さいたま市教育家会ジャーナル

TheJournal of Saitama City Educators (JSCE)A さいたま市教育家会 (SCE) Publication

ISSN: 2185-7822

Volume 3, Issue 3June 2013

Editor: John Finucane

Issue Editor: Joël Laurier

Translator: Brad Semans

Proofreading: Joël Laurier

Cover Redesign by: kriszion

Find out more at: SaitamaCityEducators.org

About the Issue Editor

Joël Laurier is a French-Canadian who grew up in a predominantly English environment. He has been in Japan since 1997. He lives in Gunma with his wife Megumi and his three sons where they share three languages. He is one of the co-founders and current Vice-President of the Teachers College Columbia University Alumni Association. His interests are language policy, bilingualism, and cooperative learning.

Joël graduated from l’Université d’Ottawa / the University of Ottawa with a Bachelor of Arts (Honours) in History. He also received his Bachelor of Education (Junior/Intermediate level) from la Faculté d’Éducation de l’Université d’Ottawa / the University of Ottawa. There he received the Phi Beta Kappa Scholarship. He received his Master of Arts in TESOL from Teachers College Columbia University where he was awarded the John F. Fanselow Scholarship.

Joël is a teacher at Gunma Kokusai Academy, the first school to be granted Special Education Zone School by the Koizumi administration. He is the head of Morals Education teaching and a member of the Curriculum Development Committee.

Joël started his path in education as a full-time student representative at l’Université d’Ottawa / the University of Ottawa where he was Vice President of Academic Affairs. He was part of the Executive Committee. He was a member of the Senate Committee for Undergraduate Studies. There he discovered the need for curricular reform and the need for improvement in the education system. He started his teaching career in Canada just before coming to Japan in 1997. In Japan, he has taught all age levels and all skill levels of English speakers. He also taught Français Langue Seconde (FLS) for a few years in Gunma. His current position enables him to work with high proficiency speakers who will help change the nature of the university entrance exams in Japan.

Here are some of the articles Joël has co-authored:

Laurier, J., Taomae, E., Asakawa, M., Kanamaru, A., & Shiramizu, C. (2012). Read all About it! Studying can be a Social Activity. In S. Crofts & G. Brooks (Eds.). The 2012 Pan-SIG Proceedings Literacy: SIGnals of Emergence. (6) 155-161.

Taomae, E., Laurier, J., Asakawa, M., Kanamaru, A., Shiramizu, C. For all the reasons not to, there are (insert number of students) reasons to do Cooperative Learning. In JACET 2012 Conference Preceedings. Tokyo: JACET. 322-326.

Kanamaru, A., Laurier, J., Plaza, T., Shiramizu, C., Taomae, E. (2012). Cooperative Learning - creating more opportunities to show true student ability. In J. Finucane and M. Shannon. The Journal of Saitama City Educators (JSCE). 2(5) 22-30.

Mboutsiadis, B., Mondejar, M., Laurier, J., Valdivia, L., Sanchez, E. (2012). Application of foreign language course of study revisions in primary and secondary schools in Japan. Research Bulletin of Meisei University Humanities. 48. 97-112.

Presentations made by Joël include:

“Teenagers”. Kanagawa Sohgoh High School World Café 2012. Yokohama, Japan. 8 December, 2012.

“Cooperative Learning” Osaka JETs Skill Development Conference. Osaka, Japan. 7 December, 2012.

“Language Policy in Japan: Shifting Paradigms”. Laurier, J., Mondejar, M., Mboutsiadis, B., Sanchez, E., Valdivia, L. Yokohama JALT Chapter meeting. Yokohama, Japan. 18 September, 2011.

“A Workshop on Cooperative Learning in the Junior and Senior High School OC Classroom.” English Teachers of Japan (ETJ). Tokyo, Japan. 11 September, 2011.

When Joël is not busy chasing his kids around to violin practice or calligraphy lessons, he likes to do some mountain biking. He is an ardent believer in the wonders of cooperative learning.

Foreword

This issue is a compilation of presentations made at the first ever Gunma / Omiya joint My Share presentations. Speakers from both Gunma JALT and Omiya JALT joined forces to present on their topics of choice in two separate meetings. The first was held in Omiya in March 2013, and the second, in Gunma in April 2013. The collaborative effort of both organizations, under the tutelage of John Larson, President of Gunma JALT, and Ivan Botev, President of Omiya JALT, made this a great success.

Joël Laurier

Contents

Yukio Watanabe: Reality Makes Motivation To Study English渡辺幸男: 現実が英語学習のモチベーションを高めますPage 1

Joël Laurier: Cooperative Learning as a meaningful way to implement communicative EFL lessons!ジョエル• ロリエ: 共同学習を有意義な英語のレッスンの実施Page 5

Sylvain Bergeron: Music to My Ears: Using a Song-based Activity to Improve Basic Language Skills シルヴァン・ベルジュロン: 歌の活動を通して基本言語スキルを上達Page 9

David A. Gann: A Few Considerations on Critical Thinking Instruction デイビッド•ガン: 批判的な思考の数熟慮Page 14

John Larson: Guided Imagery: an unconventional listening exercise ジョン•ラーソン: イメージガイド:型にはまらないリッスニングPage 19

Robert Rowland: Simple Guidelines for Creating Effective Icon Based Visual Assessment Systems ロバート•ローランド: アイコンを使う視覚的な評価方法の概要Page 23

Atsushi Iida: Haiku as a form of personal reflection: A practical guideline for writing haiku in the Japanese EFL reading class 飯田敦史: 「振り返り」としての俳句活用法：英語読解クラスでの実践的アプローチPage 27

From the EditorPage 33

Reality Makes Motivation To Study English現実が英語学習のモチベーションを高めます

Yukio Watanabe渡辺幸男

About

Yukio Watanabe is retired. He is currently an advisor to new teachers. His goal is to deliver “real world” reality in his classes. He has travelled to many countries and believes the teaching materials he has made during his travels can help motivate students to study English.

Abstract

Most students don’t need English as long as they live in Japan. However, they need the ability to communicate with foreigners because so many foreigners live and work in Japan. To motivate students to communicate in English, teachers must deal with issues of culture, history, religion, and geography in English class.

要約: ほとんどの生徒にとって日本に住んでいるかぎりにおいては英語を勉強する必要性はないでしょう。けれども、外国人とコミュニケーションをする力は必要です。たくさんの外国人が日本に住み、そして働いているのですから。英語によるコミュニケーション力のためには、授業で、文化、歴史、宗教、地理等を扱う必要があります。

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This article is an anecdotal collection of some of my poignant encounters with English. Through them, I have developed teaching materials that teach students how to effectively communicate in English through cultural awareness.

When I visited Morocco in 1971, I met a 12 year old boy working as a tourist guide. His family was so poor that he had to work to help his family. He said he spoke five languages. His real life, his real situation forced him to speak foreign languages. He did not attend school, but he had a teacher named “reality” as his learning guide. Upon meeting the boy, I was reminded of the saying “Necessity is the mother of invention”.

I was born two years after World War II ended. Japan was completely devastated and was the poorest country in the world. In those days the sight of Japanese kids asking American soldiers for chocolate was very common. We shouted, “Give me chocolate” in English. The reality of our situation forced us to speak English. Today Japan has become so wealthy that the kids don’t have to say “Give me chocolate” any more. Then how do I motivate them to study English?

I used to watch a TV program titled “Wicky san’s One Point English Conversation”. It was a very popular program broadcast about 25 years ago. Every morning a Sri Lankan man named Anton Wicky appeared in the streets and interviewed passersby in English. The program was not focused on the key sentence he introduced, rather, it was on his and his interviewees’ attitudes toward communication. Since I started watching the program, I have tried to convey the same realistic communication to my students. After the program went off the air, I began to do similar interviews on my own in Australia. I acted like Mr. Wicky and interviewed people in Brisbane.

I had an amazing opportunity to attend Mr. Wicky’s lecture in Omiya in 2011. After his lecture he asked the audience if there were any questions. Nobody raised their hands. It was Japanese etiquette not to. As I do not consider myself to be a Japanese gentleman, I raised my hand and thanked him for his useful TV program because it had worked so effectively with my students. He was very surprised and seemed glad to hear what I had said. After the lecture he came to me and asked me for my phone number so we exchanged contact details.

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On the next day, I told my students what had happened to me. They were very surprised and they asked me “Why don’t you call him?” I hesitated a bit but then bravely called him on my mobile phone. My students were amazed to see and to listen to my conversation with him. One of the female students was so moved she began to cry.

This final encounter with English helped me see how effective cultural awareness could be. It happened to me when I left the city called Marrakech, Morocco. I took a taxi to a station. The taxi arrived at the station and I asked the driver how much the fare was. The driver said: “80 dollars”. It was an unreasonable fare. The dollar was worth 360 yen in those days. I was intimidated by the driver. I panicked! Then, from out of nowhere, this English came out of my mouth:

“Do you know judo? I’m a judo teacher.” “Do you know karate? I’m a karate teacher.”“How much?”

The bad driver looked surprised and his face turned pale a little. A few seconds later he said, “OK. OK”. He then gave me the correct amount. I gave him the money and dashed into the station.

You may think I was lucky. I don’t think so. Two months later, I was in Rome where I was kidnapped and pushed into a car. I immediately assessed my terrible situation. I took a deep breath and repeated the same words I used in Morocco.

“Do you know karate? I’m a karate teacher.”“Do you know judo? I’m a judo teacher.”I had to add more. “Do you know why I’m in Rome? I’ve come to Rome to teach judo and karate to Italian policemen. If I don’t come back, the Italian police will look for me.”

They believed me and I was released.

This is a true story of a real event that I experienced in Rome. Do you know why they believed what I said? Because of Bruce Lee who was a karate or martial arts master and a big Hollywood movie star. He helped me. In the 1970’s, his movies were very famous and popular all over the world. The kidnappers and the taxi driver believed that every Asian person was good at karate and judo, like Bruce Lee.

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I’ve learned two lessons from my experiences, both here in Japan and abroad, in Morocco and Rome. First, even simple expressions can have the power to work effectively if you have a strong will and if you are convinced of what you are saying. Secondly, culture has power in communication. If you have knowledge of a person’s culture, you can communicate even if you are not overly proficient in their languages. This is why I try to deal with culture, history, geography, religion in my class through the video I made and my real experiences.

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Cooperative Learning as a meaningful way to implement communicative EFL lessons共同学習を有意義な英語のレッスンの実施

Joël Laurierジョエル• ロリエ

About

Joël Laurier is a teacher at Gunma Kokusai Academy. He is a 2013 Kagan Academy Scholarship Award recipient. He was also co-recipient of the 2011 John F. Fanselow Scholarship from Teachers College Columbia University where he recently received his MA in TESOL. He is a cooperative learning trainer whose research interests also include bilingualism and language policy. Along with his eldest son Noah, he is the voice and face of the Yomiuri Kodomo Shinbum’s award-winning weekly Hello Eikaiwa feature.

Abstract

The recent implementation of the 2008 revisions to the Ministry of Education, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) course of study have placed a greater importance on the need for more communicative and interactive high school classes. EFL teachers in Japan are being asked to implement more student-centered teaching. Cooperative learning (CL) in such an approach. This paper presents the basic concepts of CL using Kagan & Kagan (2009)’s PIES analysis of cooperative learning.

要約: 近年実施された新学習指導要領にはコミュニケーションや双方向通信を重視した授業が高校での必要性を重点してます。英語の教師は生徒が中心とした授業を頼まれています。共同学習はその一つの技術とします。本文はケイガンとケイガンのPIES分析を通して共同学習の基の概念を紹介します。

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In order to remain competitive on a global scale, Japan’s Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) has revised its Courses of Study (CoS) (Hashimoto, 2011, Honna and Takeshita, 2005). All levels of the educational hierarchy are now reviewing entrenched teaching practices to increase their students’ analytical and communicative skills. In English classes, one of the main objectives of the CoS revisions is to have students use the target language (TL) in a communicative and meaningful way (MEXT, 2010; 2011). This will require a transition away from teacher-fronted classes and the incorporation of effective communicative teaching techniques. Cooperative learning (CL) is such a technique. This paper will introduce the basic principles of cooperative learning to demonstrate how it can be used to maximize meaningful communicative interaction in EFL classes in Japan.

Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning is a proven teaching strategy that uses structured group work to facilitate interaction among students to achieve team goals (Johnson & Johnson, 1994). To best succeed in attaining these goals, each member of a team is assigned their own individual task. This provides students with the social skills needed to participate more actively in their learning (Felder & Brent, 2001). Rather than having students compete with each other, cooperative learning activities provide ample structure to enable all group members to participate without the stronger students dominating or the weaker students opting out.

Kagan and Kagan (2009) use their PIES analysis to help distinguish cooperative learning activities from group work. P stands for Positive Interdependence, I is for Individual Accountability, E is for Equal Participation, and S is Simultaneous Interaction.

Positive Interdependence concerns the organization of tasks into coherent and shared goals that facilitate cooperation over competition. Individual Accountability pertains to each member’s responsibility to the group’s accomplishment of the goal through their own efforts. Equal Participation refers to the balanced distribution of opportunities between group members to achieve the group’s goals. Simultaneous Interaction ensures that a higher percentage of students are actively engaged in learning in a time efficient manner.

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The presence of these four components ensures a cooperative environment in which students can effectively learn through peer interaction. EFL classes in Japan would greatly benefit from the usage of CL. In forming peer groups, students will be learning in their Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky, 1978). As their interaction is necessary for the accomplishment of the team’s goals, each member will be more motivated to do their share of the work. This accountability, accompanied with positive support from the other group members, helps develop self confidence (Johnson & R. Johnson, 1989). Most importantly, as the team members perform their tasks simultaneously their communicative participation increases.

Conclusion

The current revisions to the MEXT’s CoS highlight a stronger emphasis on communicative skills in all curricular components. EFL teachers now have a greater responsibility for ensuring student learning. This includes teaching students how to participate more actively in their learning.

The communicative environment being sought by the MEXT cannot be achieved without significant reform to the existing system of translating texts from Japanese to English. Using cooperative learning structures ensures a higher level of success in achieving this goal.

Giving students structured tasks inherently creates opportunities to interact. With careful scaffolding, students can be taught to make these opportunities English learning ones. This is facilitated by the use of constant and positive feedback from student peers, as well as from the teacher. The positive energy in the group leads to reduced anxiety, a key factor in EFL learning.

CL is not only a teaching strategy. It is a motivational tool used by teachers to bring about a caring and supportive work ethic in the class, via the establishment of groups. Monitoring students as they participate in CL group work is easy since all students have a role to play and, by the nature of the structured activities, participate equally and simultaneously.

The MEXT’s call for the establishment of more communicative lessons in EFL classes will lead many teachers to try group work. To further enhance the educational efficiency of these groups, CL presents itself as a great strategy to get students helping themselves to a higher degree while increasing their communicative participation.

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References

Commission on the Development of Foreign Language Proficiency (provisional translation) (2011). Five proposals and specific measures for developing proficiency in English for international communication. Retrieved from http://www.mext.go.jp/component/english/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2012/07/09/1319707_1.pdf

Felder, R. M., & Brent, R. (2001). Effective strategies for cooperative learning. Journal of Cooperation & Collaboration in College Teaching, 10(2), 69-75. Hashimoto, K. (2011): Compulsory ‘foreign language activities’ in Japanese primary schools. Current issues in Language Planning, 2011, 1-18.

Honna, N., & Takeshita, Y. (2005). English Language Teaching in Japan Policy Plans and their Implementations. RELC Journal, 36(3), 363-383.

Johnson DXV., & Johnson, R. (1989). Cooperation and competition: Theory and research. Edina, MN: interaction Book Company.

Kagan, S., Kagan, M. (2009). Kagan Cooperative Learning. San Clemente, CA: Kagan Publishing.

MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology). (2010). Koutougakkkou gakushuushidouyouryou [gaikokugo katsudou] eiyaku han (kayaku) [Senior high school government course guidelines (foreign language activities) English translation version (tentative translation)]. Retrieved from http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/new-cs/youryou/eiyaku/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2011/04/11/1298353_9.pdf

MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology). (2011). The revisions of the courses of study for elementary and secondary schools. Retrieved from http://www.mext.go.jp/english/elsec/1319702.htm.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. (M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

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Music to My Ears: Using a Song-based Activityto Improve Basic Language Skills

歌の活動を通して基本言語スキルを上達

Sylvain Bergeronシルヴァン・ベルジュロン

About

Originally from Montreal, Canada, Sylvain Bergeron has been teaching EFL in Japan since 1993. He is currently teaching at Ikuei Junior College and is an M. Ed (TESOL) candidate at the University of Wollongong. His research interests include learner-centered and task-based teaching and learning. < sylvain@ikuei-g.ac.jp >.

Abstract

This paper introduces a song-based activity designed to engage EFL learners and motivate them to improve their basic language skills. Making use of the universal appeal of song and music, this beginners’ level activity is certain to entertain, enthuse and educate learners as they take part in a multi-skill listening activity.

要約: 本文は基本言語スキルを育む歌の活動を紹介します。歌•音楽の全般的な魅力を働かせて、この多数スキル聞き取り活動は初級者を面白っがせるのと、熱狂させるでしょう。

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Focusing on the popular English-language song, “Good Time” by Carly Rae Jepsen and Owl City, students will be able to assess their listening comprehension ability. In addition, students will be able to assess their reading level while improving both their pronunciation and their spelling. Finally, students will become acquainted with phonemic awareness, key vocabulary, popular expressions and cultural/generational nuances related to the theme and lyrics of the song.

Macro skills

The macro skills that will be put into practice during the activity will include listening, reading, writing, speaking (& singing!)

Special features

By taking part in a variety of tasks that support and complement each other by way of a well-structured, motivating and pedagogically-sound methodology, students will be able to improve their basic language skills. At the same time, students will familiarize themselves with a number of key language uses including but not limited to lexical, grammatical, and idiomatic components such as:

• Past tense: woke up, slept, freaked out, dropped, checked out, hopped, shopped

• Contractions: it’s, what’s, you’re, ‘cause, I’ll, don’t• Idioms: what’s up, get down, freaked out, checked out, hit the…, hang

out, • Informal colloquial: gonna• Key vocabulary: Prince, cab, ATM, twilight• Rhyming words: clothes-rose, bed-bread, hopped-shopped, room-

broom…

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Materials

This song-based activity will require the following lesson and classroom material:

• Word Box Worksheet• CD player or MP3 player • Personal computer (PC), projector, access to YouTube• White board & markers

Procedure

1. Teacher introduces the activity: Elicit students’ definition of a “Good Time” Teacher lists students’ answers on the board

2. Teacher introduces vocabulary from the “Word Box” pronunciation practice with students

3. Teacher asks students to identify rhyming pairs Teacher corrects answers with students

4. Teacher plays the song for the first time Students listen and fill in the blanks on the worksheet Students compare answers with a partner

5. Teacher plays the song a second time Students listen and correct their answers Students verify their corrections

6. Teacher explains the song in terms of content, cultural nuances, grammar, and spelling

7. Teacher plays the song a final time Students sing the song 8. Wrap up End of activity

Implications

This song-based activity has been designed to motivate students and maintain their interest throughout the lesson. The content of the ‘Word Box’ can be changed to suit the objective and purpose of the lesson. The Word Box acts as scaffolding or “a temporary and graduated form of support” (Mitchell, Myles & Marsden, 2013, p.304) to assist beginner-level learners. It can be removed to increase the level of difficulty and further challenge the students. Specific themes and song titles can be selected based on current popularity or to coincide with a particular grammatical, lexical or thematic objective. This activity can be modified to suit any level. Depending on how the teacher intends to use this type of exercise, a song-based activity

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such as this one can be completed as a main task or as a cooling down activity during the final stage of the lesson.

References

Jepsen, C. & Owl City. 26 June 2012. Web. 10 March 2013. http//:www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/carlyraejepsen/goodtime.html.

Mitchell, R., Myles, F., & Marsden, E. (2013). Second Language Learning Theories. 3rd Ed. London: Routledge.

Answer Key

1. ‘A good time’= an enjoyable period of time spent with friends (i.e. party, movie, etc.)

2. Song: 1) bed 2) hands up 3) clothes 4) hopped 5) morning 6) alright 7) phone 8) room

3. Rhyming pairs: clothes/rose; bed/bread; hopped/shopped; hands up/stand up; morning/boring

4. bone/phone; alright/all night; broom/room

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Woah-oh-oh-ohIt's always a good timeWoah-oh-oh-ohIt's always a good time

Woke up on the right side of the 1) __________What's up with this Prince song inside my head?2) __________ if you're down to get down tonight'Cause it's always a good time

Slept in all my 3) __________ like I didn't careHopped into a cab, take me anywhereI'm in if you're down to get down tonight'Cause it's always a good time

Good 5) __________ and good nightI'll wake up at twilightIt's gonna be 6) __________We don't even have to try, it's always a good time.

Woah-oh-oh-oh Woah-oh-oh-ohIt's always a good timeWoah-oh-oh-oh Woah-oh-oh-ohWe don't even have to try, it's always a good time.

Freaked out, dropped my 7) __________in the pool againChecked out of my 8) __________, hit the ATMLet's hang out if you're down to get down tonight'Cause it's always a good time

Good 5) __________ and good nightI'll wake up at twilightIt's gonna be 6) __________We don't even have to try, it's always a good time.

Woah-oh-oh-oh Woah-oh-oh-ohIt's always a good timeWoah-oh-oh-oh Woah-oh-oh-ohWe don't even have to try, it's always a good time.

Woah-oh-oh-oh Woah-oh-oh-ohIt's always a good timeWoah-oh-oh-oh Woah-oh-oh-ohWe don't even have to try, it's always a good time.

Doesn't matter whenIt's always a good time thenDoesn't matter whereIt's always a good time there

Doesn't matter when,It's always a good time then

It's always a good timeWoah-oh-oh-oh Woah-oh-oh-ohIt's always a good timeWoah-oh-oh-oh Woah-oh-oh-ohWe don't even have to try, it's always a good time.

Woah-oh-oh-oh Woah-oh-oh-ohIt's always a good timeWoah-oh-oh-oh Woah-oh-oh-ohWe don't even have to try, it's always a good time.

Word BoxWord BoxWord Box

clothes bed hopped

hands up morning rose

bone alright phone

boring stand up bread

shopped broom all night

room

"Good Time" (with Owl City)Carly Rae Jepsen

13From: http://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/carlyraejepsen/goodtime.html

A Few Considerations on Critical Thinking Instruction批判的な思考の数熟慮

David A. Gannデイビッド•ガン

About

David Gann is Assistant Professor at Tokyo University of Science. He is the Coordinator of the JALT Critical Thinking SIG. david@criticallyminded.com.

Website: http://criticallyminded.com

Abstract

In this paper the author defines critical thinking as a skill set and describes the four methods used to teach it. He argues that research involving the study of cognitive load recommends the Infusion Approach in most language learning contexts. 

要約: 本文は批判的な思考を定義し、４つの教授法を紹介します。認知的負荷の研究によると語学で「Infusion Approach」を進みます。

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I. What is Critical Thinking

Critical thinking, at its most basic level, is a method of evaluating claims. First, we evaluate a claim by questioning the reasons used to support it as the conclusion in an argument. If there are no reasons, as is sometimes the case, we say that the claim is baseless and we dismiss it. If there are reasons, we attempt to form a coherent picture of the argument: usually two or more premises and a conclusion.

The second step in evaluating a claim is to find flaws in the argument. If we determine that the premises are true and the reasoning is logical, then we say the argument is sound. Many people equate critical thinking and formal logic. However, critical thinking uses a warmer, fuzzier logic than the formal logic that makes computers work.

Critical thinking is a human activity that involves critical dispositions (Sternberg, 1985, p. 42) (Figure 1). These distinguish critical thinking from sophistry and debate. Critical thinking is a dialectical, social activity.

Figure 1. Ennis' Dispositions of Critical Thinker

The ability to:

• Be open-minded.• Take a position (and change a position) when the evidence and

reasons are sufficient to do so.• Take into account the total situation.• Try to be well informed.• Seek as much precision as the subject permits.• Deal in an orderly manner with the parts of a complex whole.• Look for alternatives.• Seek reasons.• Seek a clear statement of the issue.• Keep in mind the original and/or basic concern.• Use credible sources and mention them.• Remain relevant to the main point.• Be sensitive to the feelings, level of knowledge, and degree of

sophistication of others.

(Sternberg, 1985)

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II. What is Critical Thinking Instruction?

Critical thinking is a problematic concept to teach because it involves not teaching what to think but how to think. It involves awareness-raising and the cultivation of meta-cognitive abilities, or simply, thinking about thinking. Ennis has identified four approaches for critical thinking instruction: the General Approach, the Infusion Approach, the Immersion Approach and the Mixed Approach (Angeli, 2010. pp. 20-21). The General Approach and Mixed Approach deal with how critical thinking instruction is implemented across a curriculum. The Infusion Approach and Immersion Approach pertain to how critical thinking is taught within a single course.

The General Approach teaches critical thinking abilities and dispositions separately from the content of a course of study. In this approach you might find a curriculum with a course titled “Principles of Critical Thinking” along with other standard courses of general education.

The Infusion Approach is applied to content that is already well-understood. Here, critical thinking skills are taught explicitly. Teachers ask students to carefully consider the content, applying learned skills to domain-specific issues.

The Immersion Approach is similar to the Infusion Approach with one significant difference. In the Infusion Approach, students do not receive explicit instruction in critical thinking skills. Instead, these skills are expected to arise naturally from the discussion of the issues.

The Mixed approach, like the General Approach, is concerned with how critical thinking instruction extends across the curriculum. It is a combination of the General Approach with either the Infusion Approach or the Immersion Approach (Ennis 1997). In the Mixed-Infusion Approach one would find courses in critical thinking principles as well as courses in which explicit critical thinking instruction was provided concurrently with the subject matter. In the Mixed-Immersion Approach one would find courses in critical thinking principles as well as courses in which students engage in thoughtful discussion on the course subject matter.

Each of these four approaches has promoters and detractors. For some, critical thinking is a highly politicized interrogation of linguistically-based power inequity. There is certainly a place for this level of questioning of authority and hegemony in university. However, in most typical university ELL contexts, a judicious choice of critical thinking approaches must be

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made. Teachers use the Immersion approach for many reasons. They may lack knowledge of critical thinking skills, or, conflating the dialectic with free conversation, they may believe that critical thinking skills develop easily and naturally out of the same kind of casual talk that we engage in during our daily interactions. Teaching critical thinking via the Infusion Approach is demanding. It seems that ESL textbook publishers do not find much merit in developing textbooks based on the Infusion method and this creates the false impression that the Infusion Approach is marginal.

III. Critical thinking instruction in an L2-learning environment

Most of the research that has been done on these four approaches has been done in an L1 environment among participants in their home countries. Angeli (2010) conducted studies comparing the instruction of critical thinking in different groups via the four approaches. She concluded that critical thinking was best taught through the Immersion Approach.

Before applying Angeli's conclusions to our own teaching contexts, we ESL teachers must ask how the factors in an L1 environment change when shifted to a foreign language classroom. Unfortunately, not a great deal of research has been done examining the strengths and weaknesses of each of these four approaches in second language learning contexts.

What is important to consider is the matter of cognitive load. In view of Schmidt’s findings that “control processing associated with novice behavior, cannot be carried out concurrently with other demanding tasks” (Schmidt, 1990. p. 136), it is clear that in order to circumvent dual cognitive load, one element must be omitted. Using the Immersion Approach, explicit instruction is eliminated. Using the Infusion Approach, domain-specific language content is eliminated.

Which approach should be used then? In principle, while critical thinking is something that humans are able to do, it does not come easily. Critical thinking is to a large extent a set of skills and dispositions that require explicit instruction at the lower undergraduate level before they can be effectively applied to domain-specific topics and issues. In most university settings, doing otherwise will likely compromise the effectiveness of language instruction and result more in the transfer of ideology than the ability to think critically.

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References

Angeli, C. (2010). Instructional Strategies for Teaching Critical Thinking. Lambert Academic Publishing: Saarbrücken, Germany.

Ennis, R. H. (1997). Incorporating Critical Thinking in the Curriculum: An Introduction to Some Basic Issues. Inquiry: Critical Thinking Across the Disciplines, 16(3). 1-19.

Schmidt, R. W. (1990). The Role of Consciousness in Second Language Learning. Applied Linguistics, 11(2). 129-158.

Sternberg, R. J., & Baron, J. B. (1985). A Statewide Approach for Measuring Critical Thinking Skills. Educational Leadership, 43(2). 44-48.

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Guided Imagery: an unconventional listening exerciseイメージガイド:型にはまらないリッスニング

John Larsonジョン•ラーソン

About

John Larson is a teacher at Isesaki High School where he has been working for about ten years. He was awarded a MA in Teaching English as a Foreign Language from Birmingham University. He is currently the president of JALT Gunma Chapter. He enjoys fixing things and listening to the Grateful Dead. gunmajalt+president@gmail.com.

Abstract

Of the four language skills, reading and speaking lend themselves more easily to creative learning. Common EFL classroom exercises such as short story writing, poetry reading, and improvisational acting are testament to this. Listening, however, is both a receptive skill and also must be done in real-time, and therefore is inarguably the most difficult of the four skills to be adapted into creative activities. Furthermore, the time-constrained aspects of listening can make it very stressful. The garden-variety EFL listening exercise involves eavesdropping on a dialog in order to comprehend, and later regurgitate, specific points of information. Most teachers can easily imagine a classroom full of students; eyes screwed shut, pencils at the ready, straining to catch that one crucial word or phrase. The guided imagery activity introduced here is different - pleasantly unorthodox. It is both a creative and relaxing listening exercise for EFL students.

要約: 語学の３つの技能の中では話すことと読むことはより創造的に使えるでしょう。英語教室で使われる活動はその証拠になります。聞くことは受け身であるやリアルタイムで行うので、創造的に使うのは難しい。その上に、時間の限りもストレスの一つとすることもある。本文は創造的に聞く練習のできる活動をしょうかいします。

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Quick guide

• Key words: listen, relax, imagine• Learning English level: upper beginner and above• Learner maturity: high school and above• Preparation time: 1 hour• Activity time: 30 minutes• Materials: listening script, handout or notebooks for student

preparation and reflection, background music (optional)

Preparation

The bulk of the preparation for this activity is the creation of the listening script. There are many resources online where guided imagery scripts can be copied and used freely. However, the vast majority of these scripts are not suitable for an EFL context and use vocabulary that is out of the reach of most students. Therefore, most of these scripts must be edited excessively so they can be understood without undo effort on the part of the students. Below is a portion of an unedited script copied from innerhealthstudio.com:

"As you near the top of the mountain, you hear the stream, very close now. The path curves up ahead. You can see sunlight streaming onto the path. As you round the corner, you hear the water, and see a clearing in the trees up ahead. A beautiful look out point awaits.

"You are growing tired from your journey. Your body feels pleasantly tired and heavy. Imagine yourself walking toward the clearing and the stream. Stepping-stones make an easy path across the stream and toward the edge of the mountain. Step on each large flat stone to easily cross the small, shallow stream.    "Up ahead is a large, smooth rock... like a chair waiting for you to rest. The

rock is placed perfectly, high up on this beautiful vantage point. Sit or lie down on the rock if you wish. It is very comfortable. You feel very comfortable and at ease. The sun shines down on you."

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This is a version edited for an average Japanese high school EFL class:

 "As you walk through the forest, you are getting closer to the sound of the river. As you near the top of the mountain, you hear the small river, very close now. The path turns ahead. You can see sunlight bright on the path. "As you go around the corner, you hear the water, and you see the river. It

is small and slow and it makes a soft, deep sound.

 "Next to the river is a large rock, like a chair waiting for you to rest. Sit down on the rock. It is warm from the sun and very comfortable. The sun shines down on you. You sit on the rock, listening to the sound of the river."

As you can see, it has been changed substantially. Unfamiliar words have been replaced with more generic terms; for example, river for stream. Also, less familiar words such as sun, rock and path have been repeated to avoid confusion. Lastly, parts of the original script that are both difficult and unnecessary, such as the paragraph dealing with crossing the stream, have been cut entirely.

This editing process accounts for most of the one-hour preparation time, and the only other preparation necessary is the creation of a worksheet where students can write their reflections. It can also be beneficial to include a handful of vocabulary items on this sheet as scaffolding.

Procedure

Step 1: Hand out the reflection sheets with the vocabulary items. Alternately, if students are using writing notebooks or folders, these vocabulary items can be introduced on the board. Practice pronouncing these items and have students use dictionaries to verify their meanings.

Step 2: Begin reading the guided imagery script aloud to the students at a slow and deliberate pace. Playing appropriate nature sounds or meditative background music can make it easier for students to relax.

Step 3: After finishing reading the script, ask students to write or draw something they imagined while listening to the script.

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Variations

Shorter, easier scripts can be used without vocabulary preparation or follow-up reflection time as a warm-up or cool-down exercise.

If students are capable and comfortable, the post-listening reflection exercises can be done orally in groups.

Conclusion

This activity has many benefits and has been received with great enthusiasm in my classes. It is an authentic English listening exercise. That exercises students’ imaginations and strengthens their creativity. And perhaps most beneficially, it gives students a few moments in their busy day to relax and refresh their minds.

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Simple Guidelines for Creating Effective Icon Based Visual Assessment Systemsアイコンを使う視覚的な評価方法の概要

Robert Rowlandロバート•ローランド

About

Robert Rowland is a Head ALT Instructor in Saitama City. He leads a team of ALT Instructors who build and assess curriculum and coordinate monthly training sessions to support its citywide implementation. He also pilots the creation of new materials for this curriculum. His interests include translation, student assessment and hiking.

Abstract

Simple, intuitive assessment systems that motivate language learners to achieve curriculum goals are difficult to design.  Using icons, visual representations of what you want learners to achieve, eases this process.  This article gives practical advice for designing and building effective icon based visual assessment systems for the classroom.

要約: 生徒の動機付けする、簡単•直観な評価方法を作るのは難しいでしょう。視覚的に評価を表すアイコンを使うことにより、この経過を手軽になる。本文は有効的な評価アイコンを制作にあたっての実用的な助言をあげます。

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Motivating learners is a challenge that all language teachers face. Effectively doing so improves learner attitudes and increases the willingness to continue learning (Spada, 2006). One simple way to approach classroom motivation is through an icon based visual assessment system. Use of such a system clarifies teacher expectations as well as helping teachers praise and promote positive student behavior.

This paper lays out three simple criteria for creating an effective visual assessment system in any classroom. First, the goals of the curriculum you are using must be crystal clear to both teachers and learners. Second, your icons must follow design guidelines that guarantee that learners notice them when they are used. Finally, your icons should be tied into the goals of your curriculum in a way that helps learners make sense of them easily.

An effective curriculum looks beyond the immediate learning experience to the impact it has on a learner’s life. An effective course must be designed with a focus on creating a significant learning experience (Fink, 2003). A learning experience is significant only if a student walks away from a class changed, with the energy and motivation to further pursue the use or enhancement of acquired knowledge to better their lives.

The first step in creating an effective icon based visual assessment system is defining what skills you want your students to take from your classroom and carry for the rest of their lives. Once you have defined these skills, you must then set goals, which, through the process of their completion, equip students with these skills. Your goals must be concrete, reasonable in number, focused and varied in approachability. No two students will tackle the same problem in the same way and your goals need to reflect this fact. The icons you design and use will be visual representations of these skills and goals. If your course design reflects a clear understanding of what you want learners to achieve, you are ready to start thinking about how to design attractive, relevant and intuitive icons that will lead them there.

The most basic, success-determining element of an icon used to motivate and assess students is how easily a learner notices it. A word of praise in a noisy room is not likely to reach its target. However, if the word is carefully chosen and is paired with an eye-catching icon, learners are more likely to understand what behavior you are trying to praise and assess. To ensure maximum noticeability, icons must be designed with a high level of conspicuity. Conspicuity refers to the ease at which an object is discovered even if it isn’t being searched for (Olsen, 1996). To raise the conspicuity of your icons, choose shapes and colors carefully so that they stand out.

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Triangles and diamonds are examples of attractive, instantly recognizable shapes that are rare and therefore conspicuous against the classroom background. As for colors, choosing bright, attractive colors is a must. Yellow colors are particularly effective. Colors ranging from yellow to light green are the most attractive colors to the human eye and can be used to great effect in helping students notice icons you are using to assess and motivate them. By using unique and interesting shapes and attractive colors, you can maximize the noticeability of your icons in the classroom.

Choosing attractive colors and shapes will help your students notice your icons. Consistency in your designs will help students understand them. Consistency is the backbone of any system that communicates information visually. It adds a preconception, an understanding that gives deeper meaning to an otherwise simple visual concept. Take traffic signs, for example. The U.S. Department of Transportation (USDoT) set standards for signage down to the smallest details. Design schemes for each unique situation on the road share a uniformity that extends across shape, color, dimensions, legend, boarder, illumination and retro-reflectivity. (Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices for Streets and Highways, 2009) By creating specific themes for each situation a driver encounters, these standards ensure that the maximum amount of necessary information is communicated in a minimal amount of time. This same attention to detail can be applied in the classroom to icons used in a visual assessment system. In the same way that the USDoT uses certain shapes and colors to theme road signs, using specific colors or shapes in your icons to represent certain skills or behaviors you wish to praise and assess in students helps create consistency and makes them easier to understand at a glance.

! To maximize the effectiveness of your icons’ ability to assess and motivate learners, you must be sure to give them proper context in the classroom. Think carefully about the timing and frequency of icon use. If you use your icons out of context, learners will not recognize them for what they are: waypoints along the road to larger goals. Similarly, if you over use icons, their effect can be numbed and they’ll lose their cognitive potency. Measured use of icons to motivate and assess students quickly and intuitively will ensure that your message of praise and assessment reaches your students as intended, when intended.

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Implications

Using an icon based visual assessment system can help reshape your classroom in many positive ways. It can help you communicate difficult goals and concepts simply and quickly to learners. Your praise and encouragement will reach a wide range of learners regardless of language ability. Learners will build a clear understanding of the progression of skills they are building and goals they are achieving through your curriculum. All of these things will help you foster a positive classroom atmosphere of achievement in which all learners feel like they fit in, which has been proven to effect learner attitude and motivation positively. (Brown & Bigler, 2002).

References

Lightbown, Patsy M & Spada, Nina (2006). How Languages are Learned (3rd ed.) Oxford: Oxford University Press

Fink, L. D. (2003). Creating Significant Learning Experiences San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Olsen, P. L. (1996). Forsensic Aspects of Driver Perception and Response Tucson: Lawyers & Judges Publishing Company.

U.S. Federal Highway Administration, Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices for Streets and Highways (MUTCD), 2009, http://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov.

Brown, C. S., & Bigler, R. S.  (2002). Effects of minority status in the classroom on children’s intergroup attitudes in Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 83, 77-110. 

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Haiku as a form of personal reflection: A practical guideline for writing haiku in the Japanese EFL reading class

「振り返り」としての俳句活用法：英語読解クラスでの実践的アプローチ

Atsushi Iida飯田敦史

About

Atsushi Iida is Assistant Professor in the University Education Center at Gunma University where he has taught first-year and second-year English courses. He was awarded his Ph.D. in English (Composition and TESOL) at Indiana University of Pennsylvania, PA, USA. His research interests include poetry writing in a second language, literature in second language education, scholarly publication in a second language, and English for Specific Purposes. <a.iida@gunma-uu.ac.jp>.

Abstract

The aim of this article is to explore the use of haiku as a form of personal reflection on English language learning. It starts with the review of some issues of Extensive Reading (ER) in L2 contexts and explores how to integrate haiku writing into an extensive reading activity. It also provides a step-by-step procedure for writing haiku as a reflection on an ER book.

要約: 本稿の目的は、英語学習における「振り返り」としての俳句活用法を考察することである。本稿では、多読活動での問題点に触れながら、英語読解クラスでの俳句活用法を議論し、俳句作成ための実践的なアプローチを提案する。

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One of the problems with English reading courses in Japan is the teaching/learning style of English as a foreign language. Teachers are dependent on the grammar-translation method in the classroom and students make a special emphasis on input (e.g., the memorization of lexical items) in their language learning. For that reason, students have little opportunity to write and speak practical English. To make matters worse, very few students study the notion of voice at the secondary level: what voice is; how it is expressed in the text; and why it is important. It means that Japanese students, in general, are not properly taught to express their voices in English. In this context, it is necessary to discuss how teachers can incorporate a writing task as a way to express voices into the reading classroom.

This article aims to expand the discussion of a reading-writing connection in L2 contexts. It will address some issues of Extensive Reading (ER) and provide a practical guideline for teaching haiku composition as a form of personal reflection in the reading class.

Issues of extensive reading in L2 contexts

Many teachers and researchers believe that ER is a useful language activity in second language (L2) education. Previous studies have indicated that ER has a positive impact on reading comprehension, the increase in reading speed, and the acquisition of the lexical and structural knowledge of the target language (Yamashita, 2008).

When teachers incorporate ER into the reading class, they are faced with certain issues. One issue is how to set a goal of an ER activity. A principal concern is exactly how many words students need to read during a semester in order to improve their reading skills. The second and foremost issue is that of credibility. Language teachers may wonder if students really read books. Some teachers use a Moodle Modular Quiz to gain credibility; others have students write a book report or keep a book journal. These follow-up activities are important, but they go against the philosophy of ER, which is “reading for pleasure”. These activities provide students with little opportunity to produce their own ideas or opinions on the content of a book. Of particular importance in reading class is getting the students to understand the content, reflect on the story, and produce their own voice.

The use of Japanese poetry can help solve this issue. According to Iida (2010, 2012a), haiku - a short, three line Japanese poem with a specific number of syllables in each line, consists of the writer’s voice reflecting on

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both internal and external worlds of the individual. Haiku is based on the writer’s reflection on his or her real-life experience. In this sense, the application of this concept into the EFL classroom will provide students with the possibility to expand their use of literary genres in L2 development and more importantly, to construct a new pedagogical approach for making reading-writing connections in English language learning.

Teaching haiku writing in the reading class

Various approaches for teaching the writing of haiku are applicable in class. Some students may have difficulty in composing haiku (Iida 2012b) and it may take time to finish writing their first one. The instructor should simplify the writing process as much as possible. It is important to show students how to write and to explicitly teach them the skill in class. This section describes a practical guideline for writing haiku as a form of reflection on the story of ER books by modifying Iida’s (2010) social-expressivist framework for teaching haiku composition.

Reading an ER book

Students choose and read one ER book. The aim of this activity is to read for pleasure. Students choose a book they can read without having to use a dictionary. When the students often look up words in a dictionary in the reading process, the instructor may ask them to change the book and choose an easier one. This follows Nation’s instructions on how to choose an ER book (Nation, 2008).

Reviewing the concept of haiku

A composing haiku exercise starts with a review of the textual and structural features of haiku. The instructor explains that haiku is not a simple sketch of writers’ observations but rather their direct, personal responses to their experiences. Students must understand the main purpose of the activity, which is to develop their own voice on the basis of their experience of reading ER books.

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Collecting material for haiku

Each of the students chooses one particular scene from their ER book. Some students may choose the most impressive scene; others may choose the climax of the story. Then they describe it in their own words. It is important to describe the detail of the scene by answering the following questions:

• Who are the characters?• What is happening?• What is your impression of the scene?

Composing a haiku

Students use their description to compose the first haiku. Although they have a lot of information from the previous activity, students may still have no idea about how to start the haiku. The instructor gets students to consider what they really want to say. Students sit in groups to help each other arrive at the most suitable expressions to write their feeling toward the scene. Adjustment to the haiku structure requires students to come up with similar vocabulary options to fit into the 5-7-5 syllable pattern. The instructor can help here by encouraging them to search for synonyms, a technique commonly used for producing haiku.

Peer-review

Peer reading is effective because it provides students with an opportunity to understand how an audience interprets and reacts to their voice. After students divide into groups, each student reads his or her haiku aloud twice, while their group members note their interpretations of the haiku. Next, they explain why they feel one way or the other about the haiku. The writer of the haiku then reveals what he or she wanted to express in the poem. In this way, each student has a chance to understand the difference between his or her intentions and the readers’ interpretations. It is important to discuss in groups what changes each writer needs to make in order to accurately convey their voices.

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Revising the haiku

Students revise their haiku based on the feedback they received in the peer review. The instructor asks students to confirm that the revised poem follows the haiku structure and more importantly, whether it reflects the writer’s individual impression of the story of an ER book.

Implications

This article demonstrated the use of haiku as a form of personal reflection in the reading class. Language teachers know that reading is an important skill for students to learn to use the target language, but they should become more aware of the teaching for developing productive skills. From the aspect of written communication, reading and writing are inseparable skills. It is therefore crucial to reconsider how language teachers can make reading-writing connections in their English class.

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References

Iida, A. ((2010). Developing Voice by Composing Haiku: A Social-Expressivist Approach for Teaching Haiku Writing in EFL Contexts. In English Teaching Forum (Vol. 48, No. 1, pp. 28-34). US Department of State. Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, Office of English Language Programs, SA-5, 2200 C Street NW 4th Floor, Washington, DC 20037.

US Department of State. Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, Office of English Language Programs, SA-5, 2200 C Street NW 4th Floor, Washington, DC 20037.

Iida, A. (2012a). The Value of Poetry Writing: Cross-genre Literacy Development in a Second Language. Scientific Study of Literature, 2(1), 60-82.

Iida, A. (2012b). Writing Haiku in a Second Language: Perceptions, Attitudes, and Emotions of Second Language Learners. Sino-US English Teaching, 9(9), 1472-1485.

Nation, I. S. P. (2008). Teaching ESL/EFL reading and writing. Routledge.

Yamashita, J. (2008). Extensive Reading and Development of Different Aspects of L2 Proficiency. System, 36(4), 661-672

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From the Editor

A Chaidre,

Volume 5 of JSCE uses Issue Editors for the first time. Issue Editors are responsible for gathering submissions, proofreading and liaising between contributors and the JSCE Editor. Thanks to the hard work of Joël Laurier, Issue 3 provides a great model for a collaborative event.

Thanks to: Ivan Botev, John Larson and Brad Semans.

JSCE wants your contribution. To find out more, or to get involved, contact the Editor at: contact@saitamacityeducators.org

Le Meás John

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