uk_bl_ethos_373477
Transcript of uk_bl_ethos_373477
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SHEAR STRENGTH AND BEARING CAPACITY
OF REINFORCED CONCRETE DEEP BEAMS
by
Kam Kau WONG B. Sc. (Eng. )
A thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements
of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
at
Department of Civil Engineering
The University of Leeds
August. 1986
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1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author mould like to take this opportunity to express
his appreciation and gratitude to all those who in some may
have contributed to the research work herein presented. In
recognition of their individual contribution to this study the
author would additionally like to express a special thanks to:
Professor A. R. Cusens, Head of the Department of Civil
Engineering, forgranting
theauthor
theopportunity
to
undertake this study and for his supervision, guidance,
comments and patience given throughout it;
The Oversea Research Council and Tetley/Lupton for
supporting this work through the award of research studentship
and scholarship;
Hr. V. Lawton and his technical staff for preparing and
arrangement of the experiments;
Hr. R. Vuxbury, Hiss H. Y. N. Lam and Hiss C. Dahl for
preparing and processing the photographs;
Hy brothers Hr. S. Wong, K. N. J. Hong and K. N. H. Flong for
developing their own word processing package, COHET - Customers
Orientated Mathematical Expression Text-formater, particularlyfor this dissertation.
Finally, the author would like to thank his parents fortheir encouragement and supports.
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11
ABSTRACT
Reinforced concrete deep beans with small span/depth
ratios usually fail by crushing of concrete in the bearing zone
above the supports. In order to increase the load carrying
capacity of deep beans, bearing strength around the supports
should be enhanced.
The first part of this study involved the investigation ofbearing capacity of plain and reinforced concrete blocks.
Effects of edge distance, footing to loading area ratios,heights, base friction and size effect are studied with plain
concrete blocks. Bearing capacities of reinforced concreteblocks with different forms, diameter and spacing of
reinforcement are also investigated. It is found that
interlocking stirrups at small spacing are the most effectiveform of reinforcement. A failure mechanism for a concreteblock in bearing is proposed and found to give the best
estimate as compared with other models by different
researchers.
The second part is concerned with the behaviour of
reinforced concrete deep beans with span/depth ratios rangingfrom 0.7 to I. I. These beans were tested under uniformlydistributed load at the top. It is found that a shear crack is
formed along the line joining the inner edge of the support to
the third point at the top level of the bean. The concreteblock on the outer side of the crack rotates about the centre
of pressure in the compression zone. Shear strength is
determined by shear in the compression zone, aggregateinterlock of the shear crack and dowel action and the
components of forces of reinforcement across the crack. Based
on these observations, a model of the failure mechanism in
shear is proposed which gives excellent results in comparisonwith other models proposed.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION................................................ 11.1 GENERAL................................................. 1
1.2 OBJECTIVE............................................... 2
1.2.1 BEARING CAPACITY OF CONCRETE BLOCKS...............
21.2.2 DEEP BEAMS
........................................ 31.3 OUTLINE OF THESIS
....................................... 3
2 LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE BEARING CAPACITY OF CONCRETEBLOCKS
...................................................... 52.1 INTRODUCTION
............................................ 52.2 BEARING CAPACITY OF PLAIN CONCRETE
...................... 62.2.1 STRESS DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE BEARING ZONE
.......4
2.2.2 INTERNAL FRICTION THEORY OF SLIDING FAILURE...... 142.2.3 EMPIRICAL FORMULA................................ 21
2.2.4 PLASTIC ANALYSIS................................. 2b
2.3 BEARING CAPACITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE................
282.4 SUMMARY
................................................ 4c)
3 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON THE BEARING CAPACITY OFCONCRETE BLOCKS
............................................ 443.1 INTRODUCTION........................................... 443.2 PLAIN CONCRETE BLOCKS
.................................. 443.2.1 SERIES E
......................................... 453.2.2 SERIES R-H
.......................................
45
3.2.3 SERIES S ......................................... 463.2.4 SERIES B......................................... 46
3.3 REINFORCED CONCRETE BLOCKS-SERIES R................... 46
3.4 MATERIALS & THEIR PROPERTIES........................... 50
3.4.1 MATERIALS........................................ 5D
3.4.2 MIX DETAIL....................................... 50
3.5 CASTING AND CURING..................................... 52
3.6 CONTROL SPECIMENS...................................... 52
3.7 INSTRUMENTS AND TEST PROCEDURE......................... 53
3.8 BEHAVIOR OF TEST....................................... 57
3.8.1 GENERAL.......................................... 57
3.8.2 SERIESE......................................... 583.8.3 SERIES R-H
....................................... 603.8.4 SERIES S
......................................... 6D3.8.5 SERIES B
......................................... 663.8.6 REINFORCED CONCRETE BLOCK - SERIES R............ 69
4 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS - BEARING CAPACITY OF CONCRETEBLOCKS
..................................................... 744.1 INTRODUCTION........................................... 744.2 BEARING CAPACITY OF PLAIN CONCRETE BLOCKS
..............74
4.2.1 EFFECT OF EDGE DISTANCE...... ..... ..........
744.2.2 EFFECT OF HEIGHT AND LOADING AREA RATIO
..........
79
4.2.3 SIZE EFFECT ...................................... 844.2.4 EFFECT OF BASE FRICTION
.......................... 854.3 REINFORCED CONCRETE BLOCKS
............................. 884.4 CONCLUSION
............................................. 96
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iv
4.5 PROPOSED SOLUTION..................................... 102
4.6 COMPARISON WITH TEST RESULT...........................
1054.6.1 PLAIN CONCRETE BLOCKS
.... ......................105
4.6.2REINFORCED
CONCRETE BLOCKS ...................... 128
5 LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE SHEAR STRENGTH OF REINFORCEDCONCRETE DEEP BEAMS
.......................................131
5.1 INTRODUCTION..........................................
1315.2 ELASTIC SOLUTION...........................
.............5.3 EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE DEEP
BEAMS................................................. 1375.4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE
DEEP BEAMS............................................ 149
5.4.1 PORTLAND CEMENT ASSOCIATION [72,19461........... 1495.4.2 DE PAIVA AND SIESS [69,1965]
.................... 151
5.4.3 RAMAKRISHNAN AND ANANTHANARAYANA 1737........... 1525.4.4 COMITE' EUROPEEN DU BETON - FIP (17]........... 1545.4.5 ACI COMMITTEE 318
............................... 1555.4.6 KONG 140,45]
.................................... 1575.4.7 CIRIA GUIDE 2 E68,1977]
......................... 1585.4.8 AL-NAJJIM [63]
.................................. 1605.5 SUMMARY
............................................... 165
6 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON THE SHEAR STRENGTH OFREINFORCED CONCRETE DEEP BEAMS
............................ 1696.1 INTRODUCTION
.......................................... 169
6.2 DESCRIPTION OF TEST SPECIMENS ......................... 1696.3 MATERIAL AND MIX DETAIL............................... 170
6.4 CASTING AND CURING..... .............................. 172
6.5 INSTRUMENTS AND TEST PROCEDURE........................ 175
6.6 BEHAVIOUR OF TEST..................................... 181
7 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS - SHEAR STRENGTH OF REINFORCEDCONCRETE DEEP BEAMS
....................................... 1937.1 INTRODUCTION
.......................................... 1937.2 STRAIN DISTRIBUTION ON CONCRETE SURFACE
...............193
7.3 STRAIN DISTRIBUTION IN REINFORCEMENTS.................
1997.4 DEFLECTION............................................ 202
7.5 SHEAR TRANSFER BY AGGREGATE INTERLOCK AND DOWELACTION................................................ 203
7.6 PROPOSED FAILURE MECHANISM OF REINFORCED CONCRETEDEEP BEAMS
............................................ 2157.7 COMPARISON WITH TEST RESULTS
.......................... 2237.8 RECOMENDATIONS FOR THE DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE
DEEP BEAMS............................................ 240
7.9 SUMMARY............................................... 242
O CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER RESEARCH............
2458.1 BEARING CAPACITY
......................................245
8.2 DEEP BEAMS ............................................ 2478.3 SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER RESEARCH.......................
249
APPENDIX A.........." .................................... "
250APPENDIX B
................................................300
REFERENCES................................................ 332
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V
PRINCIPAL NOTATION
A Cross-sectional area of the beam.
a Width of the concrete blocks.
ai Width of the loading plates.
Ab Sectional area below the reference plane.
A Sectional area of main forcement.S
A Areaof vertical web reinforcement.wv
Awh Area of horizontal web reinforement.
b Breadth of the concrete blocks.
bi Breadth of the loading plates.
by Apparent width of the modified end-blocks.
C Cohesion of concrete.
Co Cohesion of concrete at effective pressure, p=O.
D Diameter of the footing of the concrete blocks.
d Effective depth.
Df Dowel force.
ATs Loss of tensile force towards the support due to the
present of vertical reinforcements.
ea Eccentricity of loading along the side width a.
eb Eccentricity of loading along the size width b.
fa Aggregate interlocking stress.
fb bearing strength of the concrete blocks.
f, Cylinder strength of concrete.
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fcu(100) Cube strength of concrete obtained from 100 mm cubes.
fcu(150) Cube strength of concrete obtained from 150 mm cubes.
ft Tensile strength of concrete estimated by splitting
cylinder tests.
ft(pri.)
Tensile strength of concrete estimated by rupture
tests.
Ec Young Modulus of concrete.
H Overall heightof
thespecimens.
hb Depth of the section below the reference plane
Hw Asw/b-Sh
fL Restraining stress.
fxx Direct stresses along the direction of the x-axis.
fyy Direct stresses along the direction of the y-axis.
fxy Shear stresses.
L Span.
Lc Clear span; distance between the inner edges of the
supports.
i Second moment of inertia of the section of the beam.
Ib Second moment of inertia of the section below the
reference
Ie Influence factor of bearing capacity of concrete
block width eccentricity loading.
M Bending moment at critical section of the beam.
Sh Spacing of horizontal web reinforcement.
Sv Spacing of vertical web reinforcement.
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vii
T Tensile force of the main reinforcement.s
V Shear force at the critical section of the beam.
v Shear strength.
vc Shear strength taken by concrete.
vs Shear strength taken by steel.
V Ultimate shear force.u
VA /(b-S )W 5V V
p Effective normal pressure on the shear plane.
Pc Cracking load.
Ph Uniform horizontal pressure along the wedge form
below the bearing plate.
P Ultimate load.u
R Footing to loading area ratio.
Wa Distance of the loading position from the edge of the
blocks.
X Shear span.
Xc Clear shear span; clear distances between the outer
edge of the bearing plate and the inner edge of the
supports.
Xe effective ahear span.
y Depth of the bar, measured from theto the point where it interests theinside edge of the bearing blocks ofthe outside edge of that at the load
y0 Depth of the compressive zone from
beam.
top of the beam
line joining the
the supports to
ing point.
the top of the
z Lever arm at which the reinforcement act.
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viii
E Yield strain of the reinforcement.Y
E Shear strain.xy
Txy Shear stress.
w Angle of internal friction.
a Semi-apex angle of the wedge formed beneath the
loading plate,
p Volumetric % of lateral steel.
AS -fY/a -b -fc
Coefficient of friction.
47ex
Applied direct stresses.
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i
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
CHAPTER 1
A deep beam may be defined as a structural member whose
depth is of the same order of-magnitude as its span. Various
investigators have shown that the elastic behaviour is
different from that of the more common flexural mambers. This
difference in behaviour is mainly attributed to the significant
effects of vertical normal stresses and shear deformations in
these members. The strength of deep beams is usually
controlled by shear, rather than flexure, provided normal
amounts of longitudinal reinforcement are used. On the other
hand, the shear strength of deep beams is significantly greater
than that predicted using expressions developed for slender
beams. As reinforced concrete structural members are nowadays
being increasingly designed on the basis of their ultimate
strength, there is a need to know the ultimate behaviour and
strength of deep beams as well.
Although a clear division between ordinary flexural member
and deep beam behaviour does not exist, most literature [457
dealing with this subject recognizes deep beam action at
span/depth ratios less than 2.0 and 2.5 for simply supported
and continuous members respectively. However, for beams with
span/depth ratios less than 1, its load carrying-capacity is
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2 CHAPTER 1
usually determined by the bearing strength in the region above
the supports 112,13,533 rather than shear.
In order to investigate the shear strength and behaviour
of deep beams with span/depth ratios less than 1, the behaviour
of bearing zones above the supports should be understood first.
This thesis is divided into two parts for this purpose, the
first part deals with the investigation of bearing capacity of
concrete blocks and the second part is concerned with the shear
strength of deep beams with span/depth ratios less than 1.
1.2 OBJECTIVE
1.2.1 BEARING CAPACITY OF CONCRETE BLOCKS
The behaviour and ultimate strength of bearing capacity of
plain and reinforced concrete blocks is studied. Special
attention is paid to the following:
(1) Effect of the loading position: position of the loadingpoint from the edge of the block (edge distance).
(2) Effect of footing to loading area ratio, R.
(3) Effect of the height of the concrete block.
(4) Effect of the size of the specimen (scale effect).
(5) Effect of the friction at the base or supporting edge of
the concrete block.
(6) Effect of form, diameter and spacing of reinforcement used.
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3 CHAPTER 1
Based on the experimental behaviour a failure mechanism is
proposed for the load-bearing concrete blocks.
1.2.2 DEEP BEAMS
Deep beams with span/depth ratios ranging from 0.7 to 1.1
are studied. Attention is focussed on the crushing of concrete
above the supports. The investigation is concentrated on the
following areas:
(1) Surface crack formation and development of crack width.
(2) Distribution of strain on the concrete surface.
(3) Distribution of strain in the reinforcement.
(4) Verticaland
horizontal deformation.
1.3 OUTLINE OF THESIS
The first part of the thesis, concerned with the bearing
capacity of concrete blocks, is dealt in Chapters 2 to 4. The
second part about the shear strength of reinforced concrete
deep beams is covered in Chapters 5 to 7.
For a better understanding and to provide a background
knowledge of the subject, a literature review is necessary.
Chapters 2 and 5 are respectively the literature review of the
bearing capacity of concrete blocks and of the shear strength
of reinforced concrete deep beams.
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4 CHAPTER 1
Chapters 3 and 6 are concerned with the manufacture,
instrumentation and testing of specimens for bearing capacity
of concrete blocks and deep beams respectively.
Results obtained from experiments are detailed in
Chapters 4 and 7 together with discussion and a proposed model
of failure mechanism both in bearing capacity and shear
respectively.
Chapter 8 is a summary of the findings of this
investigation with a number of suggestions for further
research.
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6
way to improve its capacity.
The bearing strength of plain and reinfoi
received attention from researchers since
elastic analyses are limited in value by the
of concrete and the complexity of stress in
Different researchers have different ways of
problems. The methods used will be discussed
2.2 BEARING CAPACITY OF PLAIN CONCRETE
CHAPTER 2
'ced concrete has
1888. However,
brittle behaviour
the bearing zone.
approaching these
below.
2.2.1 STRESS DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE BEARING ZONE
The state of stress in the bearing zone is of an
exceedingly complex three dimensional nature. This stress
distribution is due to the very high compressive stress, and is
influenced by many factors, such as the relation between the
area over which the load is applied and the size and shape of
the cross-section of the unit. For the designer, a knowledge
of the distribution of stresses in the bearing zone is
essential for detailing, to ensure that adequate steel is
provided and properly placed to sustain these stresses, as well
as any other bearing or shear stresses that may be present.
The firstapproach
to thecalculation of stresses
in
blocks subjected to concentrated loads was based on some tests
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7 CHAPTER 2
preformed by Marsch in 1924. The following assumptions were
made:
<1> The stress due to a concentrated load are uniformly
distributed at a distance equal to the width of the
prism.
<2> The curvature of the trajectories causes tensile
stresses, the latter being distributed according to a
parabolic law.
The distribution of the compressive stress trajectories
deduced by Mörsch is shown in fig. 2.1. According to the
figure, compressive stresses are uniform over the loaded area
and the remote end of the end-block. It can be seen that
Z= P(a-al)/4H (2.1)
and if the tensile stresses are distributed according to a
parabolic law, then the maximum tensile stress for a
rectangular prism of breath b is
ft = 3Z/2ab (2.2)
However, the assumption of a parabolic law is based on the
measurements of transverse strain by Kruger [20) but Kruger
measured the strains at three positions only, from which he
constructed a parabola representing his view of the stress
distribution. Since any curve can be drawn through three
points, this assumption may not be true. To obtain the
cracking load according to the above formula, the actual
tensile strength of the material should be found. MGrsch also
advises a correction of the depth of block, h, as shown in
fig. 2.1(c), and he suggests that it is more important to use
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p 04
a-I a)
Fýg. 2.1.
c hri. i7a
1
0
va
17
C)i0ö
a
.925a
, r0.875 a
01-0 0.386a 0.5a 0.675a 1.00
vertscol stressdi.strt, but: on
(b) (c3
Stress tra jectorL. es Ln Morsch' s theory.b Tenstie stress dtstrLbutt, on.c Ret ati on between h and a.
4X- width b
45; 1
______a______
e
1 transverse
1 stress
11
I1
I öl
shear -stress
öl H
tenstion1I
on,
a
t al I bl
Ft, g. 2.2 (a) Structural model proposed by Magnet.(b) Transverse and shear stress dt.strLbutt, ons.
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9 CHAPTER 2
high-strength concrete for the blocks than to employ large
amounts of reinforcement.
Another method of computing the principal tensile stresses
in the end of a prestressed concrete beam is given by
Magnel (55,56] as shown in fig. 2.2. He assumed that at a
particular reference plane AB, the transverse stress, fxx due
to the bending moment M, and shearing force S is distributed in
a parabolic curve of the third degree as in fig. 2.2(b). By
means of the boundary condition, the transverse stress can be
calculated and will be a maximum at 0.5a from the contact area.
Similarly, the shear stress can be calculated using the
appropriate boundary conditions. On the assumption that the
pressure under the anchorages of the cables disperses at an
angle of 45 degrees into the end of the beam, the distribution
of longitudinal stresses can also be calculated. In this way,
the principal stresses can be found. The beam will fail in the
condition that the principal stress reaches the maximum tensile
strength of the concrete. Fig. 2.2(b) is an example of the
stressdistribution
ofthe
anchorage block estimated by Magnel.
Bortsch (81,82] made one of the earlier theoretical
approaches to the problem of bearing capacity as well as stress
distribution in structural units under concentrated loads. He
assumed the load distribution on the contact area of the
loading plate as a cosine function as shown in fig. 2.3. From a
stress function analysis, the transverse, longitudinal and
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10 CHAPTER 2
shear stresses can be calculated. The maximum transverse
tensile stress f
yy
occurs at a distance of 0.2 to 0.3a from the
contact area which is different from those predicted by Magnel,
and it is in a range of 0.38 to 0.45P/a for R between 10 and
20. At a distance of 1.7a from the end of the block, the
tensile stress disapear, being 0.055P/a at x/a=1.0 .Bartsch
deals with large values of R>20 and does not give any
indication as to whether his theory can be used for values of R
approaching unity.
Another theoretical approach to the problem of calculating
of the stresses in the anchorage zone is by Guyon (26,27].
Fig. 2.4 represents the sectional elevation of the end beam with
bearing surface AB and plane CD. They are in equilibrium under
the action of forces on CD distributed linearly, and the forces
on AB, concentrated on small area with P1 and P2 as resultants.
In addition, the following conditions must be satisfied for
equilibrium to be maintained.
<1> According to the St. Venant principle and from
experimental verification by photoelasticity thatbeyond a certain distance from the end of the beam
approximately equal to the depth of the beam, the
stresses are almost entirely longitudinal, the
transverse stresses can be neglected.
<2> The resultant of the stresses fyy along EF must be
zero.
<3> The sum of the moments of the stresses fyy about a
point in EF must equal the sum of the moments of theforces acting on EB and FC.
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11
U
a
Ft.g. 2.4
C
Sectt. onal, el, evatt on of end beam by Guyon.
tenat. e
0.5p
0 0.4p
ö -r-- -r- -r- - --r
°a 0.3p'r -I-ý- --r--- -----I-------I-
äi ýý6 Iyl
i0.2p 4- t
° O. p--ý-
ýy- --1-
o4(s
3o/2 2a
Ft.g. 2.3 Load- dt.strtbutLon Ln Bortsch's theory
q/2 aCa)
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12 CHAPTER 2
<4> The resultant of the shear stresses, fxy must equal the
resultant of the horizontal forces applied to BEFC.
Considering the above boundary conditions by using Fourier
series as a stress function, Guyon (5,6) gives six tables for
the calculation of stresses fyy, fxx and fxy caused by the
forces in the anchorage zone. The variation of fyy along the
axis for various value of ai/a is shown in fig. 2.5(a). The
tensile stress contours for diffferent degrees of concentration
of the applied force are shown in fig. 2.5(b) to (d). It is
interesting to note that, in addition to the tension produced
deep in the block along the line of action of the force, there
are tensions near the surface in the two corners; this will be
referred to as the spalling zone and the tensile region along
the axis as the bursting zone. However, recent photo-elastic
tests [83) as well as the tests on concrete units show that
Guyon under-estimated the stresses.
Bleich [81,82] made use of an Airy stress function F and
considered the boundary conditions. For a two-dimensional
problem, he was able to calculate the vertical, horizontal and
shear stresses successfully. In the case of the applied load
shown in fig. 2.6, the tensile stresses calculated are shown in
fig. 2.7. Sievers 19] presented an approximate formula for the
three dimensional condition shown in fig. 2.8 which satisfied
the boundary condition. He modified the two-dimensional stress
distribution developed from Bleich's accurate solution with the
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T0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
c 0.3
0.2
0. i
0
X
P
2b1t
13
V
IIa) (b1
Ft.g. 2.6 LoadL.ng condttt, on tn 6Let. ch's theory.
IiI
1I Iý1ýI
611
- -1_II__
.O" 1--L -I-
1--I- --L -I-1I I
-I-
--II-
-1-I-
-I--1-1---i--t-L--I-
IIIIII1I
--I--t -1- lg-1 -- -ý1--I-i-ý
-1-
--1 -L-I-iI11.
d. 9
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Ot.etance fron anchorage end
Ftg. 2.7 Tensile stress di.strt. butt. on by BLet.ch's Theory.
r
C.
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14
following assumptions:
CHAPTER 2
<1> The actual inner stresses at a distance of (a-x) from
the beam end are taken equal to those in a modified
end-block having the apparent width of b=bx obtained by
two-dimensional analysis.
<2> The apparent width of the modified end-block is given
by
-O. Birn
bx = b1 - (b-bl) (i+2.5nq) eq (2.3)
<3> The applied load is considered to be uniformlydistributed on the area ai. bx
It has been confirmed by three dimensional photoelastic
tests that this formula agrees fairly well with the
experimental distribution.
2.2.2 INTERNAL FRICTION THEORY OF SLIDING FAILURE
A number of tests have been carried out by
Meyerhof E59,1953] to investigate the bearing strength of
concrete and rock. The results indicate that the material
generally fails, depending on the magnitude of the confining
pressure, by splitting or shear along one or several rupture
surfaces. The failure condition can approximately be
represented by the relation for the shearing strength C, of the
material.
C= Ca +p -tan'r (2.4)
where Co = shear resistance per unit area for p=O.
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15 CHAPTER 2
p= effective normal pressure on the shear plane.
-e = angle ofinternal friction.
Consider a strip load of width ai acting concentrically on
a concrete block as shown in fig. 2.9. On failure, a wedge of
material is found immediately beneath the footing with a
semi-apex angle equal to a, fig. 2.9(b).. By considering the
equilibrium of half of the wedge and assuming that the
horizontal pressure, Ph causing the splitting of the block is
uniformly distributed along the wedge. The horizontal
splitting pressure can be obtained as
Ph = fb2"tan2a - 2-C0-tans, (2.5)
assuming a triangular distribution of tensile stresses to
resist the bending moment produced by the horizontal splitting
pressure, fig. 2.9(a). Substituting in Eq. 2.5, the unconfined
prism strength is
f' = 2C -cotes (2.6)co
which can be simplified to obtain the ultimate bearing
stress, fb
fb 2H/a1-cotta " ft. cota
-=i+ (2.7)f" (OH/ai-cota) -f'
For large ratios of H/al
fb/fc =1+ ft-H/(4Co-al) (2.8)
By differentiating Eq. 2.7 with respect to a, the minimum value
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16
of fb/fý can be obtained as
CHARTER 2
fb/f' =2+O. I5H-ft/ (ai -fl) (2.9)
which is the lower bound for bearing strength to cylinder
strength ratio. It can be seen that the bearing capacity of
surface footings is directly proportional to the ratio of block
thickness to footing width H/ai. Moreover, experimental
results show that the bearing capacity of the mass blocks is
somewhat greater than the theoretical estimates for a small
ratio of block thickness to footing diameter (H/D); this
difference may be explained by the lateral confinement of the
material due to frictional restraint on the base of the blocks,
which had been rejected in the analysis. For large ratios of
H/D, the ratio of the bearing capacity to the prism strength
(fb/fý), tends to a limiting value of 7 which is given by the
present analysis for shearing failure with w=45 degree. If the
width is increased the bearing capacity of the mass blocks is
less than the theoretical estimate on account of premature
failure bysplitting.
Wheresplitting of the material is
prevented, the bearing capacity can be estimated from the
theory. It increases rapidly with the size of the block and
approaches the limiting value of 24 times the cylinder strength
for a footing on a semi-infinite solid. However, tests carried
out by Muguruma 0627 and Niyogi 1657 indicate the opposite
result: bearing capacity decreases as the height of the block
increases, particularly for those with small values of the
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17 CHAPTER 2
ratio R (footing area/loading area). Probably this is due to
the non-linear distribution of tensile stresses, Ph as the
height of the block increase.
Tests were conducted by Tung Au [6,7,19603 to determine
the bearing capacity of concrete blocks with R ranging from 2
to 16 and with depth equals to either full (series A) or half
(series B) width of the block. It was found that, in series A
at failure, a vertical crack which started at the top of the
block progressed downward indicating splitting due to sliding
failure. The maximum load was reached after the formation of
an inverted pyramid. For those in series B, the blocks were
split radially and in most cases, no clear-cut pyramids were
observed. Cracks usually appeared first at the bottom of the
sides and progressed upward. This indicate that splitting was
caused by radial pressure resulting from large deformation of
concrete under the base plate and the depth of the block is not
enough for the formation of an inverted pyramid. He assumes
that the block will split diagonally as it is loaded with a
square plate, fig. 2.1O. Based on Meyerhof's proposal, Eq. 2.5
can be obtained. Again, with the assumption of the uniform
horizontal pressure Ph along the wedge, the horizontal
splitting force F can be calculated. This force produces
combined direct tension and bending in the concrete block with
a stressdistribution
as shownin fig.
2.10(e). The maximum
tensile stress at the top of the block can be computed as
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Ph
-4
LqJ re°,2
18
°14_Ph0/2octo
!
P-h
octalftý'+ýOOcc!
urIfs
ý-a
c ai c bi c a)
FLg. 2.9 Structural model proposed by Myerhof.
1-
9
wii
l o)
02/2a,
1
FU
IIN
PH
II ýI0
y01
0t b)-
(c)
direct stress bendLn8 stress
-bendi. ng stress
Ftg. 2. i0 Structural model proposed by Tung Au.
tb°h
Co
2stnoCF0
i_ý_
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19
ft = Ph/K*coto
where
'' a1Z 1y- a1/6 cotoc
k4AY
CHAPTER 2
(2.10)
(2.11)
and A= area of the diagonal section of the block except the
wedge,
y= position of the neutral axis from the top,
I= second moment of inertia of area A about the neutralaxis.
By substituting in Egs. 2.9 and 2.5, the bearing strength
to cylinder strength ratio can be obtained as
fb1fý =t 2C0/fý -* K-ftIf ') -cots (2.12)
It was found from experiment that the half apex angle a varies
from 19 to 25 degs. approximately. As both cots and K are
sensitive to small changes in the value of a, the results from
Eq. 2.12 are too scattered to justify. Moreover, at high
pressure, the stress distribution along the depth of the block
becomes non-linear and Eq. 2.1O no longer applies. Therefore,
Eq. 2.12 only gives an approximate solution. Nevertheless, it
provides a rational basis for relating the empirical constants.
A dual failure criterion for concrete is adapted by
Hawkins 130-32]. For regions subject essentially to tension,
the governing factor is assumed to be maximum tensile stress.
For regions subject essentially to compression, failure is
assumed to be due to sliding along planes inclined to the
direction of principal stress. The limiting stress on the
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20 CHAPTER 2
failure plane is again taken as
C= Co + p-tan' (2.4)
Consider a specimen of rectangular section loaded as shown in
fig. 2.11. A failure wedge ABC is formed and punched down into
the crack. For the equilibrium of the wedge
fb = fý + 2Fo-cotm/al (2.13)
The force F0 depends upon the resistance offered by the block
to the penetration of the crack. Lenschow and Sozen £521
assume that
2.41ft, Wa + 11.8M0 /Wa
. -f 4R%"Q 'c. a-t,
l1.8L/W + 7.84a
where L is the measure of the crack length shown in
fig. 2.11(b). Mo is the moment about the crack line DE. The
magnitude of Mo depends on the position of spalling crack FG.
Mo is approximately given by
Mo = fb -ai -Wa2 /2H - fb -a12/a (2.15)
By substituting Eq. 2.14,2.15 into 2.13 gives
if2.41ft-Wa+5.9a1 -Wa-fý/T-1.49a12-fc/Wa
fb = fc +-
al L (11. GL/Wa+7.84)tanm/2-5.9Wa/T+1.49a1/Wa
(2.16)
At collapse the rate of change in the force F0 with increase in
length L equals the tensile strength ft. Differentiation of
Eq. 2.13 gives
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21 CHAPTER 2
d (fb)2d
(Fo) 2ft
_- tans- = tans (2.17)d (L) a1 d (L) a1
Differentiation of Eq. 2.16 w. r. t. L and substitution into
Eq. 2.17 give a quadratic expression for L/Wa for which the
positive root is
L Wa 0.25a1
WT -tanoc W -tansaa
F a1-fc (a1\2 14.5
+ 0.291 2.41+5.91 -1.48(-) 1-0.664
1 T-ft \Wa! 1 (2.18)
The value of T can estimated by
` 3W W < a/6
a aFor sym. load....
T=i
l a/2 W > a/6a
SW W < a/3a a
ecc. load....
T=i1a W > a/3 (2.19)
a
2.2.3 EMPIRICAL FORMULA
Shelson E76] has carried out tests on twenty-one Bin.
cubes loaded through a mild steel base 1/4 in. thick and 1.0,
1.41,2.0,2.93 and 3 in. square respectively. He found that
the maximum bearing pressure increased as the ratio of footing
area to loading area increased as shown in fig. 2.12. For a
relatively low value of R, the bearing capacity increases
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22 CHAPTER 2
considerably as the ratio R incrased. As R becomes larger the
ratio of bearing capacity to the compressive strength tends to
have a limit of 5, which corresponds to the case of loading of
a semi-infinte footing. Fig. 2.12 has been plotted together
with a comparable curve obtained from the specifications of the
ACI Code with a factor of safety of 4. It indicates that the
Code provides a more than ample margin of safety at the higher
ratio of R, but for low values of R, which are more common in
practice, the margin of safety is not good enough. A more
reasonable design formula has been proposed by Shelson 1767 as
(fig. 2.12)
T
fb/fc = 0.25 F7 .3 (2.20)
It follows the actual failure curve more closely than the ACI
Code requirement. At the lower end, this curve provides a
permissible stress in accordance with the Code and for higher
values of R, the curve remains quite conservative but certainly
represents an improvement.
Tests have beencarried out
by Kriz[49], through 39 plain
concrete specimens loaded with different edge distances and
plate sizes. He found that the bearing strength was
proportional to the square root of f which in turn is related
to the concrete tensile strength. Bearing strength was
influenced by the width of the bearing plates and by the
distance of the bearing plates from the edge of the specimen
(edge distance, Wa). Splitting failure occurred when the
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23 CHAPTER 2
distance was more than 40 mm., otherwise there was shear
failure along an inclined plane extending outward from the
inner edge of the bearing plate. For plain concrete specimens,
a proposed formula was used to calculate the bearing strength
as
fb=5.73 f'05
(Wa/al)1/3 (2.21)c
To investigate the effect of height of concrete block upon
bearing capacity, concentrated loading tests were carried out
in two series by Muguruma [627. Series I had rectangular
section 250 x 150 mm, with three different heights of 500,250
and 150 mm. Specimens having 200 x 200 mm section were adopted
with five different heights, from 100 to 400 mm, in series II.
Series I specimens were loaded with a rectangular plate so that
load was distributed uniformly throughout the thickness of the
block b, while in series II a square plate was used for
applying concentrated load. An empirical formula was derived
from the results of these tests,
7.61H/a-3.54
16.44H/a-6.65fb 1/(6.67H/a-2.91) + 0.71 ) -ft-R (2.22)
This empirical equation is applicable to the prediction of the
bearing capacity of concrete of relatively high compressive
strength about 40N/mm2. It was noted that the effect of height
becomes important as the value of R become smaller.
It is suggested by Niyogi [65,66] that the bearing
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24 CHAPTER 2
capacity of a specimen is influenced by
<1> The geometry of the block and loading condition,(a) the dimensions of the loaded surface of specimen
relative to those of bearing plate,(b) relative height of specimen defined as ratio H/a,
(c) eccentricities of loading, expressed as e/a and
e/b,<2> The bearing area,<3> Mix proportions and strength of concrete,<4> Size of the specimen.
Tests of over 100 blocks with dimensions varied from
0.5x8x4 to 24x8x24ins, under strip load and eccentric load,
with rectangular and square bearing plates, were conducted.
The effect of eccentricity on bearing capacity of the concrete
block was also investigated by loading the concrete block with
unaxial and biaxial eccentric load. As a result of the tests,
it is seen that the cube-root formula considerably
underestimates the bearing strength for square loading and
somewhat overestimates the strength for strip loading.
Fig. 2.13 gives a plot of results of the experiment. It can be
seen that for R less than 8 the bearing strength decreased with
increasing height of the specimens. This was probably due to
<1> The reduced influence of base friction as the height ofthe specimen increased and,
<2> the size effect.
But with R greater than 8, shallow blocks had lower
bearing strength. This reduction was perhaps caused by
increased concentration of vertical reaction at the bottom of
specimens, leading to an equivalent localized loading condition
from both top and bottom. Finally, the ratio of the bearing
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6
r5p
p4
3
Läz
ii
0
25
11111111
--y-t--I
r Test curve
I J.F 'T -F
11Pro Deed
ý-wt th softy factor B4
ICI Code T
- -i - r- w th. aafty factor 4i
20 40 60 80 100
Foott.ng area/Loaded area
Ft,g.2.12 Bearing strength to area ratio. Shelson.
3.0
R-162.5
R-12
2.0R-8
0
_1.5 R-6
R-4
!. 0R-2
0.5
00.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
H/a
( a) ( b)
Ft.g. 2. i3 Influence of bearLng strength by thehet.ght of the specimen. Nt.yogt..
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26 CHAPTER 2
capacity to the compressive cylinder strength of a concentric
load concrete block can be estimated by
fb [abi[ /a b110.5
-=0.421- +-+11-0.291 (-- -) + 5.06fc [a1 b1 jL
\a1b1/ 1 (2.23)
The influence of eccentricity on the bearing capacity of the
concrete block can be represented by the influence factor Ie
I /e eb, 2 10.5 ea eb
ie = 2.36 [ 0.83 - ka b/ )j-Ü. 44 (b)-1.15a
(2.24)
2.2.4 PLASTIC ANALYSIS
Coulomb's failure hypothesis was presented in 1773, in
which it was assumed that the internal cohesion is constant and
the internal friction is proportional to the normal pressure on
the sliding surface £21]. This assumption was formulated
mathematically by Mohr (1882) as
C= Co - p-tanw (2.25)
and can be represented diagrammatically as shown in fig. 2.14(a)
For uniaxial compression
fc = 2CQ"cot' where a= 45-w/2 (2.26)
Coulomb's -failure hypothesis can be supplemented by another
hypothesis (the separation failure hypothesis) in which, the
failuresurfaces move away
fromeach other perpendicular to the
failure section, provided the biggest tensile stress is equal
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27 CHAPTER 2
to the separating resistance ft, i. e. of=ft. This hypothesis
can also be represented diagrammatically in fig. 2.14(b).
Consider a plane homogeneous deformation field occurring
in a narrow zone of height 6 between two rigid parts, marked I
and II in fig. 2.15. Part II moves V in relation to part I
making an angle p to the direction of crack. The internal work
per unit length along the line of discontinuity is
f'-V(1-sing)/2..................... oe<e
W=i sins-sineI f'-V(1-sinp)/2 + ft-V-
.... o>e
L 1-sine (2.27)
A block is loaded with strip load as shown in fig. 2.16(a). A
wedge of materialwith an apex angle
2m is formed beneath the
loading surface, it fails by sliding along the surface.
Splitting failure is found along the vertical crack.
The-internal work corresponding to the
wedge is W. = f*-V-ai (1-sines)/2 (2.28)ILW
vert. crack is Wie = 2fß-V(H-ai-cot(K/2)-sin(p+v) (2.29)
External work done by the load is
We = fb. ai. V. cos(a+v) (2.30)
By equating the internal and external work we find
fb =
f.[1-sin'r,
/2 + ft-sin(a+, r)[2H-since/a1-coso
(2.31)
sins - cos((X+w)
For minimum fb
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28 CHAPTER 2
2H-cosw/al 10.5
cots = tans + secaI1 -1-f'(1-sin(x)/2f
t-sin'r"j
fb
(min)= ft(2H-tan(2p+v)/a1 - 1) (2.32)
If the loading plate is too near to the edge of the specimen it
fails by shearing off the corner as shown in fig. 2.16(b).
Similarly, by considering internal and external work, we obtain
fb = f'-(2Wa
+a1)/2a1 (2.33)
(min) c
2.3 BEARING CAPACITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE
Shizuo Ban C9] has performed tests of eighteen specimens
to investigate the effect of transverse reinforcement upon the
cracking and ultimate loads. He used mortar blocks 20.8 ins.
in length and 7.1 by 4.75 ins. in cross-section, loaded with
an anchorage plate of 0.5 ins. thick from 2x2 to 6x4 inches in
plan. The permissible stress for concrete in tension was
assumed as 1/3 of its tensile strength determined by tensile
splitting tests of 6x12 ins. cylinders. Spiral reinforcement
was arranged in the tensile overstress region based on Bleich's
two-dimensional solution. It was found that spiral
reinforcement was the most effective way to increase the
bearing capacity of concrete particularly as the size of
anchorage plate becomes larger. The initial cracking load (not
the ultimate load) was approximately proportional to the
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29
11
ýv II
p;
TII
ýý
oc
a -90
ta)
1.4
I .2
ea
ia
1.0
z':
t
x
Ft.g.
2.15 Deformatt.on
ft, eLd tn pLastLc anal, sts.
( b)
Ft.g.
2.16 Loodtngcondttt. on in ptastt. c andysi. s.
1IIi ý'
1
1Iý
1I1
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
P- ULtt.eate Load ofRet.nforced concrete.
Pa - ULti.nate Load of
PLa.n concrete.
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30 CHAPTER 2
cylinder strength fC of concrete.
For the purpose of obtaining the effects of spiral
reinforcement on the bearing capacity of concrete block,
concentrated loading tests on the 200mm cube specimens having
different percentages of spiral reinforcement were tested by
Muguruma [62]. The ultimate bearing capacity became larger
with increase of spiral diameter of reinforcement but there was
no obvious increase in the initial cracking load. However,
when the losing area A' became smaller in comparison with the
concrete sectional area A" inside the spiral reinforcement
little increase of bearing capacity was to be expected, because
sliding failure would take place or there would be shear
failure of the concrete just under the base plate. The
ultimate bearing capacity increased in proportion to the
percentage of reinforcement as shown in fig. 2.17. The use of
spiral reinforcement with a smaller diameter of steel was more
effective in increasing the ultimate load capacity as well as
the initial cracking load. Moreover, circular spiral
reinforcement was more effective than square spiral
reinforcement to resist bearing and cracking.
Niyogi E67] also performed tests in reinforced concrete
blocks. All tests were with 8 in. concrete cubes which were
reinforced with either spiral steel or reinforcing mesh. Two
spiral sizes were used of large and small diameter extending to
full or part depth of the cubes. The numbers of turns for the
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31 CHAPTER 2
spirals were varied. Nominal vertical reinforcement was
provided to hold the lateral steel. The percentage of lateral
steel for the specimens was calculated on the basis of total
volume of the lateral steel against the volume of the cubic
specimen. Different types of reinforcement are shown in the
diagram below, fig. 2.1B. It is noted that the cracking
strength in general improved with the provision of
reinforcement. Large spiral (B, BH) appeared to be more
effective against cracking than other forms. Spiral of small
diameter (S, SH) did not increase the resistance of the
specimens against initial cracking. Cracking loads of
specimens with larger bearing plates were influenced to a
lesser extent by the provision of reinforcement than with
smaller plates. In general, the higher the volumetric
percentage of lateral steel the greater was the increase in
bearing capacity by reinforcement for a particular ratio R.
The increase in the bearing strength was probably the result of
the effective spreading of the concentrated load over the
concrete. With spiral reinforcement the increase was due to
the increase in compressive strength of the confined core of
concrete induced by the lateral steel under load. Thus, the
bearing strength of spirally reinforced concrete compared to
that of plain concrete of similar quality may be expressed as
n(reinft)/n(plain) =1+ K-p (2.34)
where p= volumetric % of lateral steel,K may be taken as 55 for all variation of R.
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32
Q0 0 QoQ-aI
29t
8-Type S-Type BH-Type SH-Type
0oDDBS-Type BSH-Type
GS-Type DG-Type
F ,g. 2.18 Forms of ret, of orcement tested by N .yogi. .
^--1
1------ -
P
Mo
(V I
Y,
Ya
V,
4&-bs'. szone
t-Referenceone
P
Pz
V
1
( b)
X
(c)
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33 CHAPTER 2
Lenschow C52] proposed a failure mechanism for the
concrete block subjected to concentrated load. The
distribution of transverse stress in the anchorage zone of a
beam subjected to a concentrated load acting parallel to the
longitudinal axis is pictured in fig. 2.19(a). The deflections
of fictitious springs inserted across the longitudinal cuts in
the beam were related to the transverse stresses. The
transverse tensile stress across the. axis of the load was
referred to as the 'bursting stress' while the transverse
tensile stress across any other longitudinal plane was called
the 'spalling stress'. The physical analogue for the anchorage
zone of a beam is shown in fig. 2.19(b) to (d). The prismatic
beam shown in fig. 2.19(b) is subjected to a concentrated load P
and could be represented by the beams in figs. 2.19(c) and (d).
Fictitious springs inserted represented the concrete and
resisted the deflection of the outer parts of the beam.
According to the physical analogue, the maximum spalling stress
for a rectangular section is
f= -2 "d-Mo/b
"hb2 (2.35)
and the maximum bursting stress is
fbc = Mo/b-hb2 (2.36)
The force of a single concentration of transverse reinforcement
at the surface of the spalling zone with tensile strength of
the concrete neglected was expressed as
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34 CHAPTER 2
r11
Fo -M 1ý (2.37)
L 9Ec - Ib y/Ab "G - 3W/Mo j
where Ec = Young Modulus of concrete,
Ib = Second moment of inertia of the section below the
reference plane,Ab = Sectional area below the reference plane,
hb = depth of the section below the reference plane.
The effect of the concrete tensile strength can be
recognized by modifying F0 as
F1 = Fo[1-
Ec. Ib/K- (b "ft/Mo)2]
(2.38)
The effect of transverse reinforcement on the bursting crack
varies drastically with the position of the reinforcement. It
is advisable to use light stirrups at close spacing. The force
in the reinforcement in terms of force per unit length f0, can
be expressed as
fo = Mo (1-ft/fb) /hb2 (2.39)
Jensen Cab] has considered the problem of an upper bound
plastic solution using a failure mechanism. This type of
failure is frequently observed in lightly reinforced blocks and
known as splitting failure. He made a number of tests on
200 x 200 x 400 mm blocks with reinforcement perpendicular to
the direction of the load as in fig. 2.20. A sliding failure
occurred alongthe
sides ofthe
wedge and a separationfailure
along the vertical line. By considering the external work done
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35
-I
V2 V2
0
(a) (b)
Ft,g. 2.20 SLi at ng and separatLon faLLuremec an sm y nsen.
q_j F
r- 7A, f
Fýg. 2.2i reent orcedf cconcreteel, oca.
for
-1 ýI-A, fu
AA
cß/2
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36 CHAPTER 2
by the load and
reinforcement, the
could be expressed
and the angle of in
fb
f'C
where
the internal work by the concrete and
bearing capacity of the reinforced block
in terms of the degree of reinforcement I
ternal friction w as
4.1-sin(ß+') -sing + (1-sinv')
(2.40)
2cos(p+') -sin©
11 + 4"j1-cosy/(1-sinn) - sin', ']0.5
tang = (2.41)4"ý/(1-siný") + cos'r
For high I the above equation can be estimated by a straight
line
fb/f' = 2.6.1 + 1.2 (2.42)
Nielsen 164] considered the rotational equilibrium of a
quarter block acted on by vertical load and uniformly
distributed reaction at mid-height of the original block, and
maintained in equilibrium by horizontal compression near the
load and tensile forces in the transverse steel as in fig. 2.21.
It can be calculated that the ultimate load can be expressed as
Pu = t-bi-hi/(a-ai)2 where t= 2As-fy/bi-hi (2.43)
He concluded that with the light reinforcement provided, the
carrying capacity depended on the compressive strength and not
the tensile strength of the concrete.
Al-Nijjam [63) proposed a model based on Nielsen's model
with some modifications. Fig. 2.22(b) shows the state of
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37 CHAPTER 2
internal forces assumed as an equilibrium system with the
vertical load at the top and a triangular stress di stribution
on AA at mid-height of the original block, instead of the
uniform distribution stress proposed by Nielsen. When the
block was heavily reinforced, an upper limit of the bearing
capacity could be expressed as
fb/fý = (a/a1)1/3
(2.44)
When the reinforcement was lighter, the equilibrium conditions
of fig. 2.22(b) could be maintained with a2<a and for these
cases the bearing capacity could be related to the reduced
dimensions
fb/f' = (a/a2)1/3
(2.45)
Referring to fig. 2.22.
cote = e/z = (a2/b-a1/4)/z (2.46)
and also cote = 2A -f /P (2.47)5yu
Equating these, a` = 12z-As-f /P + 3a1/2 (2.48)y u
By substituting in Eq. 2.45
/(a12-bi "f b) + 3/2]1/3b/fý =[12z-As-f
(2.49)y
Therefore the bearing capacity can be expressed in form of a
4th degree polynomial.
(fb/f ')4-
3fb/2f' =1 (12z/al )c
(2.50)
with the limitation fb/f' < Ca/a111/3 (2.51)
It is noted that the influence of reinforcement at a distance
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38 CHAPTER 2
greater than a/2 from a load is very small and may be neglected
from the calculation.
Tests by Kriz 1493 were made of 185 reinforced columns
subjected to loads distributed across their width through steel
bearing plates. The specimens were divided into seven groups
with different forms of reinforcement.
Group I pecimens were reinforced with 4 no. 5 bars ofintermediate grade. The vertical reinforcement
was tied with no. 2 ties spaced 8 ins. centre to
centre. The lateral reinforcement at the top ofthe column consisted of a welded grill with two
cross bar and 2,3,4 or 5 lateral bars as shownin fig. 2.23(a).
Group II -Vertical colum reinforcement consisted of 4
no. 11 bars with fy = 90,000psi.
Group III -Ties were omitted.
Group IV -Both vertical column reinforcement and ties wereomitted.
Group V Two to three layer of lateral reinforcement were
provided with spacing of 2 ins., fig. 2.23(b).
Group VI -Ties and bars are bent as in fig. 2.23(c).
Group VII -Specimens were reinforced laterally by 5 no. 4deformed bars welded to two bearing plate as infig. 2.23(d)
.
Specimens with bearing plates at the edge of the column
failed along an inclined plane similar to those observed in
plain concrete specimens. Group II to VI failed by crushing of
concrete underthe bearing
plates.The
modifications madein
the reinforcement in group II and VI had only a small effect on
the behaviour of the specimen. Omitting of ties or vertical
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SomeStag Bawrl
8
!. 5'
Saga Sýza B
w"
L
Group I. Wetded Group V.Welded Lateral. Group VI. BentLateral. Rei.nt Rei.nt. *.n Layers Laterd Ret.nt.
(a) (b) (c)
[ «1iI
'
C1 1=7
3/2'
I
39
Ti
Ti... 8'cc
i/4' x0' x3'L
2 PLomng
Anchorage
5Bars / 5Bars/
i/4'x2 HR
iý
I
42'--!
I
5/8 Butt
Wetd
li"
E----12'--I
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40 CHAPTER 2
bars resulted in increased propagation of cracks, while
additional layers of lateral reinforcement contained the
cracking in the top of the columns. The lateral reinforcement
apparently had no effect on the bearing strength when the edge
distance was less than 40 mm. Empirical formulae were derived
from the tests to be
fb = 5.73f'0.5_(Wa/a1)1/3.11+0.198C1(As1/b)H/V](1/16) (2.52)c
where
F0..... Wa < 40mm.
c1=1l2.5
.....Wa > 40mm.
H= Horizontal force,V= Vertical force,
Ast = Cross-section area of lateral steel.
This agreed with the experimental results with a slight
under-estimation.
2.4 SUMMARY
(1) Magnel 155,567 found that the stress distribution of an
anchorage block in the direction of the anchorage force
was as shown in fig. 2.2b.
(2) Bartsch [81] assumed a cosine function of load
distribution on the loading plate and found that the
maximumtransverse tensile
stress occurred at a distance
of 0.2 to 0.3a from the loading surface. Tensile stress
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41 CHAPTER 2
gradually diminished further away from the loading plate.
(3) Guyon [26,273 made use of Fourier series to obtain a
stress distribution of the anchorage zone as shown in
fig. 2.5a. He also constructed six tables for the
calculation of stress under different loading conditions.
(4) Bleich (82] used Airy stress functions to find the
distribution of anchorage stress in fig. 2.7. By
introducing an apparent width (Eq. 2.3), Sievers modified
Bleich's two-dimensional solution for three-dimensional
used.
(5) Based on the shear strength of concrete, Eq. 2.4 and the
assumption of uniform distributed horizontal splitting
pressure along the wedge, tleyerhof [59] and Tung Au [6,7]
worked out their failure model of reinforced concrete
bearing blocks (Egs. 2.7 and 2.10 respectively). Meyerhof
stated that experimental bearing strength was greater than
theoretical estimates, especially in blocks with small H/a
ratios, due to the presence of base friction which had
been neglected in the analysis. From his calculations,
bearing capacity is directly proportional to height/width
ratio, however tests carried out by Muguruma and Niyogi
indicated the opposite result; this is probably due to the
non-uniform distribution of tensile stress Ph.
(6) Tung Au's [6,77 formula only gives approximate bearing
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42 CHAPTER 2
strength of concrete blocks, because of the variation of
a.
(7) A Dual failure mode of tensile separation and shear
sliding was adopted by Hawkins E30-323. Bearing strengths
of concrete block can be estimated by Eq. 2.16.
W) Empirical solutions were used by Shelson E76], Kriz (49],
Muguruma 162] and Niyogi (65,66]. Muguruma's formula is
the only one which takes account of the height of the
specimens.
(9) Plastic analysis can be used to find the bearing strength
of concrete by equating the internal energy and external
work, Egs. 2.32 and 2.33.
(10) Shizuo Ban 19] and Niyogi (65-67] stated that spiral
reinforcement is the most effective way to increase the
bearing capacity of concrete blocks.
(11) Myguruma (62] suggested that spiral reinforcement with
smaller diameter of steel and with comparable area inside
the reinforcement to the loading area is an effective way
to improve bearing capacity.
(12) Lenschow 152] proposed a failure mechanism for concrete
blocks subjected to concentrated load and arrived at a
solution for the maximum spalling and bursting stresses to
be calculated by Eqs. 2.35 and 2.36 respectively. Forces
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43 CHAPTER 2
on the transverse reinforcement are given by Eqs. 2.37 and
2.38.
(13) Nielson E64] and Al-Nijjam E63] proposed a model based on
the equilibrium of internal stresses in the bearing
blocks.
(14) Kriz's 149] empirical solution (Eq. 2.52) is based on the
tests of a large number of specimens with different forms
and amount of reinforcement.
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44 CHAPTER 3
3 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF THE BEARING CAPACITY OF
CONCRETE BLOCKS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this investigation, an attempt has been made to study
experimentally the factors affecting the bearing capacity of
concrete blocks. Experiments comprised two phases; plain and
reinforced concrete blocks.
3.2 PLAIN CONCRETE BLOCKS
The bearing capacity of plain concrete blocks is mainly
dependent on:
(1) The distance of the load to the nearest edge of the block(edge distance, Wa),
(2) The ratio of the footing area to the loaded area, R,(3) The height to width ratio of the blocks, H/a,(4) Size of the blocks,(5) Effect of base friction, and
(6) Strength of the concrete.
The effect of the strength of the concrete on the bearing
capacity of the blocks was not specially investigated in these
experiments. Twenty six concrete blocks were subjected to
concentrated load applied over their full breadth by a steel
bearing plate. The block tests were divided into four groups.
The first (series E) was designed to investigate the effect of
edge distance. In the second group (series R-H), specimens
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45 CHAPTER 3
were used to explore the relationships between the ratio R and
H/a and the bearing capacity of the blocks. The effects of
size and base friction were studied by the third (series S) and
the fourth group (series B) respectively.
3.2.1 SERIES E
This series consisted of three blocks with constant
dimensions, 100 mm. thickness, 1000 mm. depth, and 1260 mm.
overall length. They were placed vertically and loaded with a
steel bearing plate of 50.8 mm. width, 100 mm. long, and
50 mm. thick. Each block was loaded twice, once on each edge
of the block. Edge distance, Wa varied from 30 to 280 mm.
3.2.2 SERIES R-H
Sixteen blocks with constant width 400 mm. and thickness
100 mm. were cast. Their heights were varied with 200,400,
800, and 1000 mm., which corresponded to H/a ratios of 0.5,
1.0,2.0, and 2.5. They were loaded concentrically with 4
different sizes of steel bearing plate across their full
breadth. The widths of the bearing plates were 6.35,25.3,
50.8 and 101.6 mm. which give values of R as 62.99,15.81,
7.87 and 3.94 respectively.
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46
3.2.3 SERIES S
CHAPTER 3
Concrete blocks of 3 different sizes were included in this
series of tests. They varied from 100 mm. to 200 mm. square
with corresponding thicknesses from 12.5 to 50 mm. They were
loaded concentrically with a bearing plate size from 12.7 to
25.4 mm. so as to give a constant ratio R equal to 7.87. For
each size of
the specimen, three blocks were tested and the
average of their ultimate load was taken.
3.2.4 SERIES B
The effect of the base upon the ultimate bearing strength
is believed to depend on (1) the footing to loading area ratio,
(2) the height of the blocks. These effects were demonstrated
by the testing of 4 blocks. They had constant width, 400 mm.
and thickness 100 mm. but with two different heights of
1000 mm. and 200 mm. They were loaded with two sizes of
bearingplate
101.6 mm. and 6.35 mm. width. The friction at
the base was reduced by using a sheet of 2.4 mm. thick PTFE
placed at the bottom of the specimen when it was tested.
3.3 REINFORCED CONCRETE BLOCKS-SERIES R
A series of 8 blocks with dimensions 1260 x 1000 x 100 mm.
were cast. They were reinforced at two corners with different
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47 CHAPTER 3
forms of reinforcement. Each corner of the block was loaded
separately, with a steel plate 101.6 x 100 x 50 mm., one after
the other. Blocks were denoted as RI to R8 as shown in
fig. 3.1. In order to distinguish between each end, R1/1 and
R1/2 were used to represent block R1 with END 1 and END 2
repestively. A similar arrangement was used for the other 7
blocks.
RI/1, R1/2 and R2/1 were reinforced in such a way as to
investigate the effect of the diameter of the stirrups on the
bearing capacity of the concrete. R2/2 showed how the block
behaved if the reinforcement was placed closer to the surface.
R3/1 and R3/2 had almost the same cross-sectional area of steel
as in R2/1. They were reinforced with closely spaced thinner
steel and were used to study how the spacing of the
reinforcement affected the bearing capacity of the blocks.
Forms of the stirrups were studied in R4/1 and R4/2. The
effect of the spread of reinforcement was investigated by R5/1
and R5/2.
The eccentricity of loading did
strength of concrete. For plain concri
already been done with blocks El to
concrete, it was investigated by blocks
unreinforced in order to gain an idea of
the reinforcement.
affect the bearing
ate, experiments had
E3. For reinforced
R6 to R8. RO/1 was
the effectiveness of
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Nt01
tD
N0(O . lfÖ CIO40 ý»TCt]
N0
I. . 000
ýý
_
-ý os
-+EO
w
U9Q
m
0
W
N
C3
W
1
NCu
1f0
IUD
Qm1
.Jj
48
rcocc
Cucc
0CO
CC
8N
Ip X
QI 111
I-'V"'
CO
N
ClZ
rufý(Ö
Nt0
1Dcc1D
Cu NIG intC
ulxto
"I
"I
"I
"I
"I
LJ
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TEXT BOUND INTO
THE SPINE
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N
to1
'' IwOm
N
¢10N
-1111-
49
tocc
0CD1
CDPi
Nx(0 mto
cr
NW1
toccQ
C,
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50 CHAPTER 3
3.4 MATERIALS & THEIR PROPERTIES
3.4.1 MATERIALS
Cement Ordinary Portland cement conforming to theBritish Specification was used throughout.
Coarse Aggregate North Notts quartzite gravel with a
maximum size of 10 mm., 'irregular' shape
and 'smooth' surface texture as classified
by British Standard, BS 812.
Fine Aggregate Air-dried sand from the same quarry as the
coarse aggregate was used. It wasclassified zone 3 according to BS 882.
The grading curve for the fine and coarse aggregates are
shown in Fig. 3.2.
Reinforcement Although deformed bars were commonly used
in practice, plain round mild steel barswere chosen as their strain can be
measured easily and more accurately. Ifdeformed bar is used instead of plainbars, a safer structure will b- resulted.A typical stress-strain curve and strengthproperties are shown in fig. 3.3.
3.4.2 MIX DETAIL
The first specimen, El was cast using mix proportions by
weight i: 2.68 : 3.85 with water/cement ratio of 0.65. This
gave 20 mm. slump, a V-B time of 4 secs. and a compacting
factor value of 0.885. The rest of the specimens were cast
using mix proportions by weight 1: 1.96 : 2.83 with a
water/cement ratio of 0.54. Average values of 125 mm. slump,
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51
100
90
80
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a
bt 40
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r . ". " --- .. _../ 1.
Coarse" Zone 3 " /.
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----t- -ý" -. - F6ne ". _ . ý. - r/........
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---i --1, _ .,. __.,. -". %- "1.
,
0 150 300Nn 600}uß 1.18mm 2.36mm 5mm 10mm 20mm
St.evee Sze
Ftg. 3.2 GradLng curve for fine and coarse aggregates.
600
500
( 400EE
2
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Lv
N 200
100
!23456789 !0 It 12
Stra. n %
Ft.g.3.3 Stress-strain curve for the retnft.
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52 CHAPTER 3
V-B time less than 1 second and compacting factor of 0.96 were
obtained.
3.5 CASTING AND CURING
In order to avoid the variation of strength of concrete
along the height of the specimen (Besser 1983, (24)), all the
test specimens were cast horizontally. An oiled steel mould
1260 x 1000 x 100 mm. was used throughout. Smaller specimens
were obtained by partitioning the mould with wooden blocks
which were held firmly by clamps. All the specimens were
compacted on a vibrating table.
Control specimens were cast with each mix and also
compacted on a vibrating table. They were stripped from the
moulds and placed in the curing room at 20 degs. C., relative
humidity of 95-100 percent, 24 hours after casting. The test
specimens were covered with damp hessian for 3 days, watered
constantly and then transferred to the curing room.
3.6 CONTROL SPECIMENS
Control specimens consisted of five 100 mm cubes, five
150 mm. cubes, six 300 x 150 mm. cylinders and three
100 x 100 x 500 mm. prisms. Compressive strength of concrete
was providedby 100
mm. cubes,150
mm. cubes and three
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53 CHAPTER 3
cylinders while the tensile strength of concrete was given by
splitting tests of thethree
cylinders and rupturetests
of two
prisms. One of the prisms was also used to obtain the Young's
Modulus and Poisson's ratio of the concrete. The concrete
properties of each specimens are listed in Table. 3.1
In order to have a better indication of the strength of
concrete in the test specimens from tests on the control
specimens, the same procedure was applied for casting and
curing on both. The control tests were made at the time when
the relevant blocks were tested.
Control specimens were tested in accordance with BS 1881.
3.7 INSTRUMENTS AND TEST PROCEDURE
Strains on the surface of the concrete were measured by
Demec gauges. For specimens in series E, in order to obtain
the local strain around the compression zone of the test
blocks, Demec gauges with 50 mm. gauge length were used and
they were more concentrated under the bearing plate. At each
position, 6 Demec points were fixed to create a rectangular
rosette of 45 degrees.
For test specimens in series R-H, S and B. only the
transverse strain along the line of loading and the compressive
stains at mid-height of the specimen were measured. In
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55
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56 CHAPTER 3
general, a 50 mm. gauge length was used for the transverse
strain while a 100 mm. gauge length was used for vertical
strain.
For reinforced blocks, strain of the steel was measured by
electrical resistance gauges and recorded by a data-logger,
while strain on the concrete surface was measured by Demec
gauges. Load was increased in 5OkN increments and at each
stage ofloading, cracks were observed by means of a hand
magnifying glass and marked with ink.
When the specimen was ready for test, it was taken out
from the curing room and a thin coat of white emulsion was
painted on the surface after it had dried. Demec points were
fixed into position. A layer of plaster of paris was
introduced in the bottom of the specimen and between the
bearing plate and concrete. These allowed a good contact area
between steel and concrete. The specimen was then checked for
position vertically and loads were applied in steps of 50 or
100 KN. Strain measurements were made at each increment of
load. The mechanism of loading is shown in Fig. 3.4.
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57
I-Bean
Hydrauti
Roll,
Steel Bear
Bedded wt. hPLaster of Ports
Bedded ui, ttiPlaster of Paria
I- Bernur
CHAPTER 3
Ft..g. 3.4 Lod&ng Mechant.sm for Bearing Capact. y Expt.
3.8 BEHAVIOR OF TEST
3.8.1 GENERAL
The behaviour of a majority of the unreinfarced specimens
was characterized by the suddenness and explosive nature of
their failure which was often accompanied by an audible report.
A wedge was formed beneath the bearing plate with an apex-angle
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58
ranging from 30 to 40 degrees.
CHAPTER 3
Reinforcedspecimens
behaved ina more controlled manner;
they usually cracked along the line of load and then failed by
subsequent widening of the cracks.
3.8.2 SERIES E
The general patterns of cracks and modes of failure are
shown in Fig. 3.5. With the exception of block E3/2, the
specimens split vertically into two halves along the axis of
the bearing plate. For loads with small edge distance Wa, the
block was lifted up beyond the point which is about 3 times the
edge distance (Fig. 3.5. (a)).
In block E3/2, failure was by shearini
with vertical cracks penetrating almost to
specimen. As load was increased to lOOkN, a
at the top of the specimen, 100 mm. from
This propagated at an angle 90 degs. to the
loadwas
increased (Fig. 3.5. (c)).
3 off the corner,
the bottom of the
crack was observed
the loading edge.
horizontal as the
These failure wedges formed below the loaded area were
pyramid-shaped with an apex angle ranging from 30 to 40 degs.
All the specimens failed audibly immediately after the
formation of vertical cracks below the loaded surface. This
originated at about SOmm from the top.
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59
: L'
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60
3.8.3 SERIES R-H
CHAPTER 3
The patterns of cracks and modes of failure are shown in
figs. 3.6. to 3.9. Vertical splitting of the blocks into 2
halves along the axis of the bearing plate was the usual mode
of failure for the majority of specimens. However, for a small
relative size of bearing plates, i. e. large and deep blocks,
R4-H1, R3-H1 and R4-H2, splitting occurred from the top of the
specimen andterminated
ontheir
.two
sides, resulting in the
splitting of the block into 3 parts as shown in figs. 3.6(c),
3.6(d) and 3.7(d). On the other hand, for shallow blocks,
h/a<O. 5 and larger bearing plates, R<63, splitting usually
occurred from the bottom. This is due to settlement of the
supporting beam at high loads creating bending of this slender
block which initiated cracks at the bottom.
Except for loading over comparatively shallow specimens,
cracking and failure of the specimens took place
simultaneously. Cracks originated further away from the loaded
surface with larger bearing plates. Failure of these specimens
is sudden and associated with a loud noise.
3.8.4 SERIES S
Crushing of the concrete beneath the bearing plate and
subsequent splitting of the block into two halves was the mode
of failure of Series S specimens. Although failure took place
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61
(a
(c)
(b )
(d)
F .g. 3.6 Appearance after f aLLure of blocksLn sere,es R-H wi. h hei,gh - 1000mm.(a RI-Hi, (b R2-Hi,
c R3-HI, (d R4-HI.
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62
RI H2
(a)
ccI
(b )
(d)
Fi.,g. 3.7 Appearance after fai. Lure of blocksin serees R-H with hei,gh - 800mm.
a RI-H2. (b R2-H2,
c R3-H2, (d R4-H2.
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63
14w4-ý6 äYä&\Il 1
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F ,g. 3.8 Appearance after f aLLure of bLocks
Ln serf es R-H wLh het,gh - 400mm.
a RI-H3, (b R2-H3,
c R3-H3, (d R4-H3.
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64
(a)
cc)
(b )
(d)
F , g. 3.9 Appearance after f aLLure of bLocks
Ln sere es R-H wLh hei,gh = 200mm.a RI-H4, (b R2-H4,
c R3-H4, (d R4-H4.
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65
w Lx
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66 CHAPTER 3
almost immediately after the formation of vertical cracks, a
more controlled failure was observed. They failed without a
loud noise.
The patterns of cracks and failure mode are shown in Fig
3.10.
3.8.5 SERIES B
Fig. 3.11 indicates the type of failure of Series B
specimens tested with a sheet of PTFE under them.
For deep blocks B3 and H4 the mode of failure was similar
to those in R1-Hi and R4-Hi respectively (Fig. 3.11(c) and (d)).
Theseshow
that thepresence of
thesheet of
PTFE had littleor
no effect on the behaviour of these specimens.
However, with shallow blocks, H1 and B2, a different mode
of failure was observed. It was obvious with specimen B1, that
the block was split into two halves without crushing of the
concrete under the bearing plate (Fig. 3.11(a)). For specimen
82, splitting occurred from the bottom instead of from the top
as in specimen R4-H4.
Fig. 3.12 shows the mode of splitting for specimens Bi and
B2. The PTFE at the bottom of the specimen was acting as a tie
while the two halves of the concrete block behaved as two
compressive struts. Failure of these blocks were taking
place
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67
(a )
C
(b )
ýý...., ý
114
r
T
(d)
F ., . 3.11 Appearance after f ai.. ure of bLocks Ln sere,es B.(a) Bi. (b) B2, (c) B3, (d) B4.
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68 CHAPTER 3
as the tie ceased functioning, either by breaking the PTFE into
two pieces (block Bi) or by the sliding of the struts on the
surface of it (block B2). The mechanism of the failure is
shown in fig. 3.12(c). All the specimens in this series failed
with a loud noise.
Compresswe
400
400 X ),. 200
SpLi. tLng J(a) BLock Bi
Crack
conPreasi. ve conPreaatve
strut strut
\-TLeaction by the PTFE
(cl
SpUttmg
Crack
Ft.g. 3.12 (a) & (b) Crack pattern before fai, Lure.(c) FatAure mechantsm of block Bi & B2.
(b) Block 82
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69 CHAPTER 3
3.8.6 REINFORCED CONCRETE BLOCK - SERIES R
All of the reinforced blocks (Series R) failed in local
bearing at the concentrated load. The presence of the
reinforcement gave the block ductility as it failed.
Fig. 3.13 shows the crack patterns for all the specimens in
this series. Despite the differences in the form and amount of
reinforcement used, their crack patterns were similar. The
first crack which appeared was in the centre of the bearing
plate and originated at about 100 mm. from the loading edge.
This crack propagated downward as the load was increased.
Occasionally, spalling cracks appeared around 150 mm. from the
inner edge of the bearing plate and extended downward at an
angle of approximately 70 degrees to the horizontal.
At higher loads, radial cracks appeared, which originated
from the edge of the bearing plate and radiated downward as the
load increased. Finally, failure was predominantly by local
compression with flakes of concrete spalling off below the
loading plates, as can be seen in the photographs in fig. 3.14.
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\MP
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71
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72
I1i
Uh/_P./I
1ý
(a )
cc)
ri
21
rr-
(b )
(d )
FLg. 3.14 Crack pattern after faLLure for block Ln series R.(a) RI, (b) R2, (c) R3, (d) R4.
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73
R. /Z
(a )
R5/
cc)
1?i/>
I ýi' ý
iI.J
ý(.
11
?i/I
(b)
Fi,g. 3.15 Crack pattern after fat .Lure for block t,n series R.(a) R5, (b) R6, (c) R7.
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74 CHAPTER 4
4 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS -- BEARING CAPACITY OF CONCRETE BLOCKS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter, the general behaviour of the
specimens during the tests has been described. In this
chapter, more experimental results will be shown and discussed
in detail, such as the stress and strain distributions in
concrete and steel, and the factors affecting specimen
behaviour will be analysed. Finally, a proposed model of
failure is drawn up and compared with existing theories.
The values of cracking load Pc, and ultimate load Pu are
tabulated together with the dimensions and material properties
of the specimens in table 3.1.
4.2 BEARING CAPACITY OF PLAIN CONCRETE BLOCKS
4.2.1 EFFECT OF EDGE DISTANCE
The deflected shapes of the specimens analysed by the
finite element method (FEM) with edge distances of 30 and
280 mm. are given in fig. 4.1(a) and (b) respectively. It can
be seen that the specimen with concentrated load near the edge
failed by shearing off the corner as a result of less
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75
J"tfr :' -ýýýI J
fftJItfJtJ ''y-. 1_..
1/+J55I+J
ft`
------------
+ t t r t s
1 i i
t t r tI + t
l t = t7 j _{_--
: is
, +
i
Ft.g. 4. la Deflected shape ofblocks
with edgedistance 30mm.
i_.
I_.
,
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,
t.
s
~S 11
1 ý ý1 / 1
f ýI 1
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76 CHAPTER 4
confinement on one side by the concrete near the edge.
However,specimens with
a larger edge distance failed by
splitting the concrete block into two halves.
The variation of transverse stress with depth along the
loaded line in blocks El to E3 is given in fig. A. 1-3. The
experimental stresses are plotted together with the stresses
analysed by FEM. It can be seen that the general trends of the
stress distributions are similar in all three blocks, each
contains a high compression zone near to the loaded surface,
followed by a tension zone which causes the splitting of the
blocks. The depth of the tension zone varies with edge
distance, loads further away from the edge creating a larger
and deeper tensile zone. The maximum transverse tensile stress
occurs at around 30 mm below the loaded surface in blocks with
a small edge distance of 30 mm. but at 130 mm in a block with
a large edge distance of 280 mm.
From fig. A. 1-3 indicate that stresses obtained from the
tests tend to fluctuate. This is probably due to the use of
the Demec gauge with 50 mm gauge length, which is not sensitive
enough to detect small strains. However, the experimental
stress distributions still follow the stresses given by the FEM
with three discrepancies. High compressive stresses were not
recorded in blocks E2 and E3 due to the difficulties in putting
Demec points close to the loaded surface. At high loads,
tensile stresses obtained experimentally are higher than those
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77 CHAPTER 4
estimated by FEM. This can be explained by the presence of
micro-cracks which are not considered in the FEM analysis.
Stresses at the bottom of the blocks were recorded as tension
during the experiment while compression is suggested by FEM
analysis. The tensile stresses in the experiment are generated
by the deflection of the supporting beam which is assumed to be
fixed in the FEM analysis.
Fig. 4.2 shows the variation of the bearing strength of the
concrete block with edge distance; the values are plotted as
two dimensionless ratios: fb/fý against Wa/O. 5ai. It can be
seen that the graph is composed of two straight lines, they
meet each other at Wa/O. 5a1=3.5 which corresponds to the edge
distance of 90 mm. It is suggested that with edge distances
smaller than 90 mm, decrease in edge distance will result in a
dramatic loss of confinement by the surrounding concrete which
leads to a large decrease in the bearing strength of the
concrete block. On the other hand, with edge distances greater
than 90 mm, the increase in edge distance will steadily
increase the confinement by the surrounding concrete and a
higher bearing strength is obtained. The bearing capacity of
the concrete block under concentrated strip load can be
estimated by
fb 0.12Wa/al + 1.16 Wa/0.5a. > 3.5
=i (4.1)fl I 0.47W /al + 0.55 Wa/0.5a1 < 3.5
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78
2.0
1.9
1.8
ý-° 1.7
a 1.6
Lr 1.5
1.4a
1.3
!. 2
i. 1
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7-t0
FIG. 4.2 Effect of edge dLstance Ln blocks of series E.
H (mm. A-3.94 R-7.87 R- i5.7 R- 63.0
H- 1000 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.96
H- 800 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95
H- 400 0.97 0.98 0.98 0.98
H- 200 1.57 1.62 1.64 1.64
Table 4.1 Ratt, o of compressLve stress at Loaded Leneto average stress at the bottom of theblocks.
(30) (80) (130) (180) (230) (280)
123456789 10 it i2
Edge di.etance to halt' beart.ng w.dth ratio, W,0.5a,
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79 CHAPTER 4
4.2.2 EFFECT OF HEIGHT AND LOADING AREA RATIO
Fig. A. 4-19 show both the transverse strain distributionsI
along the loaded line and the vertical strains across the
mid-height of the specimen. They are platted together with the
values obtained by FEM analysis.
In general, the experimental data agrees well with the
theoretical values and with less fluctuation because a Demec
gauge of larger gauge length, 100 mm is used thus increasing
the sensitivity. Again, in observing the figures, it can be
seen that all the specimens have a compression zone at the top
immediately below the loading plate. Their sizes vary with the
size of the bearing plate. Below this compression zone is a
region of tension, usually described as the bursting zone.
Again, the size depends on the size of the bearing plate;
maximum tensile strain occurs at 100,50,25, and 10 mm below
the loading surface when loaded respectively with 101.6,50.8,
25.3 and 6.35 mm width bearing plates. This bursting zone
extended to a depth of 350 mm below the loaded surface for
specimens with large bearing plates and 300 mm for those with
smaller bearing plates. Nevertheless, below this bursting
zone, is a virtually unstressed region especially for high
specimens. For shallow specimens, tensile strains are recorded
at the bottom of the specimens. These are believed to come
from two sources. Firstly, they are actually the tail of the
bursting zone; this is particularly important for specimens
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8p CHAPTER 4
with large bearing plates, as the bursting zone for these
specimens extends to a greater depth. Secondly, they are
caused by the settlement of the supporting beam, this creating
a bending moment at the bottom and consequent tensile stresses
and strains. Settlement is increased with the magnitude of the
load; large bearing plates usually takes more load thus
producing a larger tensile zone at the bottom of the specimens,
4 ig. A. 16-18.
Compressive strain at mid-height agrees well with that
obtained by FEM analysis with a few exceptions according to
fig. A. 4-19. In some circumstances, fig. A. 12-15, the
experimental compressive strains tend to be smaller than those
estimated by FEM. This is probably due to the estimation of
Young's Modulus of the specimen.Blocks R1-H3, R2-H3, R3-H3
and R4-H3 exhibit this discrepancy as they were cast from the
same batch of concrete. Apart from this, R1-H4 recorded a
particularly high compressive strain around the middle of the
specimen, this is in fact due to the presence of a crack across
a pair of demec points. This should be ignored in reading this
figure.
As shown in fig. A. 4-7, compressive strain was almost
uniform at mid-height for high specimens with 1000 mm height.
As the height of the specimen decreases, compressive strain is
increasingly more concentrated below the load position. This
is obvious in specimens with 200 or 400 mm height
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81 CHAPTER 4
(fig. A. 12-19). Moreover, within the two specimens of equal
height, the one loaded with a smaller bearing plate had a
higher concentration of compressive strain than the others.
Table 4.1 tabulates the ratios of the vertical stress at loaded
line to the average compressive stress for all the sixteen
specimens.
The ratio of bearing strength to cylinder crushing
strength is plotted against the footing to loaded
area ratioin
fig. 4.3. It is noted that results for all the specimens with
height other than 200 mm come very close to each other.
Shorter specimens have higher bearing strength but this is not
very significant. Thus for specimens with 200 mm in height,
there is a 30% increase in strength in comparison with others
of similar loading condition but greater in height. This is
probably due to the disturbance of the tension zone by the base
of the specimen. The restraint at the bottom of the specimen
by the base contributes a compressive force which delays the
splitting of the specimen along the loaded line and thus a
higher bearing strength results. The bearing strength ratios
estimated by Shelson E23 and Kriz 118] are shown on the same
graph in fig. 4.3. It can be recognized that Kriz's estimates
are conservative for all values of loaded area ratio while
Shelson's estimates are conservative for a high loading area
ratio, R but become unsafe as the values of R falls below 13.
Fig. 4.4 shows how the ratio of bearing to cylinder
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82
9
® --- Hl a-0.5V -- Hl a-1.0®- H/ a-2.0
X --H/a-2.58
/
/f
f1 30%Lncr.
7 / 1
fö
/
/öa f x' 6 /
d
.3
/
30% incr.
coL 5 /
/I
SheLson : tp/PQ-3
J
q
/
/
/ 30% cr.
C/
m 3 //
s
2
Knz : fp/te - 5.73 Joy / fe
I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Footong to Loo&ng area rat*. q R.
FLg. 4.3 Bearing strength rati. o vs Loadt ng area ratio.
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83
iExpt. Mugurumo9' ® --- R= 63.0
® --- R= 15.8
---R= 7.9
4
7i
U
.JV
\
CDcm 5 _. -L
W
c
U4
01\\
c
m
i \\
2 --_ -- -_
1
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
HeL. ht to width ratio. H; a of the blocks.
3.0
Ft.g. 4.4 Bearing strength ratLo vs height to width rat o.
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84 CHAPTER 4
strength varies with the height of the specimens. It can be
seen that the bearing to cylinder strength ratio is unchanged
with height for specimens higher than 600 mm. Below this
height the bearing strength begins to increase slowly and then
more rapidly at heights less than 400 mm. This is coincident
with the way that compressive force is concentrated at the
bottom of the specimen (table 4.1). The values of bearing to
cylinder strength ratio estimated by Muguruma (8I are also
shown in fig. 4.4. Muguruma also gives a similar trend of
increase in strength with short specimens as found in the
experiments. However, he appears to over-estimate the ratio
for the specimens with a bearing area ratio less than 16 and
under-estimating those greater than 63.
4.2.3 SIZE EFFECT
The distributions of transverse and vertical strain of
blocks Sf-S3 are very similar to those in series R-H
(fig. A. 20-22). They agree. well with those obtained by FEM
analysis.
The size effect was first introduced by Niyogi
C(1974), (19)]. He stated that the bearing strength falls as
the size of the specimen is increased. If the loading area
ratio, R remained constant, the bearing capacity would decrease
with the increase in size according to table 4.2. AI-Nijjam
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85 CHAPTER 4
((1981), (23)] stated that the bearing strength of concrete is
dependent on a factor of
( a'/a )1/4
(4.2)
where a' = width of the original specimen
according to his test results.
Fig. 4.5 shows how bearing strength varies with the size of
the specimens. It was found that as the size of the specimens
decreases, their strength increases in an exponential nature.
On the same figure (fig. 4.5) the way in which bearing
strength increases with the decrease in size as suggested by
Al-Nijjam, is plotted along with what obtained in this
investigation. Al-Nijjam's estimation has a more gentle
increase in bearing strength as the size decreases. It is in
fact more suitable for larger specimens. For this range of
scale phenomena there is adequate aggreement with the following
expression
fb/f' =k[1.45
e-a/(30 + 0.9] (4.3)
where a= the width of the specimen measured in mm.k= proportional constant.
4.2.4 EFFECT OF BASE FRICTION
In the presence of a sheet of PTFE at the bottom of the
specimen, the mode of failure for blocks 81 and B2 changed. As
has been described in chapter 3, splitting occurs from the
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2.7
2.6
' 2.50
a 2.4
d
2.3
r2.2
2.1
2.0
c-)
01.9-
co
1.8
i. 7
1.6
1.5
1.4
0
X of size LncreaseX of decrease Lnbearing strength
3.0 25
2.0 !5
1.5 12
1.3 4
TobLe, 4.2 St.ze effect suggested by Ni.yogi (i9).
! 00 200 300 400
Block atze a ma.
F .9.4.5 fb/ a vs size of the blocks a.
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G7 CHAPTER 4
bottom of the specimen and failure of these specimens took
place without actually crushing the concrete below the bearing
plate. This is confirmed by fig. A. 23. The tensile strain
recorded in block Bi was very much larger than expected. In
fact, it was not purely tensile strain, because a crack
occurring at the early stage of the experiment, coming from the
bottom of the specimen is included. Moreover, the settlement
of the support becomes more dominant with the presence of a
layer of softer material (PTFE) at the base, thus adversely
affecting the cracking of the specimen from the bottom. Apart
from this discrepancy, the tensile strain distribution agrees
well with the theoretical value by FEM analysis (fig. A. 23-26).
It is interesting to note that the theoretical transverse
strain is not zero at the bottom of th specimen. Tensile
strains at the base indicate that tension force is needed in
order to restrain the base.
Table 4.3 shows how PTFE affects the bearing strength of
the concrete blocks. It can be seen that the bearing strength
decreases with a reduction of the base friction. This
reduction is (22%) for a short specimen loaded with a large
plate, (block Bi). This is understandable in that short
specimens depend on base friction to gain their bearing
strength, especially when loaded with large bearing plates,
because the tension zone is more likely to extend to the base.
A larger bearing plate means that a higher value of load- is
needed for failure; high loads can produce larger settlement of
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88 CHAPTER 4
the supporting beam and thus further reduction in the bearing
strength. Blocks B2 and H3 show similar reductions in strength
of 14 and 16% respectively, because block H2, although short,
is loaded with a small bearing plate and block B3 is high but
loaded with a larger bearing plate. The smallest reduction in
strength is in block b4, only 8%. This is bcause it has the
height and is also loaded with a small bearing plate so that
the tension zone can hardly reach the bottom, and there is not
much bending of the block with a small bearing plate.
4.3 REINFORCED CONCRETE BLOCKS
The crack patterns for all the reinforced concrete blocks
had beenshown
in the previous chapter, fig. 3.13a. Fig-3.13b
gives an idea of how the maximum crack width varies with load.
In this section, the behaviour of each test, the crack
patterns, crack widths and strain distributions in concrete and
steel will be discussed and compared with each others in
detail.
Blocks RI/1, RI/2 and R2/1 are reinforced with steel of
similar arrangement but with different diameters of transverse
steel of 6,10 and 8 mm respectively. These three specimens
failed with similar load of 600,590 and 620 kM respectively,
(table 3.1b). Although their crack loads are quite different
from each other, they are believed to come from two sources:
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89 CHAPTER 4
<1> differences in concrete properties and <2> the recognition
of the presence of cracks during the test. They have similar
crack patterns, the most vital crack is the one along the
loaded line. Blocks R1/1 and R1/2 have a more brittle
behaviour than R2/1 which is again considered to be dependent
on the concrete properties rather than the reinforcement. The
distributions of transverse concrete strain along the loaded
line for these specimens are shown in fig. A. 27-28. They have
similar distributions of strain, a large compressive strain at
the top immediately below the loading plate and then followed
by a tension zone extending to around 300 mm below the loading
surface. Below this tension zone is an unstressed region, but
occasionally, tension is recorded at the bottom indicated a
bending of the supporting beam. Strains in the reinforcement
are shown in fig. A. 35-37. Apart from the yielding of one
particular stirrup in Block R2/1, the remainder have not
yielded even after failure of the specimen. This suggested the
ineffectiveness of this form of reinforcement. In fact, these
specimens failed by buckling of the vertical steel between two
transverse reinforcing bars owing to the lack of restraint.
This can be improved by reducing the spacing between the
transverse steel.
Block R2/2 employs the idea of pushing the transverse
steel upward so that it has stronger reinforcement in the
higher tension region. However, the result is not encouraging:
it has a lower ultimate load at 590 kN than 620 kN in R2/1.
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90 CHAPTER 4
R2/2 has a larger crack width, up to 1.12 mm at 580 kN. It has
a central crack extending from the top to the bottom of the
specimen. At low load the distributions of transverse strain
are similar to Block R2/1. At high load, -(larger than 400 kN),
transverse strain is not confined to the top region but extends
to the bottom of the specimen, fig. A. 28. Most of the
reinforcement along the loaded line does yield, fig. A. 38, this
suggested that the effectiveness of the transverse
reinforcement depends on its spacing. The transverse
reinforcement in R2/2 has been placed too high, and although it
has an effective confinement at the top, an unreinfarced region
is left below, which is still within the tension zone.
Therefore, a large crack width and lower ultimate load has
resulted.
Blocks R3/1 and R3/2 have similar amounts of transverse
reinforcement in terms of cross-sectional area of steel as in
R1/2. They use smaller diameter steel but closer spacing.
R3/1 used stirrups of 6 mm diameter and 26 mm spacing, while
R3/2 used stirrups of 8 mm diameter and 52 mm spacing. Block
R3/1 hasa crack
loadand ultimate
loadof
650and
770 kNwhile
R3/2 has crack and ultimate load of 520 and 643 kN
respectively, which is much higher than the corresponding
values of 400 and 590 kN in block R1/2. The use of smaller
diameter steel and closer spacing increases the ductility as
the specimen fails, fig. 3.13b. Cracks in these two specimens
are spread more radiallyrather than concentrated
alongthe
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91 CHAPTER 4
loading line and have smaller crack width. This indicates that
the reinforcement is effective in distributing the stresses to
the whole reinforced area rather than concentrated in the line
of loading. As shown in fig. A. 29, distribution of strain on
the concrete surface is similar to block R1/2 but is lesser in
magnitude especially in the tension zone in block R3/1.
Fig. A. 39-40 shows that most of the stirrups in block R3/1 and
R3/2 along the loading line, especially those at the top,
yielded. Those at the bottom and next to the loading line have
been stressed quite significantly. Above all these phenomema
suggested that reinforcing with thinner and more closely spaced
steel is an effective way of increasing the bearing capacity of
the concrete block. Moreover, failure of block R3/1 is in fact
not by splitting of the block into two halves, but by sliding
of the bearing plate towards the rear of the block, because of
setting up errors. Strictly speaking, block R3/1 should
withstand a higher load than 770 kN.
Block R4/1 and R4/2 have different forms of
reinforcements, fig. 3.1. Block R4/2 has long stirrups which
enclosed all the vertical stirrups while R4/1 has smaller ones
further away from the loaded line enclosing two vertical
stirrups and has larger stirrups below the loading position
enclosing four vertical stirrups. They were designed to
compare their performance with block R2/1 which has only small
stirrups each of which enclosed two vertical stirrups. As
shown in fig. 3.13, their crack patterns are slightly different
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92 CHAPTER 4
from each other. Block R4/2 has the simplest crack pattern,
only a single crack along the loading line. As the stirrups
decrease in size, in blocks R4/1 and R2/1, more cracks are
formed and they radiate from the loading plate. Strain in the
steel, fig. A. 37,41-42 indicate that when the small loop
stirrups are used higher stress is generated in the steel, this
suggested that this form of stirrup is more effective in
resisting bearing stresses. The ultimate load of block R4/1,
680 kN is greater than that of block R4/2,600 kN, confirming
this idea. However, block R2/1 has a rather low ultimate load
620 kN, and this may be due to the difference in the properties
of the concrete. If the differences of ultimate load and crack
load Pu-Pc are considered, it can be found that block R2/1 has
the largest difference, Pu -Pc=174 kN, and this becomes smaller
in block R4/1,130 kN and smallest in block R4/2,60 kN.
Therefore, it can be concluded that small stirrups are more
effective in resisting bearing stress than large stirrups.
This can be explained as more lateral restraint can be provided
by smaller stirrups.
Blocks R5/1 and R5/2 were designed to compare the bearing
strength with the distribution of the reinforcement, fig. 3.13.
Block R5/2 has the simplest form of arrangement; two vertical
and two horizontal stirrups. Block R5/1 has one more bay of
reinforcement, one on each side of the loading line and one
more row of reinforcement at the bottom. They are used to
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93 CHAPTER 4
compare their performance with block R2/1 which has one further
bay of reinforcement on each side of the loading line and one
more row of reinforcement than block R5/1. From fig. A. 31 and
28 it can be seen that the distribution of strain on the
concrete surface is very similar in blocks R5/1, R5/2 and R2/1.
The strains in the reinforcement, figs. A. 37,44-45, are again
similar, except that yielding of one stirrup is found in block
R2/1. All the others had not reached yield point before the
concrete block failed. However, as their crack patterns are
considered, there is a difference in mode of failure found in
block R5/2, which had its load transferred to the bottom of the
reinforcing matrix and failed as if load is applied at the
bottom horizontal stirrup in a block of plain concrete.
Failure was due to the formation of a wedge of concrete below
the reinforcing matrix, followed by the separation of the block
along the loading line. It failed with the characteristic of
all the plain concrete blocks, a brittle mode of failure.
It is therefore recommended that the matrix of reinforcement
should have a width at least as wide as the loading plate. As
far as the ultimate load is concerned, there is only a slight
different in magnitude between blocks R5/1, R5/2 and R2/1. It
is therefore difficult to decide whether a wider spread of
reinforcement do increase the bearing capacity of the concrete
block at this stage.
Blocks R5/1, R6/1, R6/2, R7/1, R7/2 and RB/2 were
reinforced with the same amount and formof reinforcement
but
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94 CHAPTER 4
with different edge distances varying from 80 to 330 mm. They
were designed to investigate the effect of edge distance on the
reinforced concrete blocks. Figs. A. 32-34 show the distribution
of transverse strain on the concrete surface along the loaded
line. In general, the experimental and theoretical values
agree with each other at low load except near the bottom of the
block. Higher tensile strain recorded at the bottom of the
block during the tests is due to the bending of the supporting
beam which is assumed rigid during FEM analysis. At high load,
the experimantal strains are greater than those given by FEM
analysis due to the presence of cracks. This discrepancy
happens at lower loads as the edge distances decrease. Similar
to plain concrete blocks, the depth of the tension zone below
the loading plate increases as the edge distance increases.
More cracks are developed for blocks with small edge distances,
fig. 3.13. This is because of the earlier formation of cracks
with blocks with small edge distances. Fig. 4.6 is plotted to
show the relation between the difference between ultimate and
crack load "Pu-Pc) and the edge distance Wa of the blocks. It
can be seen that smaller edge distance exhibit a larger (PLL Pc)
value for blocks with edge distance smaller than 180 mm which
correspond to Wa/0.5a1=3.5. Blocks with edge distances larger
than this failed as soon as the block cracked. Therefore, it
can be said that reinforcement is more effective with a block
of small edge distance as it can prevent the block from
shearing at the corners to cause failure. Strains in the
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140
120
100
19
80Y
a60
a40
20
0
s
2.0
1.9
1.8
s-° 1.7
a 1.6
,c1.5
L 1.4
L
1.3
1.2
4)co
i. i
m
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.70
rb/r, - 0.22W,o, + 1.01
10,.
rp/r, -0.12W0/a,+1.ss
vrv
fp/to - 0.47 W0/ai + 0.55
®Xul. . Load
. Ptai. n
I® uLt. Load
0 crack Load%R6ýnft.
i23456789 10 11 12
Edge di.stonce to half bean. ng with ratLq Wa/O. a1
Ft,g. 4.6 Pu- P. vs edge distance W0.
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96 CHAPTER 4
reinforcement are shown in figs. A. 43,45-49. Fig. 4.7 is
plotted of crackingto
cylinder strength ratio against edge
distance to half bearing width ratio. It can be seen that for
Wa/O. Sa1<3.5, the cracking strength agrees well with Eq. 4.1,
and the concrete block cracks as
plain concrete block fails. Foi
strength is higher than that
conclusion, the cracking strength
estimated by
soon as its corresponding
r Wa/O. 5ai>3.5, the cracking
estimated by Eq. 4.1. In
of a concrete block can be
t 0.47Wa/a1 + 0.55 Wa/0.5a1<3.5
fb/fý 0.12Wa/a1 + 1.16 - plain 1 (4.4)
r Wa/4.5a1>). 5
L 0.22Wa/a1 + 1.41 - reft. }
4.4 CONCLUSION
The behaviour of concrete blocks under bearing pressure
can be summarized by the following:
(A) PLAIN CONCRETE BLOCKS
<1> Specimens with concentrated load near the edge
Wa/4.5a1<3.5, failed by shearing off the corner while
specimens with a larger edge distance Wa/O. 5a1}3.5 failed
by spliting the concrete block into two halves.
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97 CHAPTER 4
<2> The depth of the tension zone below the loading plate
increased as the edge distance increased.
<3> The bearing capacity of plain concrete blocks under
concentrated strip load can be estimated by
r 0.12 Wa/a1 + 1.16 Wa/4.5a1 > 3.5
fb/fý =j (4.1)
L 0.47 Wa/ai + 0.55 Wa/0.5a1 < 3.5
<4> When a concrete block is loaded with a bearing plate, a
compression zone is generated at the top immediately below
the loading plate. Below this compression zone is a
region of tension (bursting zone). Both the size of the
compression zone and the bursting zone increase with
increase in size of the bearing plate.
<5> Specimens with heights shorter than 300 mm have their
tension zone confined by the restraint at the bottom of
the specimen. This contributes a compressive force which
delays the splitting of the specimen. The bearing
strength of specimens 200 mm in height is 30% higher than
corresponding specimens of similar condition but greater
in height.
<6> Muguruma E59] describes a similar trend of increase in
bearing strength with short specimens but he appears to
over-estimte the strength for specimens with a bearing
area ratio less than 16 and to under-estimete those
greater than 63.
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913 CHAPTER 4
<7> Kriz's estimates 1491 are conservative for all the values
of loaded area ratio while Shelson's estimates (76] are
conservative for a high loading area ratio, R but become
unsafe as the value of R falls below 13.
<8> Reducing the size of the specimen can increase its bearing
strength and this is known as the size effect (or scale
effect). Al-Nijjam (63] has stated that the bearing
strength of the concrete is increased by a factor of
(a' /a)1/4
(4.2)
<9> A1-Nijjam's estimation [63] has a more gentle increase in
bearing strength as the size increases and is more
suitable for larger specimens. From the present
experiments, the bearing capacity is found to be
proportional to the following expression
fb/f' = 1.45 ea/80+ 0.9 (4.3)
<10> Bearing strength decreases with a reduction of the base
friction. The largest reduction (227.. ) is found with short
specimens loaded with a large plate (block Bi) while the
smallest reduction (07.. ) corresponded to high blocks loaded
with a small plate (block B4).
(B) REINFORCED CONCRETE BLOCKS
<1> Similarstrain
distributionsare obtained
inreinforced
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99 CHAPTER 4
concrete blocks as in plain concrete blocks.
<2> The bearing capacity of the reinforced concrete block is
not dependent on the diameter of the reinforcement.
<3> Reinforcement should be maintained in the whole of the
tension zone. Lack of reinforcement in any part of the
tension zone may result in large crack widths and lower
strength.
<4> Closely spaced smaller diameter reinforcement is much more
effective in resisting bearing force than widely spaced
thick reinforcement. With this form of reinforcement more
restraint can be provided to the vertical reinforcement by
horizontal stirrups. This can prevent the buckling of the
vertical steel at early stages and provide a better spread
of tensile stress to the surrounding block. Radial cracks
with small crack widths are found in place of a single
vertical crack with large crack width.
<5> The use of small interlocking stirrups is more effective
than using a single long stirrup, because more lateral
restraint can be provided by small interlocking stirrups.
<6> From the present tests, it is difficult to tell whether
the distribution of-reinforcement has any effect on the
bearing capacity of the blocks. It is recommended that
the matrix of reinforcement should have its width at least
as wide as the loading plate to prevent brittle failure of
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100 CHAPTER 4
the block below the reinforcement.
<7> Reinforcement is more effective with blocks of small edge
distance, Wa/O. 5a1<3.5 as it can prevent blocks from
shearing off the corners.
<8> The cracking strength of the reinforced concrete block
with Wa/O. 5a1<3.5 can be estimated by the bearing strength
of plain concrete block using Eq. 4.1.
<9> In general, the cracking strength of reinforced concrete
blocks and the bearing strength of plain concrete blocks
can be estimated by
10.47Wa/a1 + 0.55 2Wa/a1<3.5
fb/fý =j0.12Wa/a1 + 1.16 (plain) ) (4.4)
r 2W/a1>3.5
L 0.22Wa/a1 + 1.01 (reinft. ) J
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101
Stockno. fp He
X of reductt, onin strength
8i 1.30
R1-H4 1.67
22 X
B2 7.45
R4-H4 8.41
14 X
B3 0.98
Ri-HI 1. i6
16 X
B4 5.72
R4-Hi 6.22
ex
Tobte 4.3 Reductt. on to strength wt,h PTFE
at the bottom of the blocks.
Pu 2
01/4
zý F!
2ý-F2
3
zi-0.4aß
z3 - 0.75a
02/2
02/4
Pu /2
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102
4.5 PROPOSED SOLUTION
CHAPTER 4
Consider a plain concrete block (axbxH) as shown in
fig. 4.8a subjected to a vertical compressive force along its
centre line at its top surface through a steel plate, width al
and across the full thickness b of the concrete block. At the
bottom, the concrete block is supported over its entire
surface.
Fig. 4.8b shows the concrete block split into two halves
and its internal forces are considered. First of all, it is
assumed that the bearing plate is thick and rigid enough to
have a rectangular stress distribution immediately below the
steel bearing plate. Therefore, after splitting there is a
resultant force Pu/2 acting at a distance a1/4 from the line of
splitting. Along the line of splitting, the distribution of
stresses is rather complex and assumptions are made according
to observations made during the experiments. It is observed
that there is a compression zone at the top of the block
immediately below the bearing plate followed by a region of
tension and then an unstressed region at the bottom. For
reasons of simplicity, they are assumed to be linearly
distributed along the splitting line. As described in
section 4.2.2, it is noted that the depth of the compression
zone is dependent on the width of the bearing plate. According
to the graphs showing the experimental transverse stress
distributions, figs. A. 4-19, it is reasonable to assume that the
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103 CHAPTER 4
compression zone ends at a depth of 0.4ai from the loaded
surface. Below this compression zone is a region of tension,
and similarly the position of the maximum tensile stress is
dependent on the width of the bearing plate. With the help of
figs. A. 4-19, it is assumed that this maximum tensile stress
occurs at a depth a1 below the loading surface. The position
where this tension zone ends is not distinct and it is rather
difficult to determine as there is usually a long tail of small
stress before it finally become zero. However, it is assumed
that the tension zone effectively ends at a distance 0.75a
below the loading surface.
At the moment, only higher blocks H/a>O. 75 are considered
and for high blocks, compressive stress is distributed
uniformly along the base, figs. A. 4-11. A rectangular
distribution of compressive stress is therefore asumed at the
bottom of the block. As demonstrated by blocks B3 and B4,
where the friction at the base of the blocks was released,
behaviour was similar to their counterparts RI-H1 and R4-H1,
This suggests that the friction at the base for high blocks is
negligible and therefore, can be ignored in this model.
Furthermore, the concrete block is assumed to fail as soon as
the maximum tensile stress reaches the tensile strength of
concrete as estimated by splitting cylinder test.
Fig. 4. Gb shows the proposed model and the assumed stress
distribution. The resultant forces and their centres of action
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104 CHAPTER 4
have been calci
block and they
F1
F`
FTJ
F4
ilated based on a unit thickni
are as follows:
= F2 + F3 - F4 zi
= ft- (ziz1
)/2 z2
= ft- (z3-z`) /2 z3
=0 z4
L-ss of the concrete
= O. 4a1
= aal
= O. 75a (4.5)
=H
By taking moments at the position of the resultant force FI and
considering
the free body diagram in fig. 4-8b
Pu-(ate al)/8 =[2z2.
F2 + (z3-z1+2z2)F3]/3
a,, = 4[4z2-F2 +2 (zß z1+2z2)F3]/3Pu + ai (4.6)
Although many researchers (6,7,32,49,76] adopted the cube
root formula
fb/f. = R1/3 (4.7)
this has been demonstrated to be conservative especially for
large values of R (fig. 4.3). It appears that
fb/fý = R1/2 (4.8)
would be a more appropriate formula for the estimation of the
bearing capacity of the concrete block. The ratio R is the
footing to the loading area ratio a/a1 and in this case it
should be related to the reduced dimensions (or effective block
size), a2 for a2<a. Therefore,
fb/f' = (a2 /a1)1/2
(4.9)
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105 CHAPTER 4
Substituting Eq. 4.9 into 4.6,
(fb/f ') 2= [16z2 -F` +S (z, -z 1+2z2) -F31 /3Pu -ai +1 (4.10)c
since Pu = ai"fb and let r= fb/fý, therefore,
r2 =[16z2'F2+8
(z3-z1+2z2) -F3]/3a12-fb
r3 -r-[16z2
-F2+8 (z J-z 1+2z2) -F J,/3a1
By solving the cubic equation (Eq. 4.11) the
strength to cylinder splitting strength can be
+ fb/fý
f' =O (4.11)c
ratio of bearing
obtained.
For blocks with height to width ratio less than 0.75, the
calculation is based on the assumption that the tension zone
ends at the bottom of the specimen. Moreover, for blocks with
eccentric loading, the near edge side has a similar amount of
confinement as the corresponding concentrically loaded block
with a width equal to twice as the edge distance. Therefore,
by using a= 2Wa, Eq. 4.11 can also be used for the estimation
of the bearing strength in eccentrically loaded concrete
blocks.
4.6 COMPARISON WITH TEST RESULT
4.6.1 PLAIN CONCRETE BLOCKS
All the test results available from various sources
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106 CHAPTER 4
E32,49,62,653 are analysed in the light of the proposed method
and also compared with the method given by Meyerhof [62],
Hawkins 132], Shelson (76], Kriz (49], Muguruma (62],
Niyogi (65] and Jensen 136]. The results are presented in
table 4.4 for all concentrically loaded specimens and table 4.5
for all eccentrically loaded specimen. For easy comparison,
ratios of the values of bearing capacity obtained from the
experiment tothe
corresponding values obtainedby
calculation
are tabulated together with the mean and standard deviation for
each group of data with the same height to width ratio.
Fig. 4.1O-18 are plotted with the ratios of bearing to cylinder
strength obtained from experiment to those from the calculation
with different formulae. They can be read in conjunction with
table 4.4 and 4.5, so as to gain an idea of how the data are
distributed about the diagonal line, on which experimental
values would be equal to the calculated values of bearing
strength. Furthermore, an overall mean and standard deviation
are shown at the end of each table. In the calculation with
Hawkins's and Meyerhof's formulae the values of m is assumed to
be 27.5 degs. which is suggested by Hawkins (14). The
internal angle of friction, w is assumed to be 37 degs. as is
recommendated in the literature (6,7,36] when calculated with
Jensen's model.
It can be seen from fig. 4.10 and table 4.4d that
Heyerhof's equation can give a fairly good value of the mean,
0.98 for all the specimens with height to width ratio greater
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107 CHAPTER 4
than i but values are rather scattered around the diagonal line
with a large value of standard deviation of 0.24. However, the
deviation is reasonable for each group of specimens with the
same height to width ratio (table 4.4), for instance, it has a
standard deviation of only 0.04 and 0.08 for the specimens with
H/a =2 using Muguruma's and Niyogi's data respectively.
Meyerhof tends to over-estimate the strength of high blocks and
under-estimate for lower ones. This phenomenon becomes obvious
for a block with height less than its width (table 4.4b and
fig. 4.10). It has an overall mean for all the specimens of
1.224 and standard deviation of 0.406. Meyerhof has considered
the effect of height on the bearing capacity of the concrete
block but gives the wrong trend. With his method of
calculation
bearing
strengthdecrease
withthe decreasing
height of the blocks but in fact, bearing strength is increased
with decreasing height except for very short blocks H/a<0.33.
Generally, Meyerhof's formula is not accurate for the
estimation of bearing strength of the concrete block especially
with specimens which have their height less than the width.
Hawkins gives better result in comparison with those
calculated by Meyerhof. Although the mean for all specimens
with H/a>1 of 0.888 is not as good as the 0.98 given by
Meyerhof, the standard deviation is much smaller at 0.101 for
specimens with H/a>1 and 0.158 for all specimens. Moreover,
the mean for all specimens is good with only 5.4%
under-estimated. With Hawkins' formula the results are similar
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108 CHAPTER 4
to those obtained from Meyerhof's formula, in that there is a
trend of increasing under-estimation as the height to width
ratio decreases. However, with H/a<0.33 a sudden decrease in
bearing strength is recorded with Niyogi's data (mean test to
calculated bearing strength equal to 0.81). This is probably
due to the restraining force, which has increased to its
maximum as the height decreases. Further reduction in height
of the specimens may result in the weakening of the splitting
strength of the specimen as the cross-sectional area is
decreasing with height. Hawkins equation represents an
improvement in the estimation of the bearing strength of
concrete blocks in comparison with Meyerhof's estimation. It
is an acceptable means of estimation, but it should be borne in
mind
that there is a certain percentage of over-estimation.
Shelson, Kriz, Muguruma and Niyogi developed empirical
formulae. Amongst these four formulae, Shelson gives the best
result with an overall mean of: 1.005 and a standard deviation
of 0.242, although there is obvious scatter on the graph
(fig. 4.12). The result is improved somewhat if only blocks
with H/a>1 are considered: the formula has a slightly
over-estimating mean of 0.958 and smaller deviation of 0.208.
Kriz's empirical formula gives the safest estimate which has
over 207. of under-estimation for specimens with H/a>1 and 257.
for all specimens. His result is even more scattered than
those with Shelson's formula; it has an overall standard
deviation of 0.387 and 0.325 for all the specimens with H/a>1.
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109 CHAPTER 4
Muguruma's formula is the only empirical formula which
considers the effect of height on the bearing capacity of the
concrete blocks. This gives reasonably good results
(mean = 0.915, deviation = 0.121), for specimens with H/a>1.
However, his formula fails to gives a reasonable estimate for
specimens with H/a<1, and his estimation of bearing capacity
becomes negative, for a block with H/a = 0.33 (table 4.4b),
which is not acceptable. Fig. 4.14 shows that his equation
over-estimates the strength of nearly all the specimens
particularly for specimens with H/a<1. The overall mean and
standard deviation are 0.751 and 0.368 respectively.
Niyogi's formula is another one which over-estimates the
bearing capacity of the concrete block with a large standard
deviation. He seriously over-estimates for concrete blocks
with H/a? 1, mean = 0.889 and with a good standard deviation,
0.244. The mean is improved at, 0.946 when all specimens,
including those with H/a<1, are considered but the deviation
becomes worse at, 0.329. In general, Muguruma's formula is
good for the estimation of the bearing capacity of concrete
blocks with H/a>1 but it cannot be used for blocks with H/a<1.
Shelson gives a reasonably good estimate for all specimens
including those with H/a<1. Kriz's formula is the safest
estimator even for specimens with H/a<1 and it can be used as
an upper bound bearing capacity.
Jensen's model is based on the equilibrium of internal
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110 CHAPTER 4
energy and external work. With his method of calculation, he
seriously over-estimates the bearing strength of the concrete
blocks with H/a>1 and with a large standard deviation
(mean = 0.643, deviation = 0.205). Fig. 4.16 shows that he has
more or less over-estimated the strength of all the specimen
with H/a>1 and under-estimated all those with H/a<1. In
general, his formula gives scattered results with an overall
mean and standard deviation are 0.884 and 0.374 respectively.
The proposed model gives excellent results for all the
specimens with H/a>1; it has a mean of 1.005, which represents
an under-estimate of only 0.5% and a small deviation of 0.098
(see fig. 4.17). However, if specimens with H/a<1 are also
considered, the result is not so good. The overall mean and
standard deviation are 1.072 and 0.181 respectively. Moreover,
the under-estimate seems to increase with the decrease in H/a
ratio. Fig. 4.9 plots the mean of the ratio of bearing capacity
obtained in the tests to values obtained by the proposed model
for each group of data against its corresponding height to
width ratio. The number beside each symbol is the number of
blocks involved in the relevant group. This shows that the
under-estimate increases exponentially as H/a decreases.
Regression analysis leads to the following equation:
fb Ifb=0.657 e
1.15H/a+0.9 (4.12)
(test) (cal.)
The increase in bearing strength for shorter blocks is
believed to come from three sources:
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111 CHAPTER 4
<1> As the blocks become shorter, the end of the tension zone
is disturbed and the transverse tensile stress will not be
zero at the bottom of the block. These restraining forces
will increase the bearing strength of the concrete block.
<2> The vertical compressive stress at the base of the block
will not be distributed linearly. It will change to a
triangular or even trapezoidal distribution of stresses.
<3> With the rearrangement of vertical compressive stress at
the base of the block, the horizontal restraining force
which had been ignored in high blocks becomes dominant and
this will increase the bearing strength of the concrete
block.
The proposed model can be improved for shorter blocks by
solving the above three problems. However, due to the
complexity of stress in the tension zone and the variable
source of the restraining force, it is quite difficult to
analyse systemtically. However, the proposed model can still
be improved by means of Eq. 4.12. Using this equation to modify
the bearing capacity calculated by the proposed model, the
result will be improved considerably.
This modified proposed model, gives a mean and standard
deviation of 0.984 and 0.085 for all the specimens with H/a>1
respectively. Moreover, it improves the overall mean and
standard deviation from 1.072 to 1.010 and 4.191 to 0.137
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112
i. 6e
®4® --- Nt.yogt. ' a data
Nuguruna' a data
1.5 --- Krtz'a data
® --- Present data
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1.30
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Fi.g. 4.9 Effect of height on the bearing capact. yof concrete bLocks.(Calculated by the proposed model)
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114
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0.3 1.0 1.5 2.0 Zä LO 33 1.0 4.3 5.0
C. Lou lot od bear t rng as rouge h ratio
F ig. 4.1 0. Expt. ve ca Lou Let ed beer I ng strength.
(Meyer-hof 'a formu La)
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(Hawkins' formula)
0.5 1.0 1.3 2.0 2.5 &0 55 4.0 4.5 5.0Co lau tat ad ber i ng ei rwngt h red o
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I1I
FIg. 4.1 2. Expt. ve ca lcu Lat ed boor t ng et rongt h.
(She Leon 'a formu La)
ßS 1.0 1. S 2.0 2.5 30 bS 4.0 4.3 10
C. Loul. tod b. wrtng otr. ngsh rssto
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I , Lz
CatouLas. d b. wtna . trorVsh res to
Ftg. 4.13. Expt. va ca lcu lat ed bearing at rongt h.
(Kr iz 'a formu la)
ds 1.0 1.5 10 2.5 30 3S 4.0 4.5 so
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ýý3
F19.4.1 4. Expt. vs ca lcu Lat ed bearing st rangt h.
(Mugurums 's formu La)
ILS 1.0 1.5 2.0 25 LO 33 4.0 4.5 %0
C. Loulot od bow-Ing strength rot to
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c114
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(N I yog I 's formula)
0.3 1.0 1.5 10 2.5.0
33 4.0 4.3 5.0
C. Lou l. t. d b.. -1 ng at r. ngs h rOt 10
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1-ý5
Ftg. 4.1 6. Expt. ve cs Lcu let ed beer t ng at r®ngt h.
(Jansen 's mods L)
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%2b
CGLou L. s. d bow- t ng "I rer4t hr -as c
Fiq. 4.17. Expt. vs ce lcu let ed bearing strength.
(Proposed model)
aä 1.0 1.3 10 is L0 as 4.0 4.5 5.0
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Fig. 4.1 8. Expt. vs cs lcu lst sd bearing strength.
(Modified proposed modal)
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128 CHAPTER 4
respectively. Fig. 4.18 shows that after multiplication by the
factor in Eq. 4.12, most of the data are congested around the
diagonal line.
Furthermore, table 4.5 tabulates the estimation of bearing
capacity (test/cal. ) with different formulae and models for all
the eccentric loaded specimens available C30,49]. It shows
that the proposed model also produces good results for
eccentrically loaded blocks. It has the best mean and standard
deviation of 0.945 and 0.140 respectively when compared with
estimations from other formulae. Therefore, it is concluded
that the proposed model is a sound method of estimation of
bearing capacity of concrete blocks both under concentric and
eccentric loading.
4.6.2 REINFORCED CONCRETE BLOCKS
Table 4.6 tabulates the result of all the reinforced
concrete blocks tested with the calculated values using
Kriz's C49] and Al-Nijjam C63] formula. It seems that both
Kriz and Al-Nijjam have over-estimated the bearing capacity of
the reinforced concrete blocks by around 277. and 7%
respectively. They both have similar standard deviations of
around 0.130 and 0.129 respectively. However, over-estimation
of the strength of the reinforced concrete block may not be due
to the theory itself, it is possibly due to the ineffectiveness
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1'29
Spec. Na Ast r ft Kr. z Eq. 2.54 L-Ntjjan Eq. 2.5 Proposed Eq.4. i2
no. (on. (ma.e(NIan 1 IN/nn) tb/to GA8Ycot tb/to C88YCoL tb/to cesyco,,
R1/i 180 226 45.3 3.37 1.80 0.72 1.59 0.82 1.22 1.07
Ri/2 180 628 46.6 3.63 2.28 0.55 1.89 0.66 1.14 1.10
R2/i 180 402 46.0 3.70 2.04 0.65 1.61 0.83 1.21 1.10
R2/2 180 402 46.0 3.70 2.04 0.62 1.44 0.88 1.21 1.04
R3/i 180 622 43.4 3.50 2.35 0.74 1.77 0.99 1.21 1.45
R3/2 180 603 43.4 3.50 2.33 0.63 1.76 0.83 1.21 1.21
R4/i 180 402 47.0 3.45_ 2.02 0.70-1.61
0.88 1.19 1.19
R4/2 180 402 47.0 3.45 2.02 0.68 1.61 0.86 1.19 1.16
R5/i 180 301 45.9 3.77 1.90 0.73 1.47 0.95 1.21 1.15
R5/2 180 301 45.9 3.77 1.90 0.72 1.39 0.99 1.21 1.13
R6/i 130 301 39.5 3.29 1.84 0.72 1.50 0.88 1.08 1.22
R6/2 80 301 39.5 3.29 1.56 0.83 1.50 0.87 0.97 1.34R7/i 280 301 45.3 3.36 - 2.22 0.73 1.47 1.11 1.48 1.10
R7/2 230 301 45.3 3.36 2.08 0.75 1.47 1.06 1.33 1.17
R8/i 180 - 463 3.29 1.02 1.15 1.14 1.03 1.27 0.99
R8/2 330 301 463 3.29 2.32 0.75 1.47 i. 18 1.60 1.07
mean 0.729 0.926
standard devi. att. on 0.130 0.129
Table 4.6 fb/fc caLcuLated by various researchersfor reinforced concrete blocks.
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130 CHAPTER 4
of some forms of reinforcement. For instance, A1-Nijjam's
formula successfully estimates the bearing strength of block
R3/1 which may be said to have effective reinforcement, with a
test to calculated bearing capacity of 0.99 which is a good
result. On the other hand, a test to calculated bearing
capacity ratio of 0.66 is obtained for block R1/2, which is
consisered to have ineffective reinforcement. Therefore, at
this stage it cannot be concluded whether Kriz's or Al-Nijjam
model can be used generally as a means of calculation for
reinforced concrete blocks.
Table 4.6 also tabulates the bearing capacity estimated by
the modified proposed model as if they were plain concrete
blocks..
The ratio of the test to calculated values of bearing
capacity is also tabulsted on the table. This can give an
indication of the effectiveness of each form of reinforcement,
and it is found that there are mostly 10 to 20% increases in
bearing strength due to the presence of reinforcement. The
most extra-ordinary one is block R3/1, which has more than 457.
increase in strength with the presence of reinforcement.
Fig. 4.19gives a plot of
thy?percentage increase in strength
with reinforcement for all the specimens in the present
investigation.
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131 CHAPTER 5
5 LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE SHEAR STRENGTH OF REINFORCED
CONCRETE DEEP BEAMS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, short span reinforced concrete panels are often
used as structural members in civil engineering works and are
referred to as deep beams. They can be defined as beams whose
depth is of the same order of magnitude as span. The stresses
in a deep beam differ radically from stresses predicted by
ordinary beam theory because simple beam theory does not
account for the vertical normal stresses induced by the applied
loads and supports nor for the shearing deformations. The
shear strength of a deep beam is significantly greater than
predicted using expresions derived from simple beams. As
increasingly design is carried out on a basis of ultimate
strength, there is a need to understand the ultimate behaviour
and strength of deep beams.
The investigation of the stresses and ultimate strength of
deep beam is not a new subject. Different researchers have
different techniques of investigation and have arrived at
various results. In this chapter, an overall review of
previous research on deep beams is presented.
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132
5.2 ELASTIC SOLUTION
CHAPTER 5
Dischinger [22,1932] was the first researcher looking into
the stress distribution in deep beams with periodic loading
represented by Fourier series and he constructed a stress
function to satisfy the boundary condition. His results were
later published graphically in a pamphlet by the Portland
Cement Association [72]. In 1951, Chow 118] undertook the
investigation of a single span deep beam by superimposing two
stress functions. He used the stress function of the
continuous deep beam that satisfied all but one of the boundary
conditions and then constructed another stress function by the
principle of virtual work to elimate the normal stress left at
the vertical edges from the first stress function. He solved
thedifferential
equationby the
method offinite differences
and presented the results in graphical and tubular form for
direct use in design. However, Chow could not produce accurate
results at all cross-sections of the beam. Uhlman [80,1952]
was another researcher of that period to investigate a single
span deep beam. He solved the governing differential equations
using Richardson's method of successiveapproximations
and
computed the stress trajectories for a number of loading cases.
His solution can give some guidelines for the design of
reinforced concrete deep beams with discussion of the effect of
the presence of web openings. In 1954, Caswell [16] made use
of photoelastic analysis to investigate the stress distribution
in a simply supported deep beams. In comparing the fringe
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133 CHAPTER 5
'patterns from photoelastic analysis with theoretical estimates,
a close estimate of stress in deep beams subjected to simple
loading was obtained. Kaar [37,38] performed experiments on
small deep beams of aluminium and steel in 1957. He recognized
the gradual departure from the simple linear flexure
relationship to a highly non-linear stress state in a very deep
beam. Archer and Kitchen [4,1956] constructed a stress
function directly by means of virtual work. Their solution of
bending stress agreed well with the results of Chow, but their
shear stresses were not in good agreement. Later, Archer and
Kitchen summerized the solutions of eight loading cases on deep
beams with span/depth ratio equal to 1 together with correction
factors for deep beams with span/depth ratios equal to 1.5 and
2.0 respectively. They presented these in tabular form for the
purpose of design in the later paper [3]. Geer [25,1960] also
used the method of finite differences to solve the differential
equation but with a much finer computational grid than Chow.
He discovered that the greatest tensile stress occurred not at
the mid-span but near the face of the support. In 1961, Saad
and Hendry [74,75] reported the results of a series of
photoelastic tests on simply supported deep beams with either
central load or gravitational load. In the latter case, they
used a large centrifuge to simulate the gravitational loading.
They summarized the results in figures showing the magnitude
and direction of the principal stress. Holmes and Mason [34]
made use of virtual work to present a method in solving the
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134 CHAPTER 5
problems of a single span deep beam supported by a parabolic
shearing forces applied at the vertical edges. Since, this
loading condition does not create a high bearing pressure
around the supports, their results did not differ from the
results obtained by shallow beam theory by as much as might be
expected for beams of deep proportions. In 1973, Bhatt E11]
generated a general procedure for solving continuous deep beams
in statically indeterminate supports. The magnitudes of the
reactions were determined by imposing the condition of
displacements at the support. His solution comprised a power
series and a series of hyperbolic functions. However, his
results of stress distribution for deep beams with three spans
differed little from those obtained by elementary beam theory.
Recently, (1983), Barry and Ainso EiO] applied the multiple
Fourier technique to a simply supported deep beams under
uniform loading at either top edge or bottom edge. They
superimposed three stress functions in order to have all
boundary conditions safisfied. Contour maps of the stress
field were presented and illustrated the apearance of regions
of pure tension and pure compression in the stress fields.
Previous elastic analyses fall within the three
categories: (1) Fourier series technique, (2) Method of finite
differences and (3) Photoelastic technique. However, with the
invention of computer, the above mentioned elastic analyses
have lost some value and have been replaced by the powerful
method of finite element analysis (FEM), fig. 5.1 shows the
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135
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137 CHAPTER 5
horizontal stress distributions at the centre of a simply
supported beam with span/depth ratio from 0.5 to 4.0, analysis
by FEM. It illustrates clearly how the stress dirtribution
deviates from elementary beam theory as the span/depth ratio
decreases. Fig. 5.2 is also the result of FEM analysis; it
gives the vertical and horizontal stress distribution at
various sections along a beam (fig. 5.2) with a span/depth ratio
equal to one, together with the stress contours of the
principal tension and compression stresses (fig. 5.2b).
5.3 EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE DEEP BEAMS
The gradual introduction of limit state analysis into most
national codes implies that elastic analysis is no longer of
prime importance in design. It only gives information of
stress distributions in reinforced concrete deep beams up to
the onset of cracking and also it sheds no light on the modes
of failure which are important in design. For the above
reasons, extensive experiments have been carried on reinforced
concrete deep beams for the past two decades. Some of these
tests are summarized in this section.
Paiva and Siess [69,1965] were early researchers
investigating the shear strength and behaviour of moderately
(span/depth ratios from 2 to 6) deep reinforced concrete deep
beams. The main variables involved in the study were the
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138 CHAPTER 5
amount of main and web reinforcement, concrete strength and the
span to depth ratios. All the beams were 711 mm long and
supported on a span of 610 mm. The depth was varied from 178
to 330 mm with three effective span/depth ratios of 4,3 and 2
respectively. The widths of the beams were varied in such a
way to give a constant cross-sectional area. The bearing plate
at load points and reactions were 101 mm long and it was loaded
at the third points. Fig. 5.3 indicates the dimensions of the
specimens and types of reinforcement used. From the results of
the tests, they concluded that an increase in the concretehas no effect on the beam failing in flexure but increasesthe shear strength
strength n of the beam particularly at low span/depth ratios.
The presence of web reinforcement had no effect on the cracking
load for the shear capacity of a beam with shear span to
effective depth ratio (x/d) greater than 3. However, for x/d
smaller than this value, there is a large increase in shear
capacity beyond the cracking load. Web reinforcement tended to
reduce the deflection at ultimate load.
Leonhardt [53,54,19667 reported the tests of five simply
supported deep beams with span/depth ratio of 0.9. They were
1600 mm square and 100 mm thick. The bearing length was
1600 mm, leaving a span of 1440 mm. All specimens were tested
under uniformly distributed top load; dimensions and
reinforcement details are shown in fig. 5.4. In one of these
beams (WT4), the bearing area was increased by a transverse
strip up to a height of 600 mm from the bottom. It was found
from the tests that tensilestresses
in themain reinforcement
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1
i78 t330
Ij
178
33C
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º-1 iui t- w
610 --ý
133
1
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'1ITrr1 rTrr
11111 IIIII
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i7 610 rf---- 610
F..g. 5.3. Test specl. mens of Patva and St.ess (1965)
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140 CHAPTER 5
do not decrease towards the support as in ordinary slender
beams butremains constant almost to the supports.
Inorder
to
provide anchorage of the main reinforcement, Leonhardt
suggested that long horizontal hook loops should be used in the
main reinforcement at the supports. He stressed that bent up
bars from the main reinforcement mainly received compressive
stresses and therefore serve no purpose. On the other hand,
the weakening of the main reinforcement through bent up rods
reduced the fracture load. In 1968, "Ramakrishnan and
Ananthanarayana (73] presented experiments on 26 single span
rectangular deep beams having span/depth ratios of 1 to 2.
They were tested under concentrated (at a single point and two
points) and distributed loads. All specimens have a constant
span of 686 mm and height varied from 381 to 762 mm. Plain
mild steel round bars were used as reinforcement in all beams.
Details of the dimensions and reinforcement of the beams are
shown in fig. 5.5. Different modes of shear failure were
reported in their investigation. They were classified as
follows;
ti) Diagonal tension failure - characterized by a clean
and sudden fracture. For concentrated loads, it
occurs along a line joining the support and the
loading point. For uniformly distributed loads, it
is along a line joining either support with the
nearest third span point.
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141 CHAPTER 5
(2) Diagonal compression failure - involved with the
formation of two cracks. The first one, developed
nearly along the line joining the support and load
points. The second one is formed parallel to the
first one but closer to the support. Failure of the
beam was by the destruction of the portion of
concrete between these two cracks.
(3) Splitting of the compression zone - characterized by
the clear vertical fracture of the compression zone
at the top of the inclined crack.
(4) Flexure-shear failure - Although the tensile steel
of the beam had considerably yielded but before the
beam could fail in flexure, suddenly diagonal tension
cracks developed and caused the collapse of the beam.
Kong et al 139-47] carried out major tests on reinforced
concrete deep beams. This included experiments with normal
weight and lightweight concrete and with different forms of web
reinforcement. In 1970 and 1972, Kong et al [29,44] presented
an experimental study on the effectiveness of different web
reinforcement in 45 normal weight concrete deep beams. The
types of web reinforcement used are shown in fig. 5.6. Each of
the specimens had an overall length, 915 mm, 762 mm span and
76 mm width. They were tested with span/depth ratios varying
from I to 3 and- loaded with two point loads at their third
span. The bearing length of both the support or loading point
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1412
I81
to
762
1
T81
to762
1
I81
to
762
I
I81
to762
I
Rg. 5.5 Test spect.mens of Ramakrt shnan G Anathanarayana (1968).
76.2
T254
to
762
1
Sen. es 4
C------ýC------ý
Sert. 7
Seri. es 2
Seri. es 5
Seri. es 3
Sert. es 6
Seri. S&0
813 11
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143 CHAPTER 5
was 76 mm. Anchorage of the main reinforcement was provided by
steel blocks at the ends of the beams. It wasfound that the
strength, deflection and crack widths were dependent on the
depth (L/H) and clear span to depth (Xc/H) ratios. For low L/H
and Xc/H ratios, only horizontal web reinforcement near the
bottom of the specimen was effective while for higher L/H (>3)
and Xc /H (>0.7) vertical web reinforcement was more preferable
than others. Inclined web reinforcement was the best in
controlling crack widths and deflection, and could also
increase the ultimate strength of the beams. However, they
pointed out that inclined web reinforcement may be uneconomical
in construction.
Fongand
Robins (42]reported
testson simply supported
lightweight concrete deep beams with dimensions and types of
reinforcement similar to those with normal weight concrete
beams [39,44] except deformed bars were used for reinforcement.
They arrived with similar conclusions as for normal weight
concrete deep beams in that inclined web reinforcement was the
most effective form of reinforcement in controlling crack
widths and deflection and produced higher strength as well. It
was found that the formulae for normal weight concrete deep
beams were not necessarily suitable for lightweight concrete
beams.
Further investigation on lightweight concrete. deep beams
has been carried out by Kong and Singh (47]. Results were
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144 CHAPTER 5
obtained for 45 rectangular deep beams with constant depth,
508 mm, but varying span from 508 to1524
mm.They
weretested
with L/H ratios ranged from 1 to 3 and Xc/H ratios from 0.23 to
0.7. Different types and amounts of web
used as shown in fig. 5.7. It was reported
critically affected the crack and ultimate
Inclined web reinforcement was the most
reinforcement for all ranges of Xc/H rat
reinforcement were
that the X /H ratioc
load of the beams.
effective form of
io tested. For low
Xe/H ratio, the next most effective reinforcement was
horizontal reinforcement placed close to the bottom of the beam
but for higher Xc/H ratios it was vertical web reinforcement.
Generally, The de Paiva and Siess's formula could be used to
estimate
the ultimate strength of lightweight concrete deep
beams, but was not so accurate as for normal weight concrete
beams.
Reinforced concrete deep beams subjected to repeated
loadings were also tested by Kong et al [48]. All the beams
tested were 76 mm thickness, 1524 mm span and had two different
heights of 508 and 762 mm (span/depth ratios were 3 and 2
respectively). They were loaded with 3 clear shear span/depth
ratios (Xc/H = 0.25,0.4 and 0.55). It was found that inclined
diagonal web reinforcement was still the most effective in
controlling crack width, reducing deflection and increase shear
strength of the beam. de Paiva and Siess design formula was
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05
T0.8
I
º{ f-76.2
50 to 152 -. -i Series iB
Sert. es IA
Series 2A
Sert, es 4A
Sert.es 2B
Sert. es 4B
Sen. es 5A
Series 6A
Ft.g. 5.7
Series 5B
f
Serves iC
Series 2C
Serves 4C
Serves 5C
Test spemmens of Kong (1972)
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146 CHAPTER 5
more accurate for deep beams with a repeated loading history.
Repeated load (within the tested range, mean level of load and
number of cycles) had no overall effect on the ultimate shear
strength of the reinforced concrete deep beams.
Amongst all the deep beams tested by Kong 139-47] four
principal modes of failure were reported. They are as follows
(1) Splitting of the beam into two by a diagonal crack.
(2) Crushing of the concrete between two diagonal cracks.
(3) Penetration of a diagonal crack into the concrete
compression zone near a bearing plate and failure of the beam
resulting from by the crushing of the concrete in the reduced
compression zone. (4) Crushing of the concrete at a load
bearing block (true crushing failure mode).
Al-Najjim (63] reported tests of 24 simple supported
beams, of which 6 had no web reinforcement, and the others were
reinforced with different forms of reinforcement; horizontal,
vertical, orthogonal and inclined web reinforcement. Amongst
the tested beams, 8 had vertical stiffening ribs to prevent
failure due to bearing at the supports. In fact, with the
exception of the specimens with stiffened ribs, most of them
failed by crushing of concrete above the supports; However, he
arrived a conclusion similar to Kong et al 147] in that for
small clear span/depth ratios, horizontal and diagonal web
reinforcement were more effective while vertical web
reinforcement was suitable for beams with larger clear
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147
span/depth ratios.
CHAPTER 5
Smith and Vantsiotis E77] presented tests on 52 deep
reinforced concrete beams under two point loading. All the
beams tested had a constant depth of 356 mm, 102 mm thickness
and varying lengths from 1420 to 2080 mm. They were tested
with spans varying from 813 to 1470 mm in 4 clear span/depth
ratios (Xc/H) of 0.77,1.01,1.34 and 2.01 respectively. Five
of the beams had no web reinforcement, the rest of them having
horizontal and vertical web reinforcement percentages ranging
from 0.23 to 0.91% and from 0.31 to 1.25% respectively. The
forms of reinforcement used are shown in fig. 5.9. It was
reported that failure of the beams was caused by crushing of
concrete in the reduced compression zone at the head of the
inclined crack or by fracture of concrete along the inclined
crack. Beams with web reinforcement has smaller cracks and
less damage at failure. Increasing the ratio Xc/H could
increase the deflection and reduce the ultimate load of the
beam. It was also found that the effectiveness of the vertical
reinforcementdiminished
andthe influence
ofhorizontal
web
reinforcement increased as Xc/H decreased. Concrete strength
played an important parts in the ultimate shear strength of
deep beams exceptionally at low clear shear span/depth ratios.
Besser (12,13] carried out tests on 7 deep reinforced
concrete panels with depth ranging from 720 to 2880 mm
corresponding to span/depth ratios from 0.25 to 1.0. All the
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vart, esP-
v-t. es
508
or762T
J@f'{. 6S A
6mmnomi,aL dta. att. rrupeHort. zontat spacing 152 mm.Vertt. cat spaci. ng 76 mm.
6 am nom.aL di.a. st t rrupa.Hor. zontal, spacing 152 nn.Vertical, spacing 38 ma & 108 mm.
Serves B
6 mmnom.oL di.a. tncU. ned stirrup.
at 45 dogs. to hort.zontaL. at 76 mmspaCi. g hori.zontaLLU. -
Series C
Ft.g. 5.8 Test spect. mens by Kong (1974).
0
Lai
LAj
LU
148
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149 CHAPTER 5
specimens had span 720 mm, overall length 872 mm and 72 mm
thickness, the depth/thickness ratios varied from 10 to 40.
They were reinforced with four 10 mm diameter bars as main
reinforcement which were anchored by external steel blocks at
the ends of the panel. Web reinforcement was orthogonal
arranged with 5.3 mm plain mild steel bars. Detail of the
dimension and reinforcement of the specimen is shown in
fig. 5.9. It was reportedthat the
diagonal crackloads
were
increased as span/depth ratio decreased from 1 to 1/3 and
thereafter they were unaffected by the depth of the panel. For
a specimen with span/depth ratio equal to 1, failure was by
shearing along the line joining the load and support points.
Bearing failure at the support was dominant in the specimens
with span/depth ratios ranging from 0.28 to 0.67. However,
failure by buckling of the specimen was reported with
span/depth ratios equal to 0.25 (height/thickness ratio equal
to 40).
5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE
DEEP BEAMS
A brief summary of various documents providing guidance
for the design of reinforced concrete deep beams follows;
5.4.1 PORTLAND CEMENT ASSOCIATION C72,1946]
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150 CHAPTER 5
This is a design method based on the elastic analysis and
not on the results of ultimate load tests. It is applicable to
reinforced concrete deep beams with the span/depth ratio (L/H)
not exceeding 1.25 for simply supported beams and 2.5 for
continuous beams. Design charts are used as a method of design
and it is based on two parameters: the height to span ratios
(p=H/L) and ther ratios of the support width to span (E=a1/L).
They can be calculated according to the loading and supporting
conditions as follows;
r of/L continuous beams
-{ 0.5 U. D. L. (simple beam) (5. la)I
a1/2L point load (simple beam)
f H/L continuous beamp=i (5. ib)
I HI2L simple beam
After obtaining the values of e and p from eq. 5.1, tensile
force T in terms of total load can be found from a design
chart. Thus, the area of the main longitudinal steel can be
calculated by
Ast = T/fs (5.2)
where f5 is the allowable working stress in steel. It was
suggested that the main longitudinal reinforcement should be
placed as close as possible to the lower edge of the beam.
Shear stress in the beam should be limited by
v= 8V/7b-d < (1+5H/L)v /3 (5.3)c
where v= shear stress of the beam
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151 CHAPTER 5
V= applied shear force
vc = allowable shear stress for slender beams.
5.4.2 DE PAIVA AND SIESS 169.19651
Previously, Laupa 151] had derived an expression for the
shear strength of reinforced concrete beams;
v= V/b-H = 200 + 0.188f' + 21300Pt (5.4)
where v= nominal shear strength, psi.V= shear force, lb.
f' = cylinder compressive strength of concrete, psi.
H= depth of the beam, inches
b= thickness of the beam, inches.
and
Pt = AS (1 + sing)/b-H (5.5)
in which As = Total sectional area of steel crossing a vertical
section between the load point and support.m= Angle of inclination of reinforcement to the axis
of the beam and should not be greater than62.7 degress.
Using De Paiva's experimental data to calculate shear
strength by Eq. 5.4, a linear relationship was found between
experimental and calculated values. It varied with the clear
shear span/depth ratio in such a way that
V(expt.)/V(cal. ) = O. 8(1-0.6Xc/H) (5.6)
and is valid for Xc/H between 0 and 1. Therefore, an
expression for computing the ultimate load of reinforced
concrete deep beams was obtained as follows.
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152 CHAPTER 5
Pu = 2-b-H-v = 1.6(200+0.188f'+21300Pt)(1-O. 6Xc/H) (5.7)
5.4.3 RAMAKRISHNAN AND ANANTHANARAYANA [73]
According to the results of their experiments, it was
found that most beams failed in a diagonal tension mode. This
mode of failure was similar to that of a cylinder splitting
test, and therefore, equations were developed to predict the
ultimate shear strength of reinforced concrete deep beams based
on the equations for the evaluation of splitting strength of
concrete. The splitting strength of the concrete ft can be
expressed as;
ft= F/K-A (5.8)
where F= Maximum splitting force.
A= Area resisting the splitting force.
K=1.57 for cylinder splitting test.
Consider an eccentric single point load acting at the top
of the beam as shown in fig. 5. lOa and resolve it according to
the figure. It can be seen that the splitting force of the
failure strut will be equal to
F= Pu-cos4/sin (e++) (5.9)
where 4>e
The area resisting the splitting force is
A= b"H-cosec+ (5.10)
By substituting Eq. 5.8-10, the ultimate load of the reinforced
concrete deep beams failed in diagonal tension will be
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153 CHAPTER 5
pu = K(1 + tane-cat+) -ft"b-H (5.11)
For a central concentrated load e=+, thus the ultimate diagonal
tension failureload will be
Pu = 2K-ftb-H (5.12)
For a two-point loaded deep beam as shown in fig. 5.10b, the
splitting force, F is
F=P -cosecs/2 (5.13)u
and the area resisting the splitting force is
A= b-H-cosece (5.14)
Therefore, the ultimate load for a deep beam with two-point
load is
Pý = 2-b "H-K-ft (5.15)
For uniformly distributed load on the top of the beam
(fig. 5.10c), the ultimate load can be found by considering it
as a superimposition of a series of point loads and integrating
it throughout the span of the beam. The splitting force
reached a maximum when the diagonal crack plan was defined by
tans = 3H/L (5.16)
and the total ultimate load Pu on the beam is given by
Pu = 2K-ft "b -H (5.17)
The value of K can lie between 1.0 and 1.57 depending on
the method used for accessing the tensile splitting strength of
concrete. Generally, a value of 1.12 is a 'reasonable lower
bound for all the tested beams. Moreover, during the
derivation of the above expression, the effect of web
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154 CHAPTER 5
reinforcement has been
authorhad little
or
conclusion can be made
used for beams with web
tool to estimate the cr,
deep beam.
neglected and tests carried out by the
no web reinforcement.Therefore,
no
as to whether these equations can be
reinforcement. However, it provided a
acking strength of a reinforced concrete
5.4.4 COMITE' EUROPEEN DU BETON - FIP 1171
CEB-FIP recommended that beams with span-depth ratios less
than 2 and 2.5 for simply supported beams and continuous beams
respectively should be designed as deep beams. In this section
only simply supported deep beams with top load are discussed.
The area of main reinforcement should be calculated from the
largest bending moment in the span, using the lever arm, z
defined as follows:
f O. 2(L + 2H) I< L/H <2
z=i (5.18)10. bL L/H <1
The main reinforcement should be extended without reduction
from one support to the others and anchored with a force equal
to 0.8 times the maximum force calculated. It should also be
distributed uniformly over a depth 0.25H-0.45L (<0.2L),
measured from the lower face of the deep beam. In order to
facilitate anchorage at the support and limit the development
of cracks and crack width, small diameter bars should be
employed. Anchorage by means of vertical hooks is not
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155 CHAPTER 5
recommended as it tends to promote cracking in the anchorage
Zone.
For top loaded deep beams, CEB-FIP proposes the use of
orthogonal reinforcement in the web, consisting of vertical
stirrup and horizontal bars on both faces of the beam. The
area of the reinforcement is given by 0.0025b. s for a smooth
round bar or O. 002b. s for a high-bond bar, where b is the
thickness of the beam and s is the spacing between bars. It is
interest to note that most of the CEB-FIP recommendations are
based on the findings of Leonhardt and Walther (53,54].
5.4.5 ACI COMMITTEE 318
The proposed revision of ACI 318-63: Building Code
Requirements for Reinforced Concrete E2] has a section of
recommendations on the design of deep beams and they will be
discussed briefly here.
The revised ACI Code is applicable to mambers with clear
span to effective depth ratio (Lo/d) less than 5 and loaded at
top or compression face when designed for shear. The shear
strength of the reinforced concrete deep beams, v is believed
to be composed of the nominal shear strength provided by
concrete, vc, and the nominal shear strength provided by shear
reinforcement, vs, so that
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156 CHAPTER 5
v=v+v (5.19)c5
Regardless of the amount of web reinforcement, the nominal
shear strength, v is limited by the following expressions
v= k- v (5.20)u
ra-f,
0.5Lo/d <2
and vu j(5.21)
l2(1O+Lo/d)f'0.5/3 2< Lo/d <5
where k= the capacity reduction factor and is taken as 0.85
The nominal shear stress, vc carried by concrete is calculated
by
vc = (3.5-2.5M/V-d) (1.9f'0.5+2504p"V-d/M)
< 2.5 (1.9fß "'+2 500p -V -d/M) (5.22)
< 6f* 0.5c
where M, V = the design bending moment and shear force at the
critical setion respectively.
p= the ratio of main reinforcement As to the area bxd
of the concrete section.fc = compressive cylinder strength, psi.
The remaining shear stress is carried by the web reinforcement
and it can be calculated by
v= V-Vsc
=fy-Awv(1+La/d)/(12Sv-b)
+fy-Awh(11-Lo/d)/12Sh-b)
(5.23)
where A= area of vertical shear reinforcement within awv
distance, Sv
Awh = area of horizontal shear reinforcement within a
distance Sh.
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcement, psi.
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157 CHAPTER 5
However, irrespective of the values of shear stress, the
cross-sectional areas of vertical and horizontal reinforcement
should not be less than 0.15%B. L and O. 25%b. d respectively.
5.4.6 KONG [40.45]
Kong has proposed a design formula to calculate the
ultimate shear strength of reinforced concrete deep beams for
both normal and lightweight concrete. The formula can be used
for beams with span/depth ratio not greater than 3 if the clear
span/depth ratio does not depart widely from the range 0.23 to
0.7. The formula is as follows:
Pu = 2[C1(1-0.35Xc/H)ft-b-H
+ C2 EA -y"sin2a/H] (5.24a)5
where Pu = ultimate load of the deep beam.
C1 = coefficient equal to 1.4 for normal weight concrete
and 1.0 for lightweight concrete.
C2 = coefficient equal to 130 and 300 N/mm2
for plain
round bars and deformed bars respectively.ft = cylinder splitting strength, N/mm2.
b= thickness of the beam, mm.H= overall depth of beam, mm.y= depth of bar, measured from top of beam to the point
where it interests the line joining the inside. edgeof the bearing blocks at the support to the outsideedge of that at the loading point.
a= angles between bars and the line described above.
n= numbers of bars, including the main reinforcementthat cross the line between support and loadingblock.
Recommendations have also been made for the design of flexural
reinforcement. Longitudinal main reinforcement should be added
so that the bending moment will not exceed.
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158 CHAPTER 5
M<O. 6As-fy-H/ym or O. 6As-fy-L/rm (5.24b)
Since theamount of
flexuralreinforcement required
in deep
beams is small and main reinforcement can also act as web
reinforcement, although the above formula gives conservative
results, it does not lead to wasteful use of reinforcement.
5.4.7 CIRIA GUIDE 2 E68.1977]
This is the most comprehensive set of rules and
recommendations available for the design of deep flexural
members. It can be used for beams with span/depth ratios less
than 2 for single span or less than 2.5 for continuous
supports. A brief summary of the design method is listed
below.
(a) Design for flexure
The area of main reinforcement can be calculated by
AS = M/O. 87fy-z (5.25)
where M= Design bending moment.fy = yield strength of the reinforcement.
z= lever arm at which the-reinforcement acts and is
given by
4.2L + 0.4H single span L/H <2
z=1 (5.26)L O. 2L + (). 3H continuous L/H < 2.5
For a simply supported single span deep beam, the main
reinforcement should be distributed uniformly over a depth of
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159 CHAPTER 5
O. 2H at the bottom of the beam. Reinforcement is not curtailed
in the span and must be anchored to develop 80% of maximum
ultimate force beyond the face of the support. Twenty percent
of bars should anchor beyond a point 0.21 from support.
(b) Design for shear
For top loaded beams, tl
defined as either the clear
contributes more than 50% of
distributed load. In the case
has more than 50% of the total
clear span should be taken as
Xe. The shear strength for top
he effective clear span Xe is
shear span for a load which
shear or 4.25L for uniformly
of more than one load but none
shear, the weighted average of
the effective clear shear span,
loaded reinforced concrete deep
beams can be estimated by
Vu = rl"b-H(1-0.35Xe/H)-fcu+r2-E100A5-y-sin2oa/H (5.27)
< 1.3b"H-ri -fcu
f 0.44 for normal weight concretewhere ri =j
1.0.32 for lightweight concrete
i1.95 N/mm2 for deformed bars
r2 =11
0.85 N/mm2 for plain bars
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160
(c) Bearing capacity
CHAPTER 5
CIRIA Guide limited the maximum bearing stress to O. 4f'
and the bearing length is regarded as the lesser of the actual
bearing length al and O. 2Lc.
5.4.8 AL-NAJJIM (63)
Al-Naijim proposed a structural model of failure of
reinforced concrete deep beams with and without web
reinforcement. There are a numbers of assumptions and they are
listed below:
(1) Steel is assumed to be properly anchored so as to
developa
tieand strut action.
(2) Steel is assumed to be perfectly plastic and has a
yield stress, fy in tension.
(3) Steel is assumed to carry only uni-axial stress alongthe original bar direction.
(4) The size of the compressive strut is determined eitherby the yield resistance of the tension steel or by
local conditiona at supports.
(5) The struts between loads and suports are deflected bythe presence of web reinforcement. For uniform websteel, the deflected strut is in parabolic form.
(6) The force in the main steel decreases towards the
supports and this is due to the presence of vertical
stirrups.
Al-Najjim 163] presented his model in many loading conditions
(single point, two point and uniformly distributed load) and
with different types of web reinforcement. To be brief, only
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161 CHAPTER 5
beams with uniformly distributed orthogonal web steel and under
two-point load are discussed here. Fig. 5.12shows
the
dimenmsions of the beam, notation and the forces to maintain
equilibrium. There are two modes of failure as follows:
(A) Failure of the tie
By taking moments at the intersecting
of the strut with the direction of the
considering the horizontal equilibrium of
the following equatons are obtained.
Vu = (Ts -z + 0.9d-Zw-H - AT
point of the centre
load (point A) and
one of the struts,
5)/X (5.28)
and yo = (TS + 0.9d-NW - ATS)/(b-ft2-f (5.29)
where z= d-y0/2 & ZW = 0.45d - ya/2 (5.30)
and Hw = Asw/b-Sh
V=A /b -Sw sv v
Ts = Tensile force of the main reinforcement.
ATs = Loss of tensile force towards the support due to the
presence of vertical reinforcement.y0 = Depth of the compressive zone at the top of the beam.
Combining Eqs. 5.28-30, the shear strength of the deep beam with
the yielding of the tie is
Vu = Ts (d-K')/X + 0.9d-Hw(O. 45d-K')/X (5.31)
where K' _ (TS 0.9d-Hw-ATs)/2b-p2-fc
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162
(B) Failure of the strut
CHAPTER 5
Consider the equilibrium at one of the support.
Vert.: Vu = wo-b-p`-f'-sine = K-b-p2-fýsin`s (5.32)
Hor.: TS-ATs = wo-b -pL-f' -cose = K-b -p2-fc "sin(2e)/2 (5.33)
since singe =[1
- (1-sin2(2e)]°5
(5.34)
By substituting Eqs. 5.32,5.33 into 5.34, the magnitude of the
tensile force in the main reinforcement Ts' can be found by
solving the equation below.
A-T '2 + H-T +C=0 (5.35)ss
where A=0.81d2 /X2 +1
B=4.73Hw "d3/X2 - 0.9K-d "b -p2-fim/X - 2d -Ts
C= ATs` + 0.16d4. Hty2/X2 - 4.41d2. Hw"K-b"p2"f*/X
After getting the values of TS', the shear strength of the beam
can be found by substituting back into Eq. 5.28, thus
Vu ={Ts'-z
+ 0.9Hw-Zw"d}/X (5.313)
It is noted that the value of ATs (decrease in tension force of
the main reinforcement from mid-span to the support) can be
determined by assuming that both main and web reinforcement
yield, taking moments at A (fig. 5.12) and considering all
forces from mid-span to the support. Integrating it along the
main reinforcement and ATs can be found-by solving the equation
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720
to2880
Fi.g. 5.10 Test specu,mens of Besser (1984).
T1
1Ft.g. 5. i2 Structural, model, proposed by Kong (1972)
.Vu vu
TIw
1
Z
1
fFý'S
a -j X I-"
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CA
Pu
/
fý
H
fIý.
P. cot$
cote+coto
n /n n /e
Pu Cate
cot9+coto
coto. aec8cote+cot
PUCoto
Pu
F . g. 5. ii Effect of Load Ln deep beam by Rama rL shnanand Ananthanarayana (1968)
.
seoo. cot 0Pýcot0+cote
2=Coto
PU cos¢ P corecos(et0
cos(et
PUcosecs
2=cosece
2 Pd2
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165
below.
CHAPTER 5
6T52+( 2b -d -p2 "f '-TS 4.9d -HW
)6Ts-b
-/12-fim W-X2 =0(5.37)
5.5 SUMMARY
(1) Early research on deep beams concentrated on finding the
distribution of stresses within the structures and falls
into three categories (1) Fourier series technique,
(2) method of finite differences and (3) photoelastic
technique.
(2) With the invention of the computer, the finite element
method of analysis has been introduced and virtually
replaced allthe
above mentionedtechniques.
(3) The introduction of limit state design and the non-linear
behaviour of concrete in the presence of cracks has
limited the value of elastic analysis. This has lead to
extensive experimental analysis on reinforced concrete
deep beams during the past two decades.
(4) Paiva and Siess E69] concluded from their experiments that
web reinforcement had no effect on cracking strength of deep
beams with large clear span/depth ratios ( >3 ) but
increases strength with smaller clear span/depth ratios.
Concrete strength increases the shear capacity slightly
with low span/depth ratio but flexural strength is
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166
unaffected.
(5) Leonhardt found that tensile
reinforcement do not decrease ti
ordinary slender beams. He also
of the main reinforcement is very
owing to bent-up bars may lead to
and tie system of the beam.
CHAPTER 5
stresses in the main
awards the suport as in
stressed that anchorage
important, any weakening
the failure of the strut
(6) Ramakrishnan and Ananthanaarayana (73] observed four
different modes of failure and they were (1) diagonal
tension failure, (2) diagonal compression failure,
(3) splitting of the compression zone and
(4) flexural-shear failure. However, the diagonal tension
mode was the most common in their tests and they
" constructed a failure model able to estimate the ultimate
failure load as
Pu = 2K"ft.
b-H (5.12)
(7) Kong E39-47] found that the shear strength, deflection and
crack widths were dependent on the clear span/depth
ratios. He also pointed out that inclined web
reinforcement was the most effective form of reinforcement
and horizontal web reinforcement was more effective than
vertical for low span/depth ratios. Four different modes
of failure were reported; (1) splitting along the diagonal
crack, (2) crushing of concrete along the diagonal cracks,
(3) crushing of concrete in the compression zone and
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167 CHAPTER 5
(4) crushing of concrete in the bearing zone. Based on
the experimental data, empirical formula was drawn up for
the estimation of ultimate loads for reinforced concrete
deep beams.
Pu = 2[C1(1-0.35Xc/H)ft-b-H+C2EA5-y-sin2a/H, (5.24a)
(8) Al-Najjim 163] arrived at the conclusion that inclined and
horizontal web reinforcement were more suitable for beams
with small clear span/depth ratios. Structural models of
the failure mechanism were proposed based on (1) failure
of the strut and tie system in which its shear strength
can be found by Eq. 5.31, and (2) compression failure of
the strut where its shear strength can be found by Eq. 5.36
after obtained the value of Ts' by Eq. 5.35. The predicted
ultimate shear strength will be the lesser of those
obtained by the above two methods.
(9) Smith and Vantsiottis [77] arrived at conclusions similar
to Kong's suggestion. They added that concrete strength
can affect the ultimate shear strength of deep beams
especially at low clear span/depth ratios.
(10) With the exception of one specimen (L/H=1), which. failed
by shearing along the diagonal crack, all the others
(L/H<1) tested by Besser C12,13] were dominated by
crushing of concrete above the supports. Buckling of the
specimen was only observed with specimen having L/H=4.25
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168 CHAPTER 5
and height to thickness ratio equal to 40.
(11) Recommendations for the design of reinforced concretre
deep beams by Portland Cement Association C72] were based
on elastic analysis. They involved the estimation of the
amount of tensile steel required with the help of design
charts and limited the shear stress by Eq. 5.3.
v= 8V/7b-d < (1+5H/L)vc/3 (5.3)
(12) CEB-FIP recommended that the area of main reinforcement
should be calculated from the largest bending moment in
the span with lever arm, z defined by Eq. 5.18. Shear is
controlled by orthogonal web reinforcement with
cross-sectional area equal to 0.0025b"s and 0.002b-s for
plain and deformed bars respectively.
(13) ACI Code limited the maximum shear stress by Eq. 5.21 and
evaluated the shear stress taken up by concrete to be
calculated by Eq. 5.22. The contribution of shear by
reinforcement can be obtained by Eq. 5.23.
(14) CIRIA Guide is the most comprehensive set of rules for the
design of deep beams. The area of main reinforcement can
be calculated by
A= M/0.87fsy
where z is the lever arm and is given by Eq. 5.26. Shear
force is limited by Eq. 5.27 and bearing and bearing stress
is not recommended to exceed 0.4f'.c
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169 CHAPTER 6
6 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF THE SHEAR STRENGTH OF
REINFORCED CONCRETE DEEP BEAM
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In order to cater for large spans in buildings, new
structural systems consisting of frames and deep beams have
evolved. Because of their proportions in depth and span, the
strength of deep beams is usually controlled by shear, rather
than flexure, provided that normal amounts of longitudinal
reinforcement are used. On the other hand, the deep beam's
shear strength is significantly greater than that predicted
using the expression for slender beams, because of its special
capacity to redistribute internal force before failure.
Investigation has been made of the shear strength of deep
beams with different span/depth ratios (0.7 to 1.1) with a
uniformly distributed load on top. In particular, for beams
with low span/depth ratios, bearing failure usually takes place
around the supports. Special forms of reinforcement
(chapter 3) are put into this region to prevent it from failing
in this mode.
6.2 DESCRIPTION OF TEST SPECIMENS
The testspecimens consisted of 6 beams with different
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170 CHAPTER 6
spans varying from 700 to 1100 mm. All had the same dimensions
1260x
1000x
100mm
except for a step of 5 mm which varied in
length according to the span of the beam tfig. 6.1), leaving a
central section over which uniformly distributed load was to be
applied.
All beams were reinforced with a similar amount of steel.
Main longitudinal reinforcement consisted of S plain mild steel
bars with 10 mm nominal diameter. This reinforcement was
placed in 4 layers, consisting of 4 closed stirrups, at 50 mm
spacing. The web reinforcement was provided by an orthogonal
arrangement of bars on both faces of the beam. They were 6 mm
diameter plain mild steel bars, with 100 mm centre to centre
spacing. Vertical reinforcement above each support was four
plain mild steel stirrups, 6 mm in diameter at 66.7 mm spacing.
Beams D82 to DB6 had additional stirrups in the bearing zone
above the supports of the beams so as to resist bearing
stresses. They were plain mild steel bars, 6 mm nominal
diameter and were placed alternatively around the horizontal
reinforcement (fig. 6.1). In order to avoid the anchorage
problems, particularly for main reinforcement, all stirrups
were welded to form a closed link.
6.3 MATERIAL AND MIX DETAIL
Basically similar materials were used as for the bearing
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'7'd
Cb 43' in 90
to
ýF 5a
C0mCl
OA.
mC
toEOCD
.0
ccm
A.ti-0
0tocuM
OJJ
'O
CmEm
ULO
C
mL
CO
a0
.C(0
v
L
CoEO
wC7
ouN
EC
t0
C60,
U..
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172 CHAPTER 6
capacity blocks. Ordinary Portland cement confirming to
British Specification was used throughout. Coarse aggregate
was North Notts quartzite gravel with maximum size of 10 mm,
'irregular' shape and 'smooth' surface texture as classified by
BS 812. Air-dried sand from the same quarry as the coarse
aggregate was used and it was classified as zone 3 according to
BS 882. The grading curves for the fine and coarse aggregatea
are shown in fig. 3.2.
Reinforcement was plain round mild steel bars and a
typical stress-strain curve and strength properties are shown
in fig. 3.3.
The concrete mix used was identical for all the six
specimens, in order to obtain similar strengths of concrete.
The mix proportions by weight were 1: 1.96 : 2.03, with a
water/cement ratio of 0.54. It was designed to give a more
workable mix so that concrete can get through the congested
steel in the bearing zone. Workability tests gave average
values of 120 mm slump, V-B time less than 1 sec. and
compacting factor of 0.95.
6.4 CASTING AND CURING
The reinforcing cage was prepared as shown in fig. 6.1 and
6.2, placed in position on the mould and adjusted to give the
designed cover for the reinforcement. An oiled steel mould
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X73
FL, . 6.2 Typ.cal, cage ret of orcement for deep beams.
FLg. 6.3 Deep beams cost hors.zont aLLy on a vibration t abL e.
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174 CHAPTER 6
1260 x 1000 x 100 was used throughout. The depressions of 5 mm
on each side of the beam were provided by attaching a5 mm
thick plastic strip on the mould. In order to avoid the
variation of strength of concrete with height of the
specimen 1631, all the test specimens were cast horizontally
(fig. 6.3).
For each mix, all the constituent materials were weighed
inthe
required proportionsbefore being fed into
a mixer of
350 kN dry weight capacity. The materials were turned over for
about 15 secs. before the addition of the required quantity of
water. The materials were mixed for 3 minutes in order to
ensure a unform workable mix. It was then poured into the
mould and compacted in two layers on a vibrating table.
Control specimens consisted of three 100 mm cubes, three
15C) mm cubes, eight 300 x 150 mm cylinders and two
100 x 10-0 x 500 mm prisms. They were cast together for each
mix and also compacted on a vibrating table. They were
stripped from the moulds and placed in the curing room at
20 degs. C., relatively humidity of 95-100 percent, 24 hours
after casting. The test specimens were covered with damp
hessian for 3 days, watered constantly and then transferred to
the curing room.
Compressive strengths were obtained by three 100 and
150 mm cubes and four 100 x 150 mm cylinders. Tensile strength
was assessed from four 100 x 150 mm cylinders by the splitting
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175 CHAPTER 6
cylinder test and from one 100 x 100 x 500 mm prism by the
modulus of rupture test. The remaining prism was used to
obtain the Young's Modulus and Poisson's ratio of the concrete.
Similar procedures were applied for casting and curing of the
tests and control specimens so as to have a better indication
of the strength of concrete in the test specimen. The control
tests were made at the time when relevant beams were tested and
were according to E+S 1881. The properties of each specimen are
listed in table 6.1.
6.5 INSTRUMENTS AUD TEST PROCEDURE
Strains on the surface of the concrete were measured by
Demecgauges with
100mm gauge
lengthexcept near
theedge
where space is not available for a 100 mm gauge length, a 5() mm
Demec gauge was used. Strains were measured on twelve
particular sections of the beam (fig. 6.4). Section 1 was a
vertical section along the centre line of the support, and
measurements were made at the level of the reinforcement both
vertically and horizontally soas
toobtain
thevertical
and
horizontal strains. Sections 2 and -3 were vertical sections
similar to section 1 except that they were 200 mm from
section 1 and of the centre of the beam respectively.
Sections 4 and 5 were horizontal sections 20 mm below the top
and 1() mm above the bottom of the beam respectively. They were
chosen to measure the horizontal strains at the top and bottom
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7'C
Con reseLve Tenst. Le Young's Poast.onSpec.
Span SPA
htou(00) fo_Uso) fo ft(oU.. ) tt(pm. ) Modulus ratt. o
Pu
no.
(an. )
dept
ratio N/mn22
N/ ne N/mat N/ mat N/mm22
Ii'/nn IN
Present tnveatt. gatton
081 1000 1.0 67.5 62.7 46.9 3.57 4.06 34.2 0.149 1415
D82 1100 1.1 70.1 58.8 45.4 3.36 3.98 31.3 0.150 1400
083 1000 1.0 74.6 66.2 50.9 3.57 4.06 34.9 0.169 1700
084 900 0.9 69.9 59.4 50.2 4.03 4.53 34.9 0.175 1960
D85 800 0.8 71.4 62.8 47.5 3.82 4.24 35.4 0.173 1975
086 700 0.7 68.1 65.6 49.8 3.77 5.62 32.5 0.158 1980
Notes For aLL the apeci. raen$ a- 1260mA b- i00na h- i000ma.
TabLe 6A Concrete propret t es of the test beams (OBI-0B6).
span/320
Sectton4
ý-"200 neý
I\//
ioo
\On
cu cn '6
c
0IUm m\
ý\ N)l mN
cn tnl wN\\I
nýSeýýi
ýý
r\ \\0or%
eö
Section 5/ T
tospan
FLg. 6.4 Sect Lons on the surface of the beam
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177
Spri
test
specLnen
; eal bean. ng)Late
F , g. 6.5 Loadingg mechant sm of tests wt, h deep beams.
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1 6wýr
ýý, r`yKyýý
yt J, ti'f
9
CLr" i+ y`s. if" [ '. "ariý 71k' ' i/
Lý
.}
ý_
Oi .T "i
..ký
ý ý
i O
ý_ .`c, t}h'$...ý
". ; iº...wig
Iz: CA
m
r. SaW, I
r
wI
K 'J 1L
lot
c
.{ý
Ö
O
Xi ý"
CDIon
F t..
ýý
`Ya
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179
of the specimens.
CHAPTER 6
It was pointed out by Ramakrishnan [73] and Al-Nijjam 163]
that failures of deep beams were in fact failures of the strut
and tie system. Ramkrishnan had suggested that for uniformly
distributed loaded beams, the strut lies on the line between
the support and a third span point on the top of the beam.
Strain measurements on sections 6-12 were specially designed to
investigate this. Sections 6-9were perpendicular
to the
direction of this compressive strut and strains were measured
along the direction of the strut so as to give an idea of the
distribution of compressive strain. Sections 6,7,8 and 9
were at. 100,200,400 and 800 mm respectively from the centre
of the support. Sections 10-12 were lying parallel to the
direction of the strut. Section 11 was passed through the
centre of the support while section 10 was 100 mm inside and
section 12 was 50 mm outside the centre of the support.
Strains were measured both along and across the strut so as to
give compressive and tensile strains at different positions.
Strain of the steel was measured by electrical resistance
gauges and recorded by a data-logger. Strain in the main steel
was measured in three positions; along the centre line, along
the centre of the compressive strut and at the end of the main
reinforcement. Strain in the web reinforcement was measured
along the centre-line of the compressive strut. For those
beams with bearing steel, strain was also measured at the
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180 CHAPTER 6
appropriate positions. Detailed positions of the strain
measurements are shown individually in chapter 7.
When a specimen was ready for test, it was taken out from
the curing room together with the control specimens. A thin
coat of white emulsion was applied. Demec points were fixed
into positions. The specimen was then carefully placed on to
the testing rig. Two bearing plates, each 140 x 100 x 50 mm,
were placed in an appropriate position to give the correct span
of the beam. A roller and a half roller were put underneath
the bearing plates and they were supported by two I-section
beams placed on the floor. A spreader beam was put on the top
of the specimen to obtain an uniformly distributed load. In
order to have a better contact between steel and concrete,
plaster of paris was applied onthe
surfacesbetween the
spreader beam and the specimen and on the two bearing plates
and concrete. The mechanism of loading is shown in figs. 6.5-6.
The beam was then checked for position, vertically
verified and dial gauges were placed and adjusted both under
the base and at the back of the beam for measuring deflection
and horizontal movement respectively. After taking the initial
readings of all the gauges, load was applied in constant
increments of 100 kN. At each stage of loading, gauge readings
were recorded, cracks were marked on the surface and the load
at which it was observed was noted at the end of the crack.
The widths of the cracks were measured by a hand microscope
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lei CHAPTER 6
with a magnification of 40 and graduation in the eyepiece scale
of the microscope corresponded to a crack width of 0.02 mm.
This procedure was repeated until the specimen failed, it was
then removed from the test rig and photographed to record the
final crack pattern. The control specimens were tested on the
same day.
6.6 BEHAVIOUR DURING TESTS
The appearance of the test specimens and their crack
patterns after failure are shown in figs. 6.7-12. The numbers
shown at the ends of the cracks should be multiplied by 10 in
order to obtain the load in kN. Fig. 6.13 shows the development
of crack width withload for three types
of crack;flexural,
shear and bearing.
In beam DB1, fig. 6.7, the first crack to appear was a
flexural crack around the middle bottom section of the beam at
400 M. As load increased to 500 kN, more flexural cracks were
observed in the bottom of the beam. They extended upwards, to
a height of 500 mm above the bottom edge of the specimen, and
cracks widened gradually as load was increased. Cracks in the
middle of the beam extended more quickly than those near the
supports. At 900 kN, a diagonal crack was observed above the
right hand support extending at an angle of 68 degs. which
agrees well with the direction of the imaginary compressive
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182 CHAPTER 6
strut with the horizontal. It extended its length and widened
rapidly, finally coming to a point 200 mm below the top of the
specimen at 1300 M. At 1000 kN, a similar diagonal crack was
formed above the left hand support. As load was further
increased to 1300 kN, vertical cracks (bearing cracks) were
formed above the two supports. Their length extended slowly
but the crack width increased even more rapidly than the
diagonal cracks. Finally, failure of the beam took placeas
the vertical cracks widened so much that pieces of concrete
fell away from the right hand support which could not substain
more load. The beam failed with an audible report and this was
considered as a bearing failure.
Beam DB2 behaved similarly to DB1 in the first stages of
loading. A flexural crack formed at around 500 kN at the
bottom of the beam and extended to 550 mm above the bottom of
the specimen. At 900 kN, a vertical bearing crack was found at
the right hand support and this increased its width vigorously
as shown in fig. 6.13. Shear cracking was found at 1000 kN.
This formed at the end of a flexural crack near the support and
began to extend its length at an angle of 70 degs., which is
again in the direction of the predicted compressive strut, and
stopped when it reached a height of 600 mm above the support.
In the presence of bearing steel, less vertical cracks were
found above the support, as shown in fig. 6.8. However, the
support in this specimen was too near to the edge of the beam
and bearing cracks near the edge were uncontrolled. These
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183 CHAPTER 6
bearing cracks were widening so quickly that at 1400 kN, the
bearing zone is totally distorted and affecting the stability
of the beam. Beam DH2 had not actually failed but it slid off
the testing rig and test was abandoned.
Beam DB3 was identical to DB1 except that reinforcement
was added in beam DB3 near the support in the bearing zone. It
behaved rather similarly to DB1 with the formation of flexural
cracks at 400 kN. Again, these extended upward to a height of
700 mm above the bottom edge of the specimen and widened
gradually as the load was increased. The formation of flexural
and shear cracks was observed at loads of 400 kN and 900 kN
respectively, as in beam DB1. The shear cracking was inclined
at an angle of 70 degs. with the horizontal and agreed well
with the direction of the predicted compressive strut by
Ramakrishnan (73]. It extended almost to the full height of
the specimen. However, the behaviour of the bearing cracks was
the major difference between DB1 and DB3, (fig. 6.9). Beam DB3
had more controlled bearing cracks. They occurred at more or
less the same load as in beam DB1 but crack widths remained
approximately constant (0.04 mm) in beam DB3 whereas extensive
widening up to 0.27 mm at 13DÜkN took place in beam DB1
(fig. 6.13). Moreover, the bearing cracks in beam DB3 remained
short and concentrated in the region of 100 mm above the
support while those in beam DB1 were more widely spread to
200 mm above the support. This shows the effectiveness of the
form of bearing steel used. With this reinforcement, the
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184 CHAPTER 6
bearing zone above the support was held as one unit and beam
DB3 was prevented from failing in bearing, (fig. 6.9b). Loads
could then be increased beyond 1415 kN and finally, failure of
this specimen was by shearing of the concrete along the crack
in the centre of the compressive strut, with the buckling of
vertical steel above the support, together with the dowel
failure of main reinforcement at 1700 kN.
Despite differences in span, beams DB4, DB5 and DB6
behaved very similarly to each other. In general, the first
crack which appeared was a flexural crack in the bottom middle
section of the beam at around 500 to 600 kN. The length and
width of these flexural cracks decreased with the span of the
beam, (fig. 6.10-13). Shear cracks appeared at 700 to 1000 kN
and they were inclined approximately in the direction of the
suggested inclined compressive strut, rising to a height of
900 mm above the bottom of the specimen. As load was
increased, the crack width increased gradually. Around 1200 to
1600 kN, bearing cracks emerged but crack widths did not
increase with load and remained at 0.02 mm until the beam
failed. At later stages of the test, around 1800 to 1900 kN, a
new vertical crack was formed. This was vertically above the
inner edge of the support, originating at a height 600 mm above
the support and extending in both directions until the beams
failed by vertically shearing of the two concrete blocks on
either side of the crack, as shown in fig. 6.10-12. Beams DB4,
DB5and
DB6 failedwith similar
loadsof
1960,1975and
1980 kN
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185 CHAPTER 6
respectively. With the exception of beams D81 and DB2, all
specimensfailed
quite gently with a reasonably audible report.
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I8&
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IPI
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F ,g. 6.8 Crack pattern of beam DB2.
Twi
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iStz
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Ft.g. 6.9 Crack pattern
of beam DB3.
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IF-S
DB... :;[sov t, load i6o
100
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Ft,g. 6. i0 Crack pattern of beam DB4.
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191
Ft,g. 6.12 Crack pattern of beam DB6.
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19-2
in
lfm
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Z 12ý
in
"0ý
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600
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0
to
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Imm
Z tip4
inv"J
i01
201
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161140
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Boom DB I Boom DB2
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B. sm DB3 Boom D64
Boom DBS Bsm D196
of C c3 c1 C5co, / o-j, 01 PI 02 03 cd 05 C6 c7 oh nyCrso kwt ds h (mm. ) Cr. o k width (mm. )
Fig. 6.13. Load ega i nst crack width in beams DB 1-OB6
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193 CHAPTER 7
7 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS - SHEAR STRENGTH OF REINFORCED
CONCRETE DEEP BEAMS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the strains on the surface of the
concrete and in the reinforcement measured during the tests and
the deflections of the specimens will be shown graphically and
discussed in detail. At the end of the chapter, a proposed
model of failure mechanism is drawn up and predicted failure
loads both by the proposed model and formulae from other
researchers are compared with the experimental failure loads.
7.2 STRAIN DISTRIBUTION ON CONCRETE SURFACE
Strain distributions for every measuring section on the
concrete surface (fig. 6.4) are shown in figs. B. 1-18.
Experimental strain distributions are plotted together with the
theoretical values obtained by FEM analysis. Details of their
behaviour will be discussed in later paragraphs.
Fig. 8.1 shows the vertical strain distribution in
section I (fig. 6.4), above the support, for all the six tested
beams. In general, the strain distributions are similar in all
the tested beams. Vertical compressive strain increases
gradually as the support is approached and have a maximum at a
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194 CHAPTER 7
point 100 mm above the bearing plate. Below this maximum
point, the vertical compressive strain decreases slightly.
Strains obtained by FEM analysis are plotted in dotted lines on
the same figure (fig. B. 1). It can be seen that the
experimental and theoretical values agree well for small loads
(less than BOO kN) on the upper section of the beams. At
higher loads, the experimental strain is larger than predicted
by FEM analysis particularly in the regions near the supports.
This is probably due to the formation of a wedge in the
concrete above the bearing plate and large compressive strains
correspond to the action of this wedge of concrete an the
concrete block.
Figs. B. 2 and B. 3 show the vertical strain distributions in
sections 2 and 3 respectively. Strain distributions are
similarin these two sections and with all the test beams, but
they are different from the distribution in section 1. In
sections 2 and 3, the vertical compressive strain has a maximum
at the top and decreases gradually towards the depth of the
beam. At a position 100-200 mm from the bottom of the beam,
the vertical strain becomes zero, and their vertical tensile
strain emerges and increases in magnitude towards the bottom of
the beam. Occasionally, maximum vertical tensile strains were
recorded at 100 mm above the bottom of the beam (DB3 and DB6).
Analysis from FEM shows similar results, a maximum vertical
compressive strain occurs at the top of the beam, it is
constant over the top 200 mm and then decreases more or less
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195 CHAPTER 7
linearly with the depth of the beam. In section 2, the
vertical compressive strain decreases more rapidly at the
position 200 mm from the bottom until a point 100 mm from the
bottom of the beam. Thereafter, the vertical compressive
stress becomes constant. In section 3, the position at which
the compressive strain becomes constant depends on the span of
the beam. Larger spans have a larger constant region which
varies from 250 to 100 mm from the bottom of the beam.
The horizontal strain distributions in sections 1-3 are
shown in figs. B. 4-6 respectively. The horizontal strain
distribution in section 1 (fig. 8.4) is very similar to the
transverse strain distribution along the loading line of the
bearing concrete blocks which has been discussed in chapter 4
(fig. A. 27-34). It has a high compression region close to the
bearingplate and
thena
tensionzone with maximum
tensile
strain occurring at 100 mm from the loaded surface. This
agrees well with the assumption that maximum tensile strain
occurs at a distance al from the loading surface. The tensile
strain gradually diminishes and comes to zero at 900 mm from
the bearing plate. Theoretical analyses with FEM have
tensile strain is not so high as the experimental values.. This is again due
identical results except that the maximum A to the formation of
cracks and a wedge in the bearing zone. It can be seen from
fig. B. 5 that at low load (less than 800 kN) the horizontal
strains in section 2 are very small and approach zero for the
region 200 mm above the bottom and 100 mm below the top of the
beam. For the section below this region, tensile strains were
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196 CHAPTER 7
recorded and for the section above, compressive strains
measured. This is due to the flexural behaviour of the beams.
However, at higher loads intercept the strain-measuring line
creating large strains which correspond to large strain in the
middle section section of the beam. In section 3, large
tensile strains were recorded at the bottom of the beam for
loads greater than 800 kN. The presence of these tensile
strains is due to the formation of flexural cracks at the
bottom of the beams. Therefore the magnitude of these tensile
strain and the affected region is dependent on the span of the
beam. At the top of the beam, small compressive strains were
recorded. In general, theoretical and experimental horizontal
strain distributions in section 1-3 agree well for the region
which is not affected by cracks.
Fig. 8.7 shows the distribution of horizontal strain across
the top of the beams (section 4). It can be seen that
compressive strain was found in all six beams between the two
supports. There is a parabolic distribution of compressive
strain with a maximum at the centre of the beam. Slight
tensile strains were found over the supports. However
analytical results from FEM produce a flatter distribution of
horizontal compressive strains between the supports and a rapid
increase in tensile strain over the supports. In most beams
experimental compressive strains between the supports are
larger than the predicted values while the experimental tensile
strains overthe
supports are smallerthan the
corresponding
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197
theoretical values.
CHAPTER 7
Horizontal strain at the bottom of the beam (section 5) is
shown in fig. 8.8. At small loads (less than 400 kN),
experimental tensile strain between the supports has a
magnitude similar to the analytical values by FEM. At higher
load (greater than 800 kN), the experimental strain
distribution fluctuates due to the existence of flexural
cracks.Therefore,
comparison cannotbe
madebetween
experimental and analytical values at higher loads. However,
rapid changes in strain around the support are recorded by FEM
analysis which seem to be unreasonable in practice.
It was suggested by Ramaskrishnam 1737 that failure of
deep beams was in fact failure of a strut and tie system.
Sections 6-12 were specially designed to investigate the
behaviour of this compressive strut. Sections 6-9 are
perpendicular to this strut, transverse strains being measured
at positions 100,200,400 and 800 mm from the support
(fig. 6.4). Fig. B. 9-12 show the compressive strain across this
compressive strut in section 6-9 respectively. It can be seen
that the magnitude of the compressive strain falls dramatically
at sections further away from the support. In section 6,
maximum compressive strain is found in the centre of the strut
and gradually falls to zero at 150 mm from the centre. In
beams DD4-6, a sudden decrease in compressive strain is found
at 50 mm to the left of the strut; this is believed to be
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198 CHAPTER 7
affected by the presence of shear cracks. Section 7 has a
similar distribution of strains as in section 6 but with
smaller magnitude. Again the maximum strain is found at the
centre of the strut and becomes zero at 100 mm to the left of
the strut. Similar to section 6, a sharp decrease in
compressive strain, affected by shear cracking, is found at
100 mm to the left of the strut in beams DB3-5. It is
interesting to note that to the right of the shear crack high
compressive strains are found but little or no strain was
recorded to the left of it. Therefore, the shear crack is
actually the dividing line of the compressive strut with the
beam. Sections 8 and 9 have similar magnitudes of compressive
strain, these are much less than in sections 6 and 7. The
distribution of strain is comparatively uniform and
occasionally, depressions are present due to the presence of
shear cracks.
Figs. 6.13-15 show the distributions of longitudinal strain
in sections 10-12 respectively (fig. 6.4). In section 10
uniform compressive strain was recorded along the section.
Compression is small in magnitude, around 700 micro-strain,
even at 1600 M. Sections 11-12 have a distribution of strains
similar to section 1 but with larger magnitudes (fig. 8.1). An
increase of compressive strain occurs as the support is
approached and there is a maximum at 100 mm from the support.
Below this point compressive strains begin to decrease.
Transversestrain
distributions insections 10-12 are shown
in
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199 CHAPTER 7
figs. B. 16-18. Compressive strains are found at the top for all
three sections. These compressive strains decrease slowly and
become zero at 900 mm from support. Transverse tensile strains
begin to emerge below this point. Rapid increases in tensile
strain are recorded in section 10 with loads greater than
800 kN. It increases linearly to a point 300 mm from the
support and then decreases. This rapid increase in strain
actually indicates a rotational movement of the concrete block
from the shear crack. The decrease of transverse strain below
300 mm from the support is due to the presence of four main
steel bars of larger diameter which help to hold back the
concrete block. Only small strains were recorded in
sections 11-12 showing that the concrete block is not rotating
along these sections but rotating in section 10.
7.3 STRAIN DISTRIBUTION IN REINFORCEMENTS
The distributions of strain in main and web steel are
shown in figs. B. 19-24. The strains in the bearing steel are
givenby figs. B. 25-29.
On each figure, reinforcement details
are drawn; the position and direction of every strain gauge is
marked on the reinforcement and numbered beside it. It is
drawn together with the variation of strain in each gauge with
loads.
Gauges 1-4 were mounted on the reinforcement in the centre
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200 CHAPTER 7
of the beam. As load is increased, strain increased linearly.
At around 400 to 1000 kN, depending on the span of the beam,
strain increased at a faster rate. This indicates the flexural
cracking of the beam at that load. In the presence of flexural
cracks, of course, strain increases more rapidly remains at
this rate until failure of the beam. It is noted that none of
the gauges shows yielding of the main reinforcement in this
position. Gauges 5-8 were placed along the direction of the
imaginary compressive strut. They again increase in strain at
two rates, before and after the formation of shear cracks at
800-1000 kN. With the exception of beams DB1 and Db2, which
did not fail in shear, all gauges show yielding of the
reinforcement in this position. In most beams, except DB2, the
upper main steel exhibits larger strains. With the exception
of beam D82, gauges 9-12 are placed on the main reinforcement
above the outer edge of the bearing plate. These four gauges
have similar strains and they all have demonstrated an enhanced
rate of increase in strain with loads. In beam DB2,
gauges 9-12 were actually in the main reinforcement above the
bearing plate. They had different characteristics to those in
beams DB3-6. Gauge 11 recorded the highest strain, it yielded
at an early stage (400 kN) but gauge 10 is virtually
unstrained. This outstanding characteristic is believed to
stem from the small edge distance from the support. Gauge 34
is at the end of the bottom main reinforcement, it is designed
to monitor the anchorage problem of the main reinforcement.
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201 CHAPTER 7
Strain in this gauge is low, therefore, it is accepted that
there is good anchorage of the main reinforcement.
Gauges 13-17 were in the horizontal web reinforcement in the
direction of the suggested compressive strut. It is found that
with the exception of gauge 13, all gauges show tensile strain
in the reinforcement. Compressive strain in gauge 13 shows a
constant increase in strain with load while all the others show
two stages of increase before and after the formation of shear
cracking. In beam DB2, gauges 14-17 are virtually unstrained
as DB2 has not failed in shear and no shear crack is found. In
beams DB1 and DB3-6, only small strains are found in
gauges 14-17 at loads below 700-900 kN, at higher loads, rapid
increase in strain is taking place. Generally, web steel near
the bottom has larger strain and yield occurs before the
specimen fails. This suggests that shear cracking originates
at a point above the main reinforcement but below the web
steel. Gauges 18-20 were installed in the vertical web steel
and again along the direction of the imaginary shear crack.
Compression found in this reinforcement and higher compression
was recorded at the reinforcement near the bearing plate.
Bearing steel in the form of small interlocking stirrups
is inserted in beams DB2-6 to prevent bearing failure above the
supports (figs. B. 25-29). Gauges 21-26 are placed on the centre
stirrup above the support while gauges 27-29 and 30-32 are on
either side of the central stirrups. In beam DB2, only small
strains are recorded in the gauges, especially for
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203 CHAPTER 7
beams DB3-6 and no buckling was observed for these depth to
thickness ratios.
7.5 SHEAR TRANSFER BY AGGREGATE INTERLOCK AND DOWEL ACTION
From the behaviour in failure of deep beams in this
investigation, it is believed that the shear strength of deep
beams is determined by aggregate interlock and dowel action. A
review of past researches in this area is discussed in the
following paragraphs.
Shear forces can be transmitted across a crack by the
interaction between two rough surfaces of the crack (aggregate
interlock) or by the dowel action of tensile reinforcement
(dowel action). However, aggregate interlock and dowel action
are interdependent and not easy to separate. During the
initial stage of crack formation, aggregate interlock plays an
important parts in shear resistance. As external shear force
is increased the diagonal crack is widened and lengthened by
the rotation and shear displacement of the beam. When the
crack meets tensile reinforcement, part of the shear resistance
is taken up by the dowel action of the reinforcement. This
leads to splitting of the concrete at the level of the
reinforcement and increases the crack width at a higher rate.
Therefore, the shear force taken up by aggregate interlock is
further reduced. Houde and Mirza 1353 stated that for a beam
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204 CHAPTER 7
without web reinforcement and after cracking, shear carried by
aggregate interlock, concrete in the compressive zone and dowel
action of the main steel was 50,30 and 20% respectively. They
are distributed as shown in fig. 7.1, [79].
Some attempts had been made to separate the action of
aggregate interlock and dowel action and then investigate the
effect of them with various parameters. Houde and Mirza (35]
eliminateddowel
action withthe
absence of reinforcement
across the crack. A tensile crack was introduced by applying
direct tensile force on either ends of the block and a
predetermined crack width was maintained by restraining the
specimen as shown in fig. 7.2. Shear force was applied across
the crack and shear displacement was measured. It was found
that the shear stress carried by aggregate interlock ranged
from 0.5 to 1.2 N/mm`. The magnitude of the stress was mainly
dependent on the crack width and was proportional to the square
root of the cylinder strength of concrete. However, it was
independent of the size of aggregate used in the concrete.
Twenty seven tests of aggregate interlock was carried out by
Paulay and Loebar (70] with constant and variable crack widths
under constant or variable restraining forces. The test
specimen is shown in fig. 7.3. They arrived at similar
conclusions to Houde et al in that the aggregate size, shape,
hardness and cement mortor had no noticeable effect an the
shear carried by aggregate interlock. The largest single
factor affecting shear resistance was the width of a crack
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X05
Cracked
regt, on
Conpresai. on zone Shear stress &atri. butt on
Ln the conpreee. on zone
x (30%)
Shear etreae by
aggregate interlock( 50% )
Shear stress by
dowel. oct i, on( 20%)
F .,g. 7.1 0' st rt. but L. n of shear stress along a shear crack.
P
L
___=_ý
ý_ __^ 11II
ý_====ýJRet.nforcenent to prevent
fLexurol. & dkagonot crocks
AdJustobLe
et.de roLLer
Crack formed
by Cens. on
III
Crock open. ng
II I
c=--== J3
P
mLLd steel
g"Load cell,
Ft,g. 7.2 Aggregate LnterLock test by Houde and Mt, za.
dt.o. bars
TensLon crackalong shear plane
3-3/8' dLa.
etLrrupeShear surface
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206 CHAPTER 7
across which shear stress were to be transfered. Tests with
restrainingforces
showedthat the force
actingat right angles
to the shear plane required to maintain constant crack width
was considerable. Typical results are shown in fig. 7.4.
Logarithmic regression analysis was performed and the following
relationship obtained.
fL = 0.473 fa1.03 (psi) (7.1)
It was suggested that for design purposes the mean shear stress
could be approximated by a straight line corresponding with a
coefficient of friction of p=1.7, while p=1.4 was recommended
by the ACI Building Code C1]. Dowel action of the
reinforcement can be eliminated by placing the reinforcement
within an oversize duct and a shear force is applied on either
side of the crack. This method of testing the effect of
aggregate interlock was employed by Millard and
Johnson 160,617. They found that the shear stiffness across
the crack and the ultimate shear stress both decreased as the
initial crack width was increased. The shear stiffness also
diminished with increasing shear displacement which was
associated with crack-widening regardless of the size of the
initial crack width. Crack-widening was sensitive to the
stiffness normal to the crack plane. Furthermore, it was
believed that shear is resisted by a combination of crushing
and sliding that cannot be represented by a conventional
friction model.
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1200
1000
a
"
8000
cU
600mc
4000
0
ý. 200
ýqx
ti7%
xA i7
x
if Se
LfL- 0.473r
,)1.03Pet.
rL - 0.582 ,
0 200 400 600 800
fL Hestroi. rn.ng stress (p«.
Ft g. 7.4 Shear vs restratning stress by Paulay.
I. -
dId 1
V
1 'f-
IL. Plo-v - Hi 1'l-VN
FLEXURE SHEAR KINKINGV. 211
34ý V-A,; /j3 V-A, coed
Ft.g. 7.5 The mechancsmof dowel, action.
------------ k
Loadand
1 Load ceLL1
-1
Loadý-------- Load
cell f ceLL T
V-ýd
"N/: \
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208 CHAPTER 7
Dowel action is believed to be come from three sources:
(1) the flexure ofthe
reinforcement,(2) the shear across the bars, and(3) the kinking of the reinforcement.
These shear mechanisms are illustrated in fig. 7.5 associated
with the shear strength expressed in terms of the diameter of
the bar and its strength. However, when the dowels are large
the shear capacity of a dowel is determined by the strength of
the surrounding concrete rather than the yield strength of the
reinforcement. Thirty push-off type specimens were tested by
Pauley 161] with varied surface preparation from smooth to
keyed surface and three different amounts of reinforcement
across the shearing surfaces. It was found that the dowel
force is proportional to the total steel area (square of the
diameter of the reinforcement). This infers that shear and
kinking are the principal mechanisms of dowel action as the
dowel force produced by flexure of the reinforcement is
proportional to the cube of the diameter of the reinforcement.
Thirty two beam-end specimens shown in fig. 7.6 were tested by
Houde and Mirza (35] to determine the ultimate dowel strength
under dowel acting alone or dowel action combined with
predetermined pull-out forces. Dowel cracking loads were found
to be directly dependent on the beam width and the concrete
tensile strength. The bar size and the embedment length did
not have any influence on the dowel cracking load. This
contradict with Pauley's finding in which dowel force is
proportional to the total area of steel. The pull-out farces
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209 CHAPTER 7
had no effect on the dowel capacity which did not exceed 207. of
the shear capacity of the beam. The dowel cracking load may be
expressed by
Df = 40-b-fc'1/3
(7.2)
Similar specimens were used by Millard and Johnson C60] in
aggregate interlock tests, except that this time no duct was
surrounding the reinforcement. The shearing surfaces were
smoothed by casting each specimen in two stages and separating
them with two layers of thin polythene sheeting. The
experimental results show that increasing the diameter of the
reinforcement resulted in a higher shear stiffness and ultimate
stress. It also increased the tendency for the smooth crack to
widen. An increase in the strength of the concrete had only a
small effect on the behaviour but an increase in axial force inO\
the reinforcement resulted in a lower shear stiffness and
ultimate shear stress together with an increased tendency for
crack widening. This is due to some localized damage and
softening of the concrete by the axial tension force.
However, interaction between aggregate interlock and dowel
action makes the combined effect in reinforced concrete more
complex than if considered separately. For instance, in dowel
action tests, elimination of aggregate interlock by
artificially smooth cracks also suppressed the tendency for
crack faces to override which causes widening of the crack,
increase in axial tension force in the reinforcement and
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210 CHAPTER 7
reduction in the shear stiffness of the dowel action. In
aggregateinterlock tests,
elimination ofdowel
actionby
means
of an oversize duct also removed the local bond between
reinforcement and concrete. This could lower the axial
stiffness and thus underestimate the shear stiffness provided
by aggregate interlock. Also the internal crack widths are
dissimilar for two specimens with the same surface crack width
but with bonded and unbonded reinforcement. Crack width is a
prime factor of aggregate interlock; therefore these two
specimens cannot be expected to have similar shear stiffness.
Hofbeck et al and Mattock [33,57] have presented some
tests on the combined effect of aggregate interlock and dowel
action. Their test apecimens included orthogonal, inclined or
parallel reinforcement of initially cracked or uncracked
concrete along the shear plane in fig. 7.7. It is found that
the spacing and diameter of the reinforcement did not affect
the linear relationship between p. fy and the ultimate shear
force Vu. Reinforcement with high yield strength and a small
yield plateau give higher shear resistance. A structural model
was constructed according to the observed mode of failure shown
in fig. 7.8, with the following assumptions:
(1) The stress in the reinforecment, fs
component of relative displacement
sides of the shear plane in
reinforcement.
(2) The relative displacement at ultim
is proportional to the
of concrete on the two
the direction of the
ate, Su is constant and
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V
ord in no.nd size ofLupe
ShearPlane
stLmips1.5ms dLa.
V3/e di.a.a i. rupivanes n
ShearPLone
LoP%.
V
yvv
Ft,g. 7.7 Push-off test by Mattock and Hofbeck.
A F, IFT
i"ia ý_' '1 (xy
.. ctyýy I Iý 0
N. yNý%II
Y/ ro Cr" rt
of
1F
I F.
Ft.g. 7.8 Shear model. of tnt. tt oL uncracked spect. men by Mattock.
Yppv
k
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212 CHAPTER 7
equal to that necessary to produce a strain cy in the
reinforcement in the shear plane.
During the tests on initially uncracked specimens, diagonal
cracks at short intervals were formed across the shear plane.
Movement of the two halves of the specimen relative to one
another occurs by rotation of the concrete strut between the
diagonal cracks. Therefore, the strain Es in reinforcement at
angle e to the shear plane is
Es = C-Su*Cos (9Ü+a-e) (7.3)
where C= constant and when e+90, cs=may
therefore E=E seca"cos(90+m-e) (7.4)sy
stress fs can be expressed as:
r -fy O<0<2m-90
fs =j fy. secm. cos(90+(K-e) 2a-90<e<90 (7.5)
tC fy 90<e<180
Total steel force perpendicular and parallel to the crack are
respectively
F= AS f -sin 2e/Sb (7.6)
Fv = AS -fs -sin(2(3) (7.7)
At failure, the direct stress ox acting across the shear
plane as a result of the stresses in the reinforcement and any
externally direct stress aex is
oaa = F/b-d + aex (7. A)
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213 CHAPTER 7
where b= width of the shear planed= length of the shear plane.
Thus Txy can be found by the Mohr circle (fig. 7.8) with a given
compressive and tensile strength of concrete. The ultimate
shear force can be estimated as
V=F+ K-T (7.9)uv xy
where K may be taken as 0.84
For initially cracked specimens, movement of the two
halves of the specimen was along the crack (shear plane). The
faces of the crack was rough, and hence when slip occurs, the
crack faces were forced to separate. The relative displacement
äu which takes place is assumed to be in a direction at angle v
to the crack,
where 'r" = arctan}t (7.10)
= coef. of friction between crack faces,
taken as 0.8 ()f=38.7)
Thus using the foregoing assumptions, the strain at ultimate Es
in reinforcement at an angle e to the crack is given by
Es = C2-Su-cos(e+'") (7.11)
similarlythe
stress at ultimate ofthe
reinforcement at angle
e to the crack is
I -fy
O<e<90-2w
fs =i -fy.
cosecw-cos(e+w) 90-2v<e<90 (7.12)
L fy 90<e<18O
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214 CHAPTER 7
It has been proposed C58] that for the case of
reinforcement crossing a crack at right angle to the ultimate
shear transfer strength may, for the purpose of design, be
taken as
ýu = 200 + O. ep-fy < 0.3fc' c7. i3)
The first term in Eq. 7.13 represent the shear transfer by dowel
action of the reinforcement. But this gives the lower bound
value for design purpose. Since, shear force along the crack
is resisted by dowel force perpendicular to the reinforcement,
therefore shear force is proportional to sine times the dowel
force perpendicular to the reinforcemment (i. e. )
Vu =k -D f' sine (7.14)
Dowel force is produced by steel stress in the direction
perpendicular to the crack, thus dowel force is proportional to
sine times steel stress (i. e. )
Df = k"sine-fs (7.15)
Combining Eqs. 7.14 and 7.15,
Vu =k "sin2e -f (7.16)
Therefore, Eq. 7.13 is modified to give the mean value of shear
strength as
Vu = 404b-h-sin2e + 0. OF +F (7.17)
where F= A5-h-fs-sinze
& Fv = -As-h-fs-sin(2e)
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215 CHAPTER 7
7.6 PROPOSED FAILURE MECHANISM OF REINFORCED CONCRETE DEEP
BEAMS
Consider a reinforced concrete deep beam with orthogonal
reinforcement subjected to two point loading as -shown in
fig. 7.1Oa. It had been observed from experiments that the
shear crack was usually formed along the line joining the inner
edge of the support and the outer edge of the loading plate.
Equilibriumof
the forcesalong
thecrack were maintained
by
the shear in the compression zone, aggregate interlock,
stresses of any reinforcement across the crack and the tensile
strength of concrete. Various forces acting along the crack
are shown by the free body diagram in fig. 7.1Ob. For the
purpose of analysis, certain assumptions have been made and
they are as follows:
(1) A crack is formed along the line joining the inner edge ofthe supporting plate and the outer edge of the loading
plate.
(2) Movement of the concrete block is by the rotation about the
centre of forces in the compression zone (point A) andmovement of each point along the crack is perpendicular tothe direction of the crack.
(3) Strain in the reinforcement across the crack, cs is
proportional to the displacement of the concrete, Su along
the direction of the reinforcement.
(4) Ultimate displacement between two concrete surface, Su is
equal to that neccessary to produce yielding of the
reinforcement.
(5) A reinforced concrete deep beam is said to fail when the
ultimate displacement, Su has taken place at the
bottom-most of the main reinforcement.
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>i(o
vu vu11
6ual. nO
ducoseeb
ca
ca
Yu
I+1
Ar
lotto+ta,X
rL61-1 ro,
t
rLh I_.
Yu
(ä
-1 ý-, I-
I dh
d
FIg. 7. i0 Proposed faLture mechanism.
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217 CHAPTER 7
As shown in fig. 7.10b, the shear crack is formed at an
angle e with the horizontal and according to the
assumptions 3-5 above, we may write
Esh = k-Su-sine (7.18)
if when e=90 degs., Esh-Eyh Eyh=k-Su
thus Esh = Eyh-sine (7.19a)
similarly, Esv = Eyv'Cosa (7.19b)
andfsh = fyh'sine (7.20a)
fsv = fyv'Cosa (7.20b)
where Esh'Esv = Strain in the horizontal and vertical
reinforcement respectively.Eyh, Eyv = Yield strain in the horizontal and vertical
reinforcement respectively.fsh'fsv = Stress in the horizontal and vertical
reinforcement respectively.fyh, fyv = Yield stress in the horizontal and vertical
reinforcement respectively.
Assuming a triangular distribution of stresses in the
reinforcement resulting from the rotation of the concrete block
about the centre of compression in the compression zone
(point A). Tensile force in the reinforcement can be
calculated as
Th = Ash 'f sh (yh-d ') / (d-d ')
= Ash . fyh -sine (yh-d') / (d-d') (7.21a)
Tv = Asv -fsv
(H-Xv. tane-d ') / (d-d' )
= Asv-fyv-cose(H-Xvtane-d')/(d-d') (7.21b)
where Th, Tv = Tensile force in the horizontal and vertical
reinforcement respectively.d' = Depth of the centre of compression in the
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218 CHAPTER 7
compression zone (point A) from the top of the
beam.
yh = Depth of the horizontal reinforcement from the
top of the beam.
X= Distance of the vertical reinforcement from thev
inner edge of the support.H= Total height of the beam.
Stresses due to the reinforcement perpendicular and parallel to
the crack are
fLh = Th-sine/(b-Sh. cosece)
Ash-fyh-sin3a yh-d'
(7.22a)
b- Sh d -d '
fph = Th -cose/ (b -Sh' coseas)
Ash"fyh-sin2e"cose yh-d'
(7.22b)
b"Sh
d-d'
fLv = Tv"sine/(b"Sv-secs)
Asv
-fyv-cos'
e H-Xv
-tans-d'
(7.22c)
b -S d-d'v
fpv=
Tv-sine/(b"Sh-Seca)
Asv
-fyv-cos2e-sine
H-Xv
-tans-d'
(7.22d)
b -S d-d'v
where fLh, fph = Stresses perpendicular and parallel to the
crack due to horizontal reinforcementrespectively.
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219 CHAPTER 7
fLv'fpv = Stresses perpendicular and parallel to the
crack due to vertical reinforcement
respectively.
As shown in figs. 6.7-12, flexural cracks extended to a depth of
0.7H from the top. It is reasonable to assume that the maximum
tensile stress in the concrete is at the tip of the crack.
Below this point, the tensile stress is zero and a triangular
distribution of tensile stress is assumed above it. Therefore,
the tensile stress in the concrete in the direction
perpendicular to the crack can be written as
r ft -y/ (D. 7H-d' )y<0.7H
ft' =1 (7.23)
L0y>0.7H
where ft' = Tensile stress of concrete perpendicular to the
direction of the crack.ft = Tensile strength of concrete.
y= Distance from the top of the beam.
Stresses perpendicular to the direction of the crack should be
taken as the maximum of (fLh+fLv) and ft (i. e. )
fL = max( fLh+fLv, ft ) (7.24)
Two modes of failure of reinforced concrete deep beams are
considered. They are (1) splitting failure along the crack and
(2)shear
failurealong
the crack.
MODE 1- Splitting failure
Consider the rotation of the concrete block about point A
(fig. 7.1Ob) and failure of the beam is due to the splitting of
the concrete block. By taking moments about point A, thus
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220 CHAPTER 7
rfL'b -cosec
2a- (y-d ')
.Vui =I d(y) (7.25)
1Q X-d'-cote
where Xc = Clear shear span,
Vu1 = Ultimate shear capacity of the reinforced concrete
deep beam estimated by failure mode 1.
MODE 2 -- Shear failure
Consider the forces acting along the direction of the
crack. They include the components of forces of the
reinforcement, shear stress in the compression zone, aggregate
interlocking stress and dowel action of the reinforcement. By
considering the equilibrium of these forces, the shear strength
of the reinforced concrete deep beam can be found.
where vc = Shear stress in the compressive zone,
fa = Shear stress due to aggregate interlock effect,
fd = Shear stress due to dowel action of the
reinforcement,Vu2 = Ultimate shear capacity of the reinforced concrete
deep beam estimated by failure mode 2.
However, estimation of vc, fa and fd is necessary before the
shear capacity of a deep beam can be found.
Shear stress in the compressive zone can be estimated by
the recommendation of ACI-318 (2), Eq. 5.22.
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22L CHAPTER 7
vom' _ (3.5-2.5M/V -d) (I. 9&/fý'
+ 2500pß "V -d/M)
< 2.5 (1.9ý + 2500ß-V -d/M) (5.22)
< 61fc'
Aggregate interlocking stress is dependent on the restraining
stress (stress perpendicular to the direction of the crack).
It was suggested by Paulay and Loeber 170] that
fL = 0.473fa'
1'03
(psi) (7.1)
Fenwick and Paulay [24] stated that the aggregate interlocking
stress was also proportional to the square root of the cylinder
strength of concrete
fa' = k-, /fr, (7.27)
where k= proportional constant.
Eq. 7.1 may be modified without much loss of accuracy to
fL = 0.582 fa (7.28)
rtSince Paulay and Leber [701 used an average concrete cube
strength of 5300 psi. in their experiment, therefore, the
appropriate proportional constant should be taken as k=0.165
Thus, the aggregate interlocking stress can be estimated as
fa' = O. 165&/fC:
# - (fLh+fLv) /O. 582 (7.29)
It is recognized that the aggregate interlock effect can only
happen in the region where the crack has formed, otherwise only
shear stress of the concrete is effective. Therefore, the sum
of the shear stress in the concrete and the aggregate
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222 CHAPTER 7
interlocking stress should be equal to the maximum of the
aggregate interlocking stress in Eq. 7.29 or the concrete shear
stress in Eq. 5.22 in any position of the crack, (i. e. )
fa+vc = max( fa', vc ) (7.30)
Stresses due to dowel action are considered to be
proportional to the square of the sine of the angle between the
reinforcement and the crack (Eq. 7.16). A proportional constant
of 0.45 is suggested by Kong's formula (Eq. 5.23). He used a
constant of 130N/mm2 for plain steel bars with yield stress of
296N/mm. Therefore, dowel stress, fd can be estimated as2
fd = 0.45(fh. sin2e + fý. cos20) (7.31)
where fh = Stress of the horizontal reinforcement,
fv = Stress of the vertical reinforcement,
fd = Dowel stress of the reinforcement.
Substituting Eqs. 7.22,30 and 31 into Eq. 7.26, the shear
capacity of the reinforced concrete deep beam with failure
mode 2 can be found.
The shear capacity of the reinforced concrete deep beam
shouldbe the
minimum ofthe
values obtainedby Eq. 7.25
and
7.26. In the case of deep beams with uniformly distributed
load, the shear crack is assumed to form along the line joining
the inner edge of the support and the third span on the top of
the beam.
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223 CHAPTER 7
7.7 COMPARISON WITH TEST RESULTS
Test results frort: various sources (44,42,47,73,69] are
analysed with the proposed method and compared with methods
given by Paiva and Siess 169], Ramakrishnan and
Ananthanarayana (73], Kong (45] and Al-Najjim (63]. The
effectiveness of different design guides; CP11O (19],
CIRIA 168] and ACI-318 C1] are also discussed. The results are
presented in table 7.1 as ratios of the ultimate load obtained
during tests to the values given by different design guides and
formulae. Figures with experimental ultimate loads varies the
calculated values are given in figs. 7.11-18 together with a
diagonal line of 45 degrees which represents the calculated
values equal to the experimental ones.
Among the design guides, CP110 gives the most conservative
results. It gives an average safety factor of 6.5 and a high
standard deviation of 4.4. Generally, beams with small shear
span to depth ratio have a higher factor of safety. Fig. 7.11
shows that none of the beams was over-estimated by British Code
CP110 and most of its estimates lie within a 50kN range even
for those with 600kN capacity. The CIRIA design guide gives
much better results than CP110, in fact it is the best among
the three codes: CP11O, CIRIA and ACI-316. It gives an average
value of experimental to calculated ultimate shear strength of
1.706 and a standard deviation of 0.3G. Fig. 7.12 shows that
CIRIA design guide gives more conservative results for higher
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224 CHAPTER 7
strength deep beams and it under-estimates the shear strength
for all the beams except for a few of Ramakrishnan and
Ananthanarayana's single point loaded deep beams which failed
in flexure rather than shear. An average factor of safety of
2.054 and a standard deviation of 0.995 are obtained with the
recommendations for the design of deep beams in the ACI-318
Design Code. It gives slightly more scattered results than
with the CIRIA design guide as shown in fig. 7.13.
Paiva and Siess's empirical formula on average gives only
a slight over-estimation of 2.27. and with a reasonable standard
deviation of 0.215. Generally, this formula can predict Kong's
beams quite well but it over-estimates Ramakrishnan and
Ananthanarayana's beams with concentrated loads by 36%
(standard deviation of 0.068) and under-estimates those with
uniformly distributed load by 117. (standard deviation of
0.316). An average ratio of experimental to calculated
ultimate shear strength of 0.969 and 0.671 (corresponding
standard deviation of 0.103 and 0.127) is obtained with their
beams which failed in shear and flexure respectively.
In the calculation with Ramakrishnan and Ananthanarayana's
formula, k=1.57 is used and it is based on the use of the
cylinder splitting test in the estimation of the tensile
strength of concrete. This formula gives an excellent mean
value of 1.007 in the ratio of experimental to calculated shear
strength of deep beams, but the standard deviation is high at
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225 CHAPTER 7
0.26. The
advantages,
estimate of
should be n
strength of
formula.
simplicity of this
and therefore, it
the shear strength
oted that the effect
deep beams is na
formula is one of its great
can be used for a primary
of deep beams. However, it
of reinforcement on the shear
t taken into account by this
The formula introduced by Kong and later adopted by CIRIA
with modifications, as a design tool for reinforced concrete
deep beams gives good results as shown in table 7.1 and
fig. 7.16. It has an overall average values of experimental to
calculated shear strength of 1.037 (3.7% under-estimate) and a
modest standard deviaton of 0.208.
Al-Najjim's theory was based on the compression of a
curved strut which was deflected by the present of web
reinforcement inside the beams. As shown in table 7.1,
Al-Najjim's theory gives an average of 38% under-estimation and
a high standard deviation of 0.354. Most of the points in
fig. 7.17 lie in the region where experimental ultimate load is
greater than the estimated one, except for a few of Paiva and
Ramakrishnan's datawhich
falloutside
thisregion.
This
method of assessing the ultimate shear strength is rather
complicated and no particularly good results can be obtained,
therefore, its practical use is of limited value. However, it
has suggested an explanation of the behaviour of reinforced
concrete deep beams after cracking.
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231
zX
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c"Lv"
t""
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9
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4l
Ftg. 7.1 1. Expt. va cal. sheer strength of deep beam.
(CP11O design guide)
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 e00 900
C. Lou l. t. d . hNr strength (kN)
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a37a
Z
cv"
t""
"J
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w
Fig. 7.12. Expt. vs os 1. shear st rongt h of deep bs. m.(CIRIA design guide)
o 100 200 300 wo Soo 600 700 ow wo
Cs Lou Lst od wh. r "t r. nge h (kN)
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133
az
rvaýC
LY
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L""iS
J
S
M
E
a"X
W
F 19.7.13. Expt. vo aal. ahoor strength of deep boom.
(ACI design guide)
0 t00 200 300 400 90D 600 700 no 900
C. Lou L. t. d . hMr wt rongt h (kM)
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.>-14
z
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L""
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Ftg. 7.14. Expt. ve cu L. cheer strength of deep beam.
(Ps t vs &St ess 's formu Ls)
o too 200 300 400 SIX 600 700 900 900
C. Lou L. t. d sh. w .tr. ngt h (kN)
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236
z
v
c"Lv"
La"
t"
JS
Y
"E
L"
w
Fig.?. 15. Expt. va ca L. sheer strength of deep beam.
(Rams kr t ahnen 's formu La)
0 $00 200 300 400 500 600 700 e00 900
C. Lout. t. d "hesr "tr. ngth (kW
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z36
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L""
t"
J"
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F 1! .7.16. Expt. vs os 1. shear strength of deep beam.
(Kong '$ formu La)
0 100 200 300 400 90D 600 700 000 400
C. lou Letal . h. v- .tr. ngs h MM)
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- 37
z
rp
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F IS. 7.17. Expt. ve os 1. sheer strength of deep boom.
(A l-Nej J1m 's modal)
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 Too 800 900
C. Loutotod . hNr . tr. ngth (kN)
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z36
z
rr
C"LV"
"tS
J
Y
L"
ILxw
FIg. 7.18. Expt. ve ca L. *hour strength of deep boom.
(Proposed mode L)
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 TOD 800 900
C. Lou L. t. d . h. sr .tr. ngt h (kM)
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239
900
eoo
7
Z
v6
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2000 x
X1900
1000
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ve,
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1000 1500 2000
mL - a".
" " Romakrishnan's data
DP. tvs t floss's duty
f f Kong's data (1972)
0 o Kong's data (19711
+ + Kong'sdata (19701
X xR saw4 dots,
0
Do
Do
DO..
Do
00
Do
DO
V
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 wo 900
Cs Lou L. t. d . h. w "tr. ngth (km)
Fig. 7.19. Expt. vs os 1. *hoar strength of deep boom.
(Proposed dos Igm guIdo)
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240 CHAPTER 7
The proposed method of analysis is based on the
calculation of shear along the crack which involved the shear
in the compression zone, aggregate interlock and dowel action
of the reinforcement. This gives good results of an average
ratio of experimental to calculated ultimate load of 0.966
(3.47 over-estimate) and a standard deviation of 0.181 which is
the best among the different formulae in table 7.1. The
proposed method of analysis seems to give more conservative
results for beams with a large shear span to depth ratio; for
instance, with Kong's normal weight concrete beams, it
over-estimates those with Xc/H=4.23 by 0.8`/, and under-estimates
those with Xc/H=g. 7 by 10'%. This method of analysis fails to
give good results for Ranamkrishnan and Ananthanarayana's beams
in series B and C. This could be due to the premature failure
of the anchorage of the main reinforcement: a large diameter of
main reinforcement and a lack of proper anchorage to the end of
the beam is apparent in these two series of beams.
7.8 RECOMENDATIONS FOR THE DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE DEEP
BEAMS
As shown in the previous sections, the proposed failure
mechanism for reinforced concrete deep beams gives excellent
estimates of the ultimate strength. By introducing the
appropriate factor of safty, Eqs. 7.25 and 7.26 can be used for
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241
the design.
CHAPTER 7
Material factors recommended by CP114, are taken as 1.5
for both tensile and compressive strengths of concrete and 1.15
for the yield strength of reinforcement. Estimation of
aggregate interlocking strength taken from Paulay's
experimental datas (703 is bounded within 177., (fig. 7.4).
Therefore, a factor of 1.17 should be added to the aggregate
interlocking strength in Eq. 7.29 to become Eq. 7.32
fa' =[o.
16s. fLh+fLV/o. 5e2}f1.17 (7.32)
With the above-mentioned factors, Eq. 7.25 and 7.26 can be used
for the calculation of the design strength of reinforced
concrete deep beams in splitting and shear failure modes
respectively. Again, the lesser of the values from Eqs. 7.25
and 7.26 will be the design strength of the beam.
The ratios of experimental to calculated design strength
for various reinforced concrete deep beams are tabulated in
table 7.1. Fig. 7.18 is plotted for the experimantal ultimate
strength against the design strength. It can be seen that with
the exception of nine values, all the rest are estimated safely
by the proposeddesign
method.Four
out of the nine
over-estimated beams are in series B and C of Ramakrishnan and
Anathaanrayana's beams. As discussed in the previous section,
their over-estimation is due to the premature failure of the
anchorage of the main reinforcement. The other over-estimated
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242 CHAPTER 7
beams are DB1 and DB2 in the present investigation. They are
over-estimated because of bearing failure at the supports;
crushing of concrete due to the lack of bearing steel and
instability of the beam as a result of the distortion of the
supports due to small edge distances are found in beams DB1 and
DB2 respectively. Generally, the proposed design formula gives
an average factor of safety of 1.375 and a standard deviation
of 0.256, which is better than CIRIA guide with an average of
70.6% over-estimate and a standard deviation of 0.38.
A check on the bearing strength of the supports is also
neccessary, especially for beams with height greater than span.
The bearing strength of the supports can be estimated by
Eq. 4.11 (Chapter 4) and bearing steel in form of closely spaced
interlocking stirrups should be added where appropriate. Edge
distances with 2Wa/ai less than 3.5 should be avoided.
Moreover, it is advised to used small diameters, closely spaced
bar rather than larger diameters widely spaced steel as main or
web reinforcement.
7.9 SUMMARY
(1) A shear crack is formed along the line joining the inner
edge of the support and the outer edge of the loading
plate in the case of deep beams with concentrated loads.
With uniformly distributed load, a shear crack is formed
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243 CHAPTER 7
at an angle of 70 degrees from the inner edge of the
supporting plate.
(2) Aggregate interlock and dowel action play important parts
in the shear strength of reinforced concrete deep beams.
(3) Aggregate interlock and dowel action are interdependent
and not easy to separate them from each other.
(4) Aggregate interlock ismainly
dependenton crack width and
is proportional to the square root of the cylinder
strength of concrete. It is independent of aggregate
size, shape and hardness.
(5) The restraining force required to maintain constant crack
width was found to be a function of aggregate interlock
stress (70]
fL = 0.473 fý1.03 (psi) (7.1)
(6) It was found that shear and kinking are the principal
mechanisms of dowel action. The shear stress provided by
dowel action of light reinforcement is proportional to the
square of the sine of the angle between the direction of
shear crack and the reinforcement times the steel stress.
vu =k "sin2e "fs (7.16)
(7) Based on aggregate interlock and dowel action, the shear
strength of reinforced concrete deep beams can be
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244 CHAPTER 7
estimated by the lesser of the values given by Eq. 7.25 and
7.26.
(8) Among the design guides, CIRIA gives the best estimate of
shear strength of reinforced concrete deep beams with a
safety factor of 1.7 and a standard deviation of 0.38.
(9) The simplicity of Ramakrishnan and Ananthanarayana's
formula with reasonable accuracy (an average of 7%
under-estimation, standard deviation of 0.26) enables its
use as a primary estimate of the shear strength of
reinforced concrete deep beams.
(10) The proposed model gives the best result (3.4%
over-estimation, standard deviation of 0.181). It seems
to gives more conservative results for beams with large
shear span to depth ratio.
(11) By introducing appropriate material factors; 1.5 for
concrete, 1.15 for steel and 1.17 for the aggregate
interlocking strength, Eqs. 7.25 and 7.26 can be used to
calculated the design strength of reinforced concrete deep
beams.
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245 CHAPTER 0
8 CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
9.1 REARING CAPACITY
Hearing capacity is important in many cases, such as in
the anchorage zone of a post-tensioned beam and at the supports
of reinforced concrete deep beams. The prime factor affecting
the bearing strength of concrete blocks is the value R; the
footing to loading area ratio. Most researchers have adopted
the cube root formula, Eq. 4.7 but it has been shown to be to
conservative, especially for those with large value of R. It
is found that the square root formula would be more appropriate
Eq. 4.8.
fb/fc =k -JR (4.8)
Restraint at the base of the concrete block can also
affect the bearing strength. This restraint can be the
frictional force between concrete and steel at the base.
Higher specimens has the loading area further away from the
base and there is a lesser effect but shorter specimens
(H/a<0.5) are shown to have a 30% increase in strength. These
effects have been,
neglected by many researchers except
Muguruma (621, Eq. 2.22. He was able to estimate well for
specimens with H/a>1 but seriously over-estimated those with
H/a<l. Specimens with larger bearing plates are affected more
by the condition of the base, because a larger loading area
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246 CHAPTER 8
generates a deeper tension zone and thus can easily intercept
thebase. The size effect in this investigation is found to be
proportional to
fb/fý = 1.45 ea/80+ 0.9 (4.3)
Closely spaced (30 mm) small diameter (10 mm diameter in
practice) interlocking stirrups provide the most effective form
form of reinforcement in concrete blocks under concentrated
bearing loads. Reinforcement should be maintained to the depth
of the tension zone (0.75a below the loading surface) and
extended at least to the width of and preferably to twice the
width as the loading plate. Edge distances with 2Wa/a1<3.5
should be avoided.
In general, the cracking strength of reinforced concrete
blocks and ultimate strength of plain concrete block can be
estimated by
t 0.47Wa/a1 + 0.55 2Wa/a1<3.5
fb/fý _"1
0.12Wa/a1 + 1.16 (plain)i
(4.4)
2Wa/a1>3.5
L 0.22Wa/a1 + 1.01 (reinft. )
The proposed model of failure
bearing capacity of plain concrete
r3 -r-[1672
-F 2+8(7-, -z
where F1 = FZ+F3 F4
mechanism suggested that the
blocks can be calculated by
1+2z2) -F,,]
13a12. f . (4.11)
z1 = 0.4a1
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247
F2 = ft"(z2-z1)/2
F= ft-(7 t2)/2
F4 =0
andr= fb/f'
z2 = a1
z, = O. 75a
z4 =H
CHAPTER 8
This gives excellent results for all higher specimens
(H/a>1); average under-estimation of 0.5%, standard deviation
of 0.098. For shorter blocks (H/a<1), it shows an
exponentially increasing under-estimation with decreasing ratio
of H/a as in Eq. 4.12.
fb
(test)
/fb
(cal. )= 0.657 e-1.15H/a+a.
9 (4.12)
By multiplying the reciprocal of this factor to the bearing
capacity obtained from Eq. 4.11, the modified model gives good
estimates (average over-estimation of 1.67., standard deviation
of 0.085) for the full range of height of all the specimens.
8.2 DEEP BEAMS
After shear crack is formed along the line joining the
inner edge of the support and the outer edge of the loading
plate. For uniformly distirbuted loaded beams, shear cracks
are formed at an angle of 70 degrees from the inner edge of the
supporting plate. After cracking, the shear strength of
reinforced concrete deep beams is maintained by aggregate
interlock and dowel action along the crack.
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248 CHAPTER 8
The aggregate interlocking strength is found to be
dependent on the restraining stress provided by the
reinforcement and is proportional to the square root of the
cylinder strength of concrete.
fL=0.473 fai'03(psi.
)
Dowel action is taken to be proportional to the square of the
sine of the angle between the crack and the reinforcement.
V= k"sin2e-f (7.16)us
Based on the above two findings, a failure mechanism for
reinforced concrete deep beams is proposed. The ultimate
splitting and ahear strength for orthogonally reinforced
concrete deep beams can be calculated by Eqs. 7.25 and 7.26
respectively.
I' fL.
b -cosec2o - (y-d ')
Vuý =Id (y) (7.25)
J xc - d'-cots4
rN (fpm fph+vc+fa+fd) -cosecs
Vu2 _'d (y) (7.26)
Jsine
The ultimate strength will be the lesser of the two values
found by Eqs. 7.25 and 7.26. This gives the best result
(average over-estimation of 3.4%, standard deviation of 0.181)
among different formulae by recent researchers.
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249 CHAPTER 8
By introducing certain material factors, Eqs. 7.25 and 7.26
can be used for the design of reinforced concrete deep beams.
The appropriate factor for aggregate interlocking strength is
taken as 1.17 (fig. 7.4, E70]). The material factors, as
recommended by CP11O, are taken as 1.5 for concrete and 1.15
for steel. The design equation has been proved to be very
effective with an average factor of safety of 1.375 and a
standard deviation of 0.256. Only 9 beams out of 152 are
over-estimated in strength by the design formula (table 7.1),
of which 2 are due to premature failure of the bearing at
supports and 4 have anchorage problems with the main
reinforcement.
8.3 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
The effects of height and base friction on the bearing
capacity of concrete blocks need further investigation. The
mechanisms of aggregate interlock and dowel action are
complicated in nature and need to be studied further. There is
limited knowledge on the effects of openings and wall
connections of deep beams and this subject should be further
investigated.
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FIg. B. 9. Transverse strain In section 6.
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332
REFERENCES
REFERENCES
t 11 American Concrete Institution, 'Recommendations for-anInternational Code
ofPractice for Reinforced Concrete'
C 2] ACI Committe 318,-'Proposed
Revision of ACI 318-63:Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, ' Pro.
of ACI, Vol. 67, No. 2, Feb. 1970, p. 77-146.
C 3] Archer, F. E.; Kitchen, E. M., 'Stress Distribution in DeepBeams, ' Civil Engg. and Public Works Review, Vol. 55,No. 643,1960, 'p. 230-234.
C 4] Archer, F. E.; Kitchen, E. M.; 'Strain Energy Method for the
solution of Deep Beams, ' Civil Engg. and Public WorksRview, Vol. 52, No. 618,, 1957, p. 1375-78.
C 5] Arunachalam, N. V.; Aldridge, G.; Pandit, G. S., Discussion
on 'Web Reinforcement Effect on Lightweight-concreteDeep
,Beams, by Kong, F. K. and Robins, P. J., ' Pro. - of ACI,Jan. 1972.
C 6] Au Tung; Baird, D. L., 'Bearing Capacity of ConcreteBlock, ' ACI, March 1960.
E 77 Au Tung; Campbell-Allen, D; Rlewes, W. G.; Maurice, R.,Discussion of 'Bearing Capacity of Concrete by Shelson,W., ' Pro. of ACI, June 195G, p. 11e5-87.
C S] Baker, - A. L. L., 'Shear Failure in Beams Represented by aStatically Indeterminate Truss Mechanism, ' Concrete andConstruction Engg.,, Vol. 58, No. 11, Nov. 1963, p. 423-28
C 9] Ban, S.; Muguruma, H.; Ogaki, Z. ", 'Anchorage Zone StressDistributions in Post-tensioned Concrete Members, ' Pro.
of World Conference- on Prestressed Concrete, SanFrancisco, July 1957, p. 16/1-14.
1141 Barry, J. E.; Ainso,, H., 'Single-Span Deep Beam, ' Struct.Engg., Vol. 109, No. 3, March 1983.
1111 Bhatt, " P., 'Deep Beams on Statically Indeterminate
Supports, ' Pro. ASCE,, Engg. Mechanics Div., Vol. 99,1973, p. 793-801'.
E123 Besser, I. A., 'Strength of Slender Reinforced Concrete
-Walls,' Ph. D. thesis, -University of Leeds, 1983.
1137 Besser, I. A.; Cusens, A. R., 'Reinforced Concrete Deep BeamPanels with high depth/span ratio, ' Pro. -Inst. "of CivilEng., Pt. 2, June 1984, p265-278.
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X33 REFERENCES
1143 BS 812 (1975) 'Method for Sampling and Testing of Mineral
Aggregate, Sands and Fillers, ' British Standard Institute,
London. -
[157 HS 1881 (1970) 'Method for Testing Concrete, ' British
Standard Institute, London.
[16] Caswell, J. S., 'Stresses in Short Beams, ' Engineering,
Vol. 178,1954, p. 625-28, & p. 656-58.
[17] Comite' Europe'en du Beton, 'International ecommendationfor the Design, and Construction of Concrete Structure, '
Cement and Concrete Association, June 1970.
[18] Chow, L.; -Conway, H. D.; Winter, G., 'Stresses in Deep
Beams, ' Trans. of ASCE, Vol. 118,1953, p. 686-708.
(19] CP11O (1972) 'Code of Practice for the use of Concrete,. '
British Standard Institute.
E20) Deutsche Bauzeitung, 1906 Paper 263.
E211 Diaz de Cossio; Roger and Siess, C. P., 'Behavior andStrength in Shear of Beams, and -Frames without -web
reinforcement, ' Pro. of ACI, Vo1.56, No. 8, ' Feb. ' 1960,
p. 695-735.
E22] Dischinger, F., 'Contribution to the Theory of the Half
Plate and Wall-type Beams, ' Int. Asso. for Bridge andStructural Eng., Zurich, Vol. 1,1932, p. 69-93. "
1233 Dulacska, H, 'Dowel Action of"Reinforcement Crossing Cracks
in Concrete, ' Pro. of. ACI, Dec. 1972, p. 754-7.
1243 Fenwick, R. C.; Paulay, T., 'Mechanisms of Shear Resistance
of Concrete Beams, ' Pro. of ASCE, 'Struct._
Div.,
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