-

zes were taken from the online program

exercises. Students were given a class

schedule detailing which exercises were

assigned for each class. In this way, stu-

dents who wished to achieve a high score

on a quiz in class could attempt the exer-

cises before they actually took the quiz.

Results

To determine the effects of student moti-

vation and the above teaching practices

on overall student achievement of this

study’s participants, trends in their quiz

scores as well as assignments completed

were observed.

As shown in Table 1, the quiz scores

achieved by students in the first semes-

ter indicated that students who once

achieved a score of 70% or above had the

tendency to keep up their achievement

level in consequent quizzes taken. As a

result, many of these students achieved an

overall average score of all quizzes taken

that is 70% or higher. This finding proves

that motivation of students - even those

with low confidence - can be encouraged

and maintained, if the evaluation system

in place acknowledges their efforts and

rewards them adequately.

rosa suen - student acheivementTable 1. Quiz Scores of Students in the First Semester Indicating High Scores

Motivate Students to Maintain Own Achievement Level

As mentioned earlier, a flexible teach-

ing approach, which utilized an online

practice program, allowed students to

improve their individual proficiency lev-

els. Assignments students attempted

to complete through the toeic online

course indicated major areas in which stu-

dents had shown improvement over time.

Referring to the data collected from the

online assignments as shown in Table 2,

the class average scores for the Getting

Started session showed increase from 69%

in the first semester to 75% in the second

semester. In this session, assignments on

vocabulary identification and usage were

given. Regarding scores for the listening

sessions assigned, the class average was

91% for Listening Part 1, 85% for Listening

Part 2, and 61% for Listening Part 3 in the

second semester. There was significant

increase in terms of the scores achieved

for Listening Parts 1 and 2, although a

slight decrease was also observed regard-

ing Listening Part 3. Students seemed to

be able to answer Parts 1 and 2 questions

pertaining to pictures shown with moder-

ate accuracy, but they have yet to improve

their listening skills, especially on listen-

ing for main ideas and details, as these

are the question types for part 3 of the

Listening session on the toeic test. As

to the Reading sessions of the online pro-

gram, only Parts 5 and 6 were assigned to

students. For these two parts of the online

program, students achieved an average

score of 70% for Part 5 and 64% for Part

6. Since these two parts contain questions

that tests grammar and vocabulary, this

relatively decent score achieved could be

due to the fact that students have good

knowledge of English grammar as stud-

ied during the first semester of the course.

Part 7 was not assigned as assignments

due to the level of difficulty. Students

were encouraged in class to work on the

exercises in Part 7 and received bonus

points in return for their effort.

StudentNumber

Quiz Number & Score Distributions Average

Score (%)1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 141 612 743 764 775 766 867 658 819 7210 6811 4812 8713 6314 6615 6216 7317 7018 8319 7120 3121 6122 7623 8624 47

Color

Coding

for Each

Quiz

Score of 70% or higher Grey

Score lower than 70% Dark Grey

Quiz not written White

15 16

rosa suen - student acheivement

Table 2. Class Average Scores of Assignments Submitted by Students via the Online

toeic Preparation Program

There was no doubt that students started

out with low motivation and confidence

in their toeic studies. However, their atti-

tude seemed to have changed as proven

by their improved academic achievements

over time. Students tend to have difficulty

comprehending what they hear and read

when the amount of English they need

to process becomes longer than two or

three sentences, such as what one would

experience when listening to a short

conversation or reading a short passage.

Considerations by the course instructor

to provide such practice opportunities

in or outside class would be the key to

enhancing student achievement levels.

Discussion

This study examined the impact of both

teaching practices and student motiva-

tion on student academic achievement

in terms of the study of the toeic test.

Student questionnaires analyzed in this

study provided a glimpse of the motiva-

tional context from the viewpoint of the

students. The data was then used in cre-

ating a student-centered toeic prepara-

tion curriculum. The curriculum and

teaching practices incorporated within

were then designed in accordance to the

self-determination theory to improve

students’ competence and give them

autonomy. Of course, the design of the

curriculum is of crucial importance.

Yet, the physical surroundings in which

the students undertook this curriculum

should not be overlooked as it was what

provided them the feeling of relatedness

– one of the constructs advocated by the

self-determination theory. In the follow-

ing section, the influence of this feeling

of relatedness on students in the cultural

context of Japan is explained in detail.

Proposal for Class Composition and

Classroom Management Concerning

the Concept of Relatedness according

to the Self-determination Theory

One human desire, which the self-deter-

mination theory supports, is the feeling

of relatedness with others in a secure

community in a particular environment.

In the case of non-English foreign lan-

guage majors who are enrolled in a toeic

preparation course together, it would

mean that these students felt included

and related with each other throughout

the duration of the course. Relatedness

among the students was meant to fos-

ter better student achievement as indi-

vidual students’ “external values, beliefs

and behaviors could [sic] be gradually

adopted and internalized, thus allow-

ing them [sic] to function more success-

fully” (Ortega, 2009, p.176). However, the

Different Parts of the Online

toeic Prepararion Program

Class Average Scores (%)

1st semester 2nd semester

Getting Started 69% 75%

Listening Part 1 87% 91%



Listening Part 4 not assigned 74%

Reading Part 5 not assigned 70%

Reading Part 6 not assigned 64%

Reading Part 7 not assigned not assigned

17 18


concept of relatedness embraced by the

self-determination theory that was devel-

oped by research done in North American

contexts might not be completely applica-

ble to the comparatively different cultural

context of Japan. In fact, the western con-

cept of relatedness roughly equates to the

concept of group orientation in Japan.

According to Haitani (1990), Japanese

group orientation emphasizes on har-

mony and cooperation. Members within

the same group are expected to behave in

the same manner in Japan. Unlike west-

ern thinking, which associates related-

ness to the idea of reaching democratic

consensus, in Japan it is rather associated

with the absence of conflict or disagree-

ment. As such, a classroom setting where

students were too close to each other was

not an ideal environment for better learn-

ing to take place in Japan.

All the participants for this study were

enrolled in a cohort at the university where

the study was conducted. Due to the cul-

tural expectations students had of each

other as they interacted in their secure

cohort community, they were aware of the

fact that most students had rather nega-

tive attitudes toward learning English and

felt obligated to reinforce this attitude

among themselves. In fact, items belong-

ing to the Attitudes to Learning English

variable on the mfq received mean scores

under 3 and sd values above 0.72. This

data serves as proof that students were

aware of the unmotivated nature of the

class as a whole in regard to English stud-

ies, and it was highly possible that the

relatedness they felt among themselves in

turn prevented them from putting in their

best efforts in their studies even though

they were given opportunities to increase

their competence and were allowed auton-

omy while they were studying under the

toeic preparation curriculum.

The participants for this study who were

in their freshmen year at school took

a number of required classes together.

As this entering class is small, these stu-

dents will be spending considerable time

together their first two years of univer-

sity. As the students have already formed

their own group culture before entering

the classroom, the teacher is faced with an

additional challenge to effectively teach.

Research supports my contention that

cohort learning hinders classroom man-

agement and learning strategies. Studies

show that the presence of cohort agency

may help to precipitate groupthink among

members, negatively influencing students’

ability to think critically and make deci-

sions collaboratively (Watts, 2013).

In fact, given the wide disparity in English

competency levels within the cohort, stu-

dent interests would be better served by a

class division based on level rather than

major. For example, non-English foreign

language majors who have achieved a

certain toeic proficiency could join in

the toeic classes for the English majors.

On the other hand, for those students

who need to shore up the foundations of

English grammar and vocabulary, pre-req-

uisite classes should be offered. Once stu-

dents have strengthened their skills, they

can move into a standard toeic class their

second year.

Conclusion

This study tries to answer what is per-

haps one of the most important ques-

tions regarding toeic preparation at the

college level that teachers and learners

of English ask themselves: How crucial

are motivation and teacher practices in

explaining the relative degree of success

that different learners experience when

they learn the English language?

The results from the mfq suggests that

beliefs held by the study participants

19 20


during their high school years are carried

over to their college studies. Entering

students come from varying senior high

schools that focus on developing students

to be able to pass university entrance

exams. Certainly, this secondary cul-

ture of learning maintained by teachers

and textbooks produces students who are

unable to make the connection of their

English studies to its real world usefulness.

Their motivation tends to be of an instru-

mental nature, although some students

do not even embrace this orientation,

especially those who are non-English for-

eign language majors. In order to raise

their motivation, the instructor’s prac-

tices have to be customized to give learn-

ers a positive feeling about their learning.

First, practices need to create a positive

atmosphere where the instructor treats

the students with respect and rewards

their efforts to help them gain confi-

dence. Second, the instructor should give

students autonomy in making choices

about their learning in accordance to

the self-determination theory. Third, stu-

dents’ learning progress should be made

visible by the instructor in class by means

such as formal tests and course assign-

ments to allow students to visualize their

own progress in learning, and therefore

gain confidence in their ability to improve

their English competence.

Perhaps one of the limitations of the cur-

rent study was that the data included

responses of students from one single

course at one single private university in

Japan. Therefore, it might be difficult to

determine its degree of validity for the

teachers from other universities through-

out Japan. In addition, data collected

from students at different school years

might produce different results. In fur-

ther research, a mixed-methods approach

that incorporates qualitative data from

interviews and classroom observations

conducted at multiple universities would

be desirable in order to triangulate and

strengthen data.

For non-English foreign language majors,

it is how the course instructor creates an

appreciative and encouraging environ-

ment which matches students’ motivation

level, with the implementation of appro-

priate teaching practices and evaluation

system, which makes a difference in giving

students a positive learning experience

that enhances individual competency lev-

els. Continued research and reevaluation

of the toeic curriculum implemented in

respect to the psychological, linguistic,

and cultural factors of English studies for

this group of students is necessary in order

to create a learner-centered toeic prepa-

ration curriculum that is truly tailored

to non-English foreign language majors.

Specifically, attention should be given to

finding ways of helping these learners to

collaboratively develop an awareness of

study skills that could positively influence

and bring enjoyment to their learning.

21 22

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Mean Sd

cultural interest

1Do you like the pop music of English-speaking countries?

あなたは英語圏のポップミュージックは好きですか。3.25 0.74

2

Do you think that it is important to learn English in order to learn

more about the culture and art of its speakers?

英語を話す人たちの文化および芸術をもっと学ぶためには英語を学ぶことが大

切だと思いますか。

3.38 0.49

3Do you like Hollywood films?

ハリウッド映画は好きですか。3.42 0.83

4Do you like English TV programs?

英語のテレビドラマは好きですか。2.70 1.00

5

I often wish I could read newspapers and magazines in another

language.

私はよく「外国語で新聞や雑誌を読めたらいいな」と思う。

2.88 1.03

ATTITUDES TOWARDS L2 COMMUNITY

6 Do you like the people of the United States?

アメリカ人は好きですか。3.17 0.70

7 Do you think that English-speaking countries (besides the USA)

have an important role in the world?

英語圏の国（々アメリカを除く）は世界において重要な役割を持っていると考え

ますか。

3.38 0.71

8 Do you think that English-speaking countries (besides the USA)

are advanced and developed nations?

英語圏の国（々アメリカを除く）は先進国だと考えますか。

3.13 0.74

Appendix: Items and Composite Variables Used in the Motivational Factors Questionnaire Descriptive Statistics

25 26

9

Do you think that the United States has an important role in the

world?

アメリカは世界において重要な役割を持っていると考えますか。

3.42 0.72

10

Do you like the people who live in English-speaking countries

(besides the USA)?

英語圏（アメリカを除く）に住んでいる人たちは好きですか。

3.04 0.69

11Do you like meeting people from English-speaking countries?

英語圏からの人々と会うのは好きですか。2.88 0.61

12

Do you think that the United States is an advanced and developed

nation?

アメリカは先進国だと考えますか

3.46 0.72

13

Would you like to become similar to the people of English-speaking

countries?

自分が英語圏の人々のようになることを望んでいますか。

2.5 0.98

instrumentality

14Do you think English is important in the world these days?

今の時代、英語は世界で重要だと考えますか。3.58 0.58

15

Do you think English would help you if you travelled abroad in the

future?

将来自分が海外に行く時、英語は役に立つと思いますか。

3.63 0.58

16

Do you think knowing English would help you to become a more

knowledgeable person?

英語が分かることで、自分がより豊かな知識を持つ人になるのに役立つと思いま

すか。

3.25 0.85

17Do you think English would help your future career?

英語は将来の仕事に役立つと思いますか。3.67 0.48

18For me to become an educated person I should learn English.

自分が教養のある人間になるには、英語を学ぶべきだと思っている。3.28 0.75

19Knowledge of English would make me a better educated person.

英語の知識を身につけることで自分がもっと教養のある人間になれる。3.21 0.83

20Learning English is necessary because it is an international language.

英語は国際言語のため、その習得は必要不可欠だ。3.00 0.88

21Studying English will help me get a good job.

英語の習得はいい仕事に就くのに役に立つと思っている。3.42 0.58

international contact

22I think that English will help me meet more people.

英語は他人との出会いを増やしてくれると思っています。3.17 0.76

23

I would like to be able to use English to get involved with people

from other countries.

英語を使って外国人と関わりを持つようになりたい。

3.00 0.83

24

I would like to be able to use English to communicate with people


英語を使って外国人とコミュニケーションを取れるようになりたい。

3.17 0.76

25

If I could speak English well, I could get to know more people


もし英語が話せたら、もっと外国の人々と知り合うことが出来ると思っている。

3.50 0,59

INTEREST IN FOREIGN LANGUAGES

27 28

26

If I planned to stay in another country, I would study the local

language.

もし海外で住むことになったら、自分はきっとその国の言語を学ぶと思う。

3.67 0.70

27

I think I would study a foreign language even if it weren’t

compulsory.

外国語の学習は学校の必修科目でなくても、学ぶと思う。

2.58 1.06

28I would like to learn a lot of foreign languages.

いろんな外国語を学びたい。3.13 0.80

29

If I were visiting a foreign country I would like to be able to speak

its language.

もし外国を旅するなら、その国の言語で話したいと思っている。

3.13 0.90

30If I made the effort, I could learn a foreign language.

自分が頑張れば外国語を習得することは出来ると思っている。2.96 0.95

INTERNATIONAL EMPATHY

31

Studying English will help me to get to know English-speaking

people.

英語を学ぶことは英語を話す人たちと知り合うのに役に立つと思っている。

3.29 0.55

32

Studying English will help me to understand people from all over

the world, not just English –speaking countries.

英語を学ぶことは、英語圏の国々だけではなく、世界中の人々を理解するのに役

に立つと思っている。

3.29 0.62

33

Studying English is important to me because I would like to

become close to other English speakers.

英語を話す人たちと親しくなりたい私にとっては英語を学ぶことは大事なことだ。

2.96 0.81

FEAR OF ASSIMILATION

34

As a result of internationalization, there is a danger Japanese peo-

ple may forget the importance of Japanese culture.

国際化が進んだ結果、日本人は日本文化の大切さを忘れるという危険に陥るか

もしれない。

2.58 0.93

35

Using English in front of people makes me feel like I will be

thought of as less Japanese.

英語を人前で使うという行為は、自分があまり日本人だと見られないのではない

かという感じがする。

1.96 1.04

36

As internationalization advances there is a danger of losing the

Japanese language and culture.

国際化が進むことによって日本は自国の言語と文化を無くす危険がある。

2.25 0.94

37

As a part of international society Japanese people must preserve

the Japanese language and culture.

国際社会の一員として、日本人は日本の言語と文化を守らなければならない。

3.13 0.90

ETHNOCENTRISM

38I don’t trust people with different customs and values to myself.

自分と違う価値観や文化を持つ人々を信用しない。1.67 0.82

39I respect the values and customs of other cultures.

私は他の国の価値観や文化を尊重する。3.17 0.92

40

I find it difficult to work together with people who have different

customs and values.

自分と違う価値観や文化を持つ人と一緒に仕事をするのは難しい。

2.79 0.59

41

I find it difficult to comprehend the values and customs of other

cultures.

他の国の価値観や文化を理解するのは難しい。

2.58 0.72

29 30

42

I am not very interested in the values and customs of other

cultures.

他の国の価値観や文化に対してあまり興味がない。

1.83 0.70

TRAVEL ORIENTATION

43Would you like to travel to English-speaking countries?

英語圏の国々へ行ってみたいですか。3.42 0.88

44Studying English will be useful when I travel overseas.

英語の習得は自分が海外旅行に行く時役に立つ。3.33 0.70

45

Learning English is important to me because I would like to visit

English-speaking countries.

英語圏の国々に行ってみたいので、英語を学ぶことは自分にとっては大切だ。

3.00 0.78

46

Learning English is important to me because I would like to travel

internationally.

世界中の国々に行ってみたいので、英語を学ぶことは自分にとっては大切だ。

3.08 0.72

ENGLISH ANXIETY

47

I am worried that other speakers of English would find my English

strange.

他の英語を話す人たちが自分の英語が変だと感じることが気になる。

2.83 0.92

48If I met an English speaker, I would feel nervous.

英語を話す人たちと会うと緊張する。2.96 0.81

49

I get nervous and confused when I am speaking in my English

class.

クラスで英語で話す時、自分は緊張し、頭が混乱する。

2.71 0.95

50I’m not very good at volunteering answers in our English class.

英語のクラスでは、自分から先生の質問に答えるのは苦手だ。2.88 0.90

51I would feel uneasy speaking English with a native speaker.

ネイティブスピーカーと英語で話すのには不安を感じると思う。3.13 0.80

52I would get tense if a foreigner asked me for directions in English.

もし外国人に道を聞かれたら、自分は多分緊張してしまうだろう。3.33 0.64

ATTITUDES TO LEARNING ENGLISH

53Do you like English?

英語は好きですか。2.46 1.02

54Learning English is really great.

英語を勉強するのは素晴らしいことだ。2.92 0.72

55I really enjoy learning English.

私は英語の勉強を楽しんでいる。2.29 0.81

56I’m always looking forward to my English classes.

いつも英語の授業を楽しみにしている。2.29 0.81

57I find learning English really interesting.

英語の勉強は面白い。2.25 0.74

58Learning English is one of the most important aspects in my life.

英語の習得は、私の人生においてもっとも大切な側面の一つだ。2.75 0.99

MILIEU

59

Most people around me tend to think that learning a foreign lan-

guage is a waste of time.

私の回りの人たちは、ほとんどが外国語の習得は時間の無駄だと思っている。

2.21 0.98

60Hardly anybody really cares whether I learn English or not.

私が英語を勉強するかしないかについて誰もあまり関心がない。2.46 0.83

61

Few people around me think that it is such a good thing to learn

foreign languages.

私の周りには、外国語を勉強することはいいことだと思う人はほとんどない。

2.17 0.87

62

My parents do not consider foreign languages important school

subjects.

私の両親は外国語が重要な科目だと思っていない。

1.71 0.81

63I don’t think that foreign languages are important school subjects.

私は外国語が重要な科目だと思わない。1.67 0.82

PARENTAL ENCOURAGEMENT

64

I am often told by my parents that English is important for my

future.

私は両親に自分の将来のために英語の勉強は大切だと度々言われてきた。

2.92 0.93

65My parents encourage me to study English.

両親は私に英語の勉強を勧める。2.88 0.95

66My parents think that I should really try to learn English.

両親は私が頑張って英語を勉強すべきだと思っている。2.92 0.97

73

My parents encourage me to practice my English as much as

possible.

両親は私に英語の練習を可能な限りすることを勧める。

2.71 0.95

IDEAL L2 SELF

68The things I want to do in the future require me to speak English.

私が将来的にしたいことに関しては英語を話す必要がある。2.58 1.02

69

Whenever I think of my future career, I imagine myself being able

to use English.

将来の仕事を考えるといつも英語を使える自分を想像する。

2.29 1.04

70I often imagine myself as someone who is able to speak English.

自分のことを英語が話せる人だとよく想像する。1.88 0.99

71If my dreams come true, I will use English effectively in the future.

もし夢が叶えるなら、将来の自分は英語を上手に使っているでしょう。2.63 1.01

72I can imagine speaking English with international friends.

世界中の友達と英語で話す自分を想像できる。1.96 1.04

73When I think about my future, it is important that I use English.

自分の将来を考えると、英語を使うことが大切だ。2.92 0.97

L2 SELF-CONFIDENCE

74I am sure I will be able to learn a foreign language.

外国語を習得する自信がある。2.50 0.88

75

I worry that the other students will laugh at me when I speak

English.

自分が話す英語が他の生徒に笑われることが心配。

2.67 0.96

76Learning a foreign language is a difficult task for me.

外国語を学ぶことは自分にとっては難しいことです。3.00 0.88

77I always feel that my classmates speak English better than I do.

自分より他のクラスメイトのほうが上手に英語を話せていると感じる。2.96 1.00

INTENDED LEARNING EFFORT

78I am working hard at learning English.

自分は頑張って英語の勉強に励んでいる。2.25 0.79

79It is extremely important for me to learn English.

私にとっては英語の習得は大変重要だ。2.83 0.87

80If an English course was offered in the future, I would like to take it.

もし将来英語のコースが取れるなら、取りたいと思う。2.17 1.01

3231

34

81

When I hear an English song on the radio, I listen carefully and try

to understand all the words.

ラジオで英語の歌が聞こえてきたら、よく聞き取って全ての単語を理解しようとする。

1.92 0.88

82I can honestly say that I am really doing my best to learn English.

英語の勉強については出来る限り努力はしていると正直に言える。2.04 1.00

83

If I could have access to English-speaking TV stations, I would try

to watch them often.

もし英語のテレビチャンネルがあるなら、度々見るようにしたい。

2.46 1.06

84I am the kind of person who makes great efforts to learn English.

私は英語の学習に対しては大きな努力を払うタイプだ。2.04 0.86

85

If English were not taught in school, I would try to go to English

classes somewhere else.

もし英語が学校で学べないなら、他のところで英語のクラスに通うと思う。

1.63 0.71

33

abstract

Music can be employed by ESL educa-

tors to create enhanced learning environ-

ments, improve comprehension, literacy,

vocabulary and cultural curiosity.

Students often view a musical component

in class as fun and frequently report that

activities involving music make study feel

less like hard work. It was also interesting

to learn recently, that several students’ ini-

tial motivation for studying English seri-

ously was “to understand the meanings of

our favorite songs.”

This paper offers several simple strategies

for involving music in an esl classroom,

and assumes that the teacher is not a

musician, although live renditions of sub-

ject songs would always be welcomed.

要旨

音楽は文化への興味、語彙力、読み書きの能力、

理解力を助け、学習環境をよくする働きがあります。

音楽は授業を楽しくするのと学習の負担をへらす

きになると頻繁に生徒が言うことがあります。ま

た、英語を真面目に勉強取り組むのもとの理由は

好きな曲を理解するためと何人かに聞いたことも

ありました。

ここで幾つかの音楽を授業に導入するストラテジ

ーを提供します。実際音楽をひくことができない

設定としますが、なまの演奏でもちろ可能です。

about

Brad Holmes is an English Teacher and

Singing Coach. His work experience,

both current and past, includes Urawa

High School, Dokkyo University, Tokyo

School of Music, and New International

School, Japan. Brad holds a Masters in

Psychology of Music in Education, and a

Post Graduate Certif. in tesol.

Music as a Motivator- Songs in ESL Classrooms

brad holmes

35 36

JSCE - Volume 5 Issue 1 brad holmes - music as a motivator

music and language acquisition

Neurologists state that musical and

language processing occur in the same

area of the brain, and seemingly, paral-

lels exist in how musical and linguistic

syntax are processed (Maess & Koelsch,

2001). Regarding the cognitive effects of

music, Rauscher et al. (1993), described

college students demonstrating improved

short-term spatial reasoning ability after

listening to Mozart recordings. This was

dubbed the “Mozart effect” in interna-

tional media.

songs and esl instruction

Researcher Tim Murphey (1992) anal-

ysed lyrics from a large corpus of popular

songs and found that most have several

features that can assist second language

learners- containing common, short

words and many personal pronouns.

Indeed, he stated that 94% of the songs

included a first person, I, reference and

were written at about fifth- grade English

level (!), with conversational language

(imperatives and questions made up 25%

of the sentences in the corpus). Time and

place were usually loosely defined and

the lyrics were often sung at a slower rate

than words are spoken in conversation.

These aspects potentially allow learners

to understand lyrics and readily relate to

the ideas presented.

Songs contextually introduce the way

that rhythm, stress, and intonation affect

the pronunciation of English. Through

songs, students are able to discover natu-

ral stretching and contracting of casual

English speech. For example: gonna,

wanna, gotta, dontcha, etc. Moriya (1988)

highlights the value of using songs for

pronunciation practice with Asian learn-

ers because of the many phonemic dif-

ferences between Asian languages and

English. However, students from any

language background can benefit from

group singing of, or even individual

reading of lyrics, practicing the natural

reductions that occur in spoken English.

Another interesting subject for potential

teacher/student discussion is the rich

usage of Metaphor in pop music.

Suggested Activities:

Group Presentations

In small groups, students can be encour-

aged to prepare an opinion of the meaning

or theme of a particular song or give oral

presentations about the song or artist, play-

ing musical selections to the group to sup-

port their ideas. To involve the whole class,

other students can then fill out response

sheets about each presentation, answering

questions about the featured topic, some-

thing new they learned, and whether they

agree with the group’s presentation.

Reading and Writing

Students can fill in blanks in a lyric

sheet while listening to a song, and then

check to see whether their word choices

made sense, even if they picked an incor-

rect word. This develops skill in forming

hypotheses based on context (predict-

ing). This involves the teacher passing out

a lyric sheet with words deleted at regu-

lar intervals, e.g. every 7th or 8th word.

However, specific kinds of words can also

be deleted to practice target grammar

points, such as past tense verbs, nouns,

prepositions, or to identify essential words.

Another useful group (or solo) activity is

to cut the lyrics into ‘one line’ pieces and

ask students put them in the order they

are sung, whilst listening to the song.

It is usually necessary to play the song sev-

eral times. After the lyric order has been

completed, the song can be played again,

with students encouraged to sing along.

37 38

JSCE - Volume 5 Issue 1 brad holmes - music as a motivator

Alternatively, the class can be separated

into teams with identical sets of ‘sentence

strips’. They then compete to put the

strips into correct order first.

For simpler songs, students may be able

work in small groups to transcribe all lyr-

ics of a song. The act of putting the lyrics

together as a group involves communi-

cation regarding word order, verb tense,

and other parts of speech. It also builds

teamwork skills. When the lyric sheet

is handed out, the groups can compare

their work with the actual lyrics.

More advanced students may rise to the

challenge of writing critical responses to

songs, either in class or as a homework

assignment. Possibilities could include,

how the song affects them; or comparing

a similar song in the students’ first lan-

guage, with the song at hand. This assign-

ment may facilitate comparison and

contrasting skills- common challenges for

esl students.

Retelling

Because songs often narrate a story,

these stories can be rewritten or retold

to practice reporting and summarizing,

thus allowing teachers to check compre-

hension. Students can also complete writ-

ing prompts or answer a question from

the point of view of the narrator or other

characters in a song. For example in ‘The

River’ (1980), Bruce Springsteen presents

a fictional biography in the ‘first person’,

but for a student, the retelling of this story

requires extensive ‘third person’ usage.

Pop songs are usually composed to be

easily understood, and, as discussed,

tend to feature high frequency lyrics with

emotional content. This makes them

expedient resources for word study or for

reinforcing vocabulary already learned

through reading. If several songs, and

time, are available, students could be

paired and given a song to teach the class,

including word definitions.

Song Choice

Finding copies of song lyrics is straight-

forward and most are available on

the Internet. Because The Beatles are

extremely well known in Japan, songs

such as “Yesterday” (1965) and “In My Life

(1966) which feature clear, direct lyrics and

pronunciation, make them very appropri-

ate. Student Requests’ for classroom music

should also definitely be encouraged.

Summary

With minimal preparation, English

songs can readily be incorporated as

lengthy or brief activities in different

classes. This will almost certainly foster a

positive mood while enhancing language

acquisition, along with critical and cre-

ative thinking, in the esl classroom.

39 40

Maess, B. & Koelsch, S. (2001). Musical syntax is processed in Broca’s area: An MEG

study. Nature Neuroscience 4, 540-545.

Moriya, Y. (1988). English speech rhythm and its teaching to non-native speakers.

Paper presented at the annual convention of Teachers of English to Speakers of

Other Languages. Chicago. (ED No. 303 033).

Murphey, T. (1992). The discourse of pop songs. TESOL Quarterly, 26(4), 770-774.

Rauscher, F., Shaw, G., & Ky, K. (1993). Mozart and spatial reasoning. Nature, (365) 611.

abstract

Although pragmatic awareness plays a

crucial role in our communication, little

attention has been paid to this aspect in

the Japanese EFL classroom. This study

explores pedagogical solutions to raise

pragmatic awareness through explicit

grammar instruction and reports the

effectiveness of such instruction. It is time

for teachers to start addressing what stu-

dents need to learn.

要旨

コミュニケーションを背後から支える語用論的要

素はきわめて重要であるが、日本のefl環境での

取組みは乏しい。本研究では、言語語用論的意識

が文法授業での明示的指導を通していかに改善

したかを報告し、教師の意識変革を提言する。

about

Sanae Oda-Sheehan works as an efl

teacher in Saitama City and Tokyo as

well as a communication consultant

for US academic societies working with

Japanese organizations. She holds an ma

(tesol) from Teachers College Columbia

University, and her research interests

include communicative task effective-

ness, pragmatics, and teacher education.

References Raising Pragmatic Awareness through Explicit Grammar Instruction

sanae Oda-Sheehan

41 42

JSCE - Volume 5 Issue 1 sanae oda-sheehan - pragmatic awareness

1. Introduction

As with the tip of an iceberg, the portion

we can see in our communicative endeav-

ors is very limited. In reality, however, the

submerged part can play a crucial role to

sustain successful communication, con-

sisting of culture-specific perceptions and

values intertwined with linguistic encod-

ing in multifaceted ways. The study of

this invisible aspect is called pragmatics

and defined as the study of communi-

cative action in its sociocultural context

(Kasper, 1997).

Unfortunately, little attention has been

paid to this aspect in the Japanese efl

context, and Japanese English speakers

(JESs) may encounter communication

breakdowns in various cross-cultural con-

texts. When such breakdowns occur, it

can be disruptive because native English

speakers (NESs) are more likely to attri-

bute the breakdown to personality (indi-

vidual or cultural) rather than linguistic

causes (Gass & Selinker, 2008). The dis-

tortions may cause mutual distrust that

can develop into serious problems, espe-

cially in international politics or business

situations.

This type of communication break-

down, referred to as pragmatic failure, is

defined by Thomas (1983) as “the inabil-

ity to understand what is meant by what

is said” (p. 91), and even advanced-level

learners with high grammatical compe-

tence appear to experience such failure

due to their lack of pragmatic aware-

ness. Realizing such marked imbalance

between their grammatical and prag-

matic awareness, Bardovi-Harlig and

Dörnyei (1998) investigated the extent to

which instructed L2 learners of English

were aware of differences in learners’ and

target-language production in grammar

and pragmatics, and found out that those

in the efl contexts consistently identified

and ranked grammatical errors as more

serious than pragmatic errors.

Then, how can such an imbalance be rec-

tified? House (1996) investigated whether

explicit instruction had more effect on

learners’ acquisition of pragmatic flu-

ency than instruction provided in a more

implicit manner. The results showed that

explicit metapragmatic instruction was

more effective in some areas, while mak-

ing no difference in others, suggesting a

major challenge and high complexity in

addressing pragmatic aspects.

To demonstrate such complexity, Thomas

(1983) earlier analyzed that there are two

types of pragmatic failure; pragmalin-

guistic failure and sociopragmatic failure.

Pragmalinguistic failure is “basically a

linguistic problem, caused by differences

in the linguistic encoding of pragmatic

force” (p. 99) and thus easier to overcome

because learners are more likely to try to

conform to the pragmalinguistic norms

of the target language. On the other

hand, sociopragmatic failure is based on

different beliefs and perceptions in very

complicated and culture-specific man-

ners, and thus difficult to address because

it involves learners’ individual insensitiv-

ity which is rooted outside the pedagogi-

cal purview (Kawate-Mierzejewska, 2003;

Rose, 2005).

Then, how are these findings reflected in

the Japanese efl context? It appears that

many cases of pragmatic failure by JESs

are related to teaching-induced errors.

Fujioka (2003) refers to an example of “You

had better turn off the lights” uttered by a

Japanese student when offering advice to

a professor about how to use an overhead

projector. Other researchers analyze that

this pragmatic failure in using had bet-

ter stems from the grammar-translation

method, using the Japanese translation

43 44


of shita ho ga yoi, which prevails in tra-

ditional Japanese classrooms and can

mislead JESs to believe in equivalence per-

ception (Rinnert, 1995; Stephens, 2003).

Gore (1987) mentions the shock and

dismay an NES researcher felt when a

Japanese teenage girl smiled at him and

said “Open the door, please,” in her eager-

ness to be polite, instead of “Could you

get the door for me?” The error seems to

come from the instruction generally given

in Japanese EFL classrooms, misleading

many students to overgeneralize that they

can make a request politely as long as they

use please, without realizing it could be

a command which expects compliance

depending on the context, as in the above

example. Even recently the Ministry of

Education, Culture, Sports, Science and

Technology (mext) lists a sentence such

as “Open the window, please,” (mext,

2008, p. 26) to show an example of how

to make a polite request in daily life.

While several other studies report such

teaching-induced errors (Matsuura, 1998;

Rinnert, 1995; Takahashi, 1993), perhaps

the aspect of directness in JES speech

could also be explained in view of teach-

ing-induced failure. Beebe and Takahashi

(1989) report that many Japanese people

claim “efl classes in Japan stress the

need for Japanese to be more direct and

explicit in English as a second language

than they are in Japanese” (p. 113). Such

instruction may induce another overgen-

eralization, leading JESs to try to con-

verge with what they perceive to be the

NS norms and thus placing them at risk

for pragmatic failure.

What should be noted here is that many

of the above examples seem to be more

closely related to pragmalinguistic fea-

tures, which are supposedly easier to

learn, as previously discussed. While

sociopragmatic aspects may be difficult

to teach, couldn’t learners benefit from

receiving explicit instruction for at least

pragmalinguistic matters? Also, in light of

the existing Japanese efl classroom situ-

ation, in which the mainstream instruc-

tion approach is still grammar-oriented

and examination-focused, wouldn’t it be

more beneficial to learners if the prag-

matic learning could be combined with

grammar lessons?

2. The Present Study

The aim of this study is to explore peda-

gogical solutions to raise pragmatic aware-

ness through explicit instruction focusing

on grammar. Through questionnaire sur-

veys administered to different levels and

groups of JESs, the following research

questions are analyzed:

1. How is pragmatic awareness among

different levels of JESs?

2. What could cause their lack of prag-

matic awareness?

3. Can their pragmatic awareness be

raised through explicit instruction in

grammar lessons?

The participants are 39 JESs, who are

divided into three groups. Group A is

comprised of 13 highly advanced-level

adults, including English teachers, aca-

demic researchers, professional English/

Japanese translators, and international

businessmen. Group B and Group C are

each made up of 13 pre-college inter-

mediate-level students, who have expe-

rienced a typical Japanese high school

education. While Group A and Group B

did not receive any explicit instruction

from the researcher before this study, the

learners in Group C had attended two

100-minute grammar lessons on the gen-

eral usage of modals and auxiliary verbs,

45 46


provided over two weeks by the researcher

in a typical college-entrance-test-prep-

style classroom.

In order to assess the level of awareness in

both grammatical and pragmatic aspects,

an English questionnaire was developed,

based on previous studies (Bardovi-

Harlig & Dörnyei, 1998; Gore, 1987;

Rinnert, 1995). Eight different scenarios

were introduced by a short narration, fol-

lowed by a dialog between two people.

The responses in the dialog fell into three

categories: sentences which were gram-

matical but pragmatically inappropriate

(five), sentences which were pragmatically

appropriate but ungrammatical (two),

and a sentence which was both grammati-

cally and pragmatically appropriate (one).

The examples of the above categories are

shown below:

Ex. 1 Pragmatically inappropriate

Yuka came back to the office carrying

a few bags in both hands. She ran into

her boss, Tom, at the door.

Tom: Are you okay?

Yuka: Yes, I am, but open the door for

me, please.

Ex. 2 Pragmatically inappropriate

A professor is trying to use an overhead

projector in class, and Yoko, one of the

students, is trying to help.

Prof.: I wonder what’s wrong with this

projector.

Yoko: You had better turn off the lights.

Ex. 3 Grammatically inappropriate

Sarah and Takashi are planning to go

out together this weekend.

Sarah: Let’s meet in front of Hachiko,

Shibuya at 11 o’clock.

Takashi: Great! I’m looking forward to

see you then.

The subjects were asked to judge whether

the responses were appropriate or not

and mark “Yes” or “No”. In case of mark-

ing “No”, they were requested to indicate

what they would say instead in English.

Also, for only advanced learners in Group

A, the following additional questions were

asked about their conception and prefer-

ence in communicative English learning:

Ex. 4 Do you think English uses more

direct expressions than Japanese?

Ex. 5 If there was pragmatic knowledge

which may help you improve your English

communicative skills, would you like to

learn it through explicit instruction?

3. Results

Table 1 shows the results of the Example

questions 1-3 in the survey. The lack of

pragmatic awareness in Group B (inter-

mediate-level without explicit instruc-

tion) is salient, with only three out of 13

judging “inappropriate” for the above

Example 1 (polite request using “please”)

and only one for Example 2 (suggestion

using “had better”).

47 48


More significant is the data collected from

Group A (advanced-level without explicit

instruction) with only eight judging “inap-

propriate” for the Example 1 and only

nine for Example 2, which means approxi-

mately 30%-40% of the advanced learners

show a lack of the awareness. Remember

these participants are professional English

teachers and experts, including those

with PhDs and many years of experience

living in English-speaking countries. The

findings imply that learning implicitly or

being immersed in an English-speaking

environment alone may not be effective

enough to raise pragmatic awareness.

Meanwhile, the most striking finding of

this study is in the data from Group C

(intermediate level with explicit instruc-

tion). Ten out of 13 judged “inappropri-

ate” for Example 1 and 12 for Example

2 after receiving explicit instruction,

which had been given strictly as a part

of grammar lessons. During the lessons,

the researcher had used only the desig-

nated grammar textbooks, which were

designed for college entrance examina-

tion test prep, and simply added some

oral explanations about pragmalinguis-

tic features of the modals in the material.

Still, the data shows a significant improve-

ment in their pragmatic awareness, prag-

malinguistic aspects in particular, which

accords to the findings by Thomas (1983)

as previously discussed.

Also, the response to the additional ques-

tions for Group A shows 11 out of 13 believe

that English uses more direct expressions

than Japanese, which is in line with the

previous report by Beebe and Takahashi

(1989) as one of the possible causes for

the lack of pragmatic awareness. Finally,

all of the participants indicated their

willingness to learn pragmatic aspects

through explicit instruction. This willing-

ness is most supported by the substantial

improvement in Group C’s performance,

and implies a gap between learners’ pref-

erence and classroom practices.

4. Discussion

Through this preliminary study, the

imbalance between the participants’

grammatical awareness and pragmatic

awareness was confirmed, especially

in the lower level. Also confirmed was

that the lower awareness of Group B in

Examples 1 and 2, contents of which had

been analyzed by the previous studies,

Table 1 The number of participants who judged the response as “inappropriate”

Ex. 1

Pragmatic error

Polite request

using “please”

Ex. 2

Pragmatic error

Suggestion using

“had better”

Ex. 3

Grammatical error

Gerund used with

“look forward to”

Group A n:13

(advanced,

wo/instruction)

8 9 9

Group B n:13

(intermediate,

wo/instruction)

3 1 7

Group C n:13

(intermediate,

w/instruction)

10 12 8*

*No instruction had been given for the usage of gerunds during the lessons for Group C.

49 50

JSCE - Volume 5 Issue 1 sanae oda sheehan - pragmatic awareness

suggested that teaching-induced factors

could be a major cause for the lack of

pragmatic awareness, along with the mis-

conception that more direct expressions

should be used in English. Furthermore,

it should be noted that explicit instruc-

tion did prove to be effective, at least to a

certain extent, toward raising pragmatic

awareness in the Japanese efl classroom.

The most significant finding, however, lies

in the suggestion that pragmatic learning

could be combined with grammar instruc-

tion, as is evident with the performance of

Group C. In the efl context, the gram-

mar-oriented approach is often cited as

being one of the major causes of ineffec-

tive learning. In fact, from the study of

Bardovi-Harlig and Dörnyei (1998), it can

be assumed that the focus on grammati-

cal competence could hinder the develop-

ment of pragmatic competence through

certain priorities implicitly indicated to

learners. Nevertheless, the results of this

study clearly demonstrate that teaching

pragmatics and grammar could go hand

in hand, without contradicting each other.

It is very encouraging news to both learn-

ers and teachers, especially to teachers

who struggle to accommodate the curric-

ulum needs (grammar) and the practical

needs (pragmatics).

Unfortunately, the awareness among

teachers can be still low, as shown in the

results by the participants in Group A. It

is quite understandable though, because

their conceptualization of L2 teaching

tends to be based on their own learn-

ing experience (Borg, 2003), which has

hardly involved pragmatic aspects in

many efl contexts. Having said that, I

still maintain that teachers should realize

the gravity of their students’ learning con-

sequences; pragmatic failure could cause

misunderstanding by any gatekeepers

in their future lives, and it would not be

fair if they unintentionally fell into such

communication failure due to teaching-

induced errors and blind spots in their

language classrooms.

In order to prevent such an occurrence, it

is necessary to raise pragmatic awareness

among JESs, their teachers in particular,

which will be a future topic to explore. In

terms of how, perhaps we could start work-

ing on the perceptions of both in-service

and pre-service teachers. For Japanese

teachers, it would be of great help to uti-

lize the strength of their L1 (Japanese),

demonstrating examples of L1 pragmat-

ics and reminding them that pragmatic

factors could play a crucial role regardless

of language or culture. In addition, com-

bining pragmatic learning with gram-

mar pedagogy, which is usually another

strength for Japanese teachers, may help

encourage them to start addressing prag-

matic issues in the classroom.

5. Conclusion

The number of participants for this study

is rather limited and the data analysis is

only on a preliminary basis. While the

procedure could no doubt be refined fur-

ther, I trust that the study has shed some

light on this obviously under-researched

area, allowing some pedagogical insights

and suggesting directions for future

research to take.

51 52

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Selinker (Eds.), Variation in second language acquisition: Discourse and pragmatics

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Volume 5, Issue 1

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