Introduction—Grammatical Introduction—Grammatical HierarchyHierarchy

导论—语法层次导论—语法层次

Grammatical HierarchyGrammatical Hierarchy

• Grammar is the structural system of a Grammar is the structural system of a language. The grammar of the English language. The grammar of the English languages is organized in to five ranks: languages is organized in to five ranks: the sentence, the clause, the phrase, the the sentence, the clause, the phrase, the word and the morpheme. Each rank is word and the morpheme. Each rank is composed of one or more than one composed of one or more than one grammatical unit of the immediate lower grammatical unit of the immediate lower rank. A full sentence can generally be rank. A full sentence can generally be segmented rank by rank down to its segmented rank by rank down to its smallest constituents—the morpheme. smallest constituents—the morpheme.

SentenceSentence

Clause Clause

NP VP PrepP NP VP PrepP

Det N Aux Adv MV Prep Det N Det N Aux Adv MV Prep Det N

These under-graduate-s are rapid-ly improving in their writ-inThese under-graduate-s are rapid-ly improving in their writ-ingg

0.1 Morpheme (0.1 Morpheme ( 词素）词素）

The morpheme is the minimum or The morpheme is the minimum or smallest grammatical unit, also the smallest grammatical unit, also the smallest meaningful element of speech. smallest meaningful element of speech. Morphemes fall into two categories: free Morphemes fall into two categories: free morphemes and bound morphemes.morphemes and bound morphemes.

11 ）） Free morphemes (Free morphemes ( 自由词素）自由词素）

本身具有完整意义并能作为“简单词”而单独使用的词素本身具有完整意义并能作为“简单词”而单独使用的词素 Examples: boy girl desk Examples: boy girl desk kind give takekind give take

2) Bound morphemes (2) Bound morphemes ( 粘附词素）粘附词素）

本身没有完整意义，不能单独使用，必须粘附在自由词素或其他形式本身没有完整意义，不能单独使用，必须粘附在自由词素或其他形式上才能表示出意义的词素上才能表示出意义的词素

Examples : Examples : antianti-war Marx-war Marxist ist ununlucky lucky postpostwar movewar movementment coco-existence-existence

0.2 Words0.2 Words

The word is composed of one or more than The word is composed of one or more than one morpheme.one morpheme.

Words can be classified in two ways:Words can be classified in two ways:

1) Classification in terms of 1) Classification in terms of word-formationword-formation

2) Classification in terms of 2) Classification in terms of grammaticalgrammatical funtionfuntion

a) Simple Word (a) Simple Word ( 简单词）简单词）

又叫“单词素词”（ 又叫“单词素词”（ morpheme word), morpheme word), 由单一由单一自由词素构成，多半是一些短小的词，如：自由词素构成，多半是一些短小的词，如： at, by, fat, by, f

oot, take, make oot, take, make 等等b) Derivative b) Derivative （派生词）（派生词）

由词根加派生词缀构成，同一词根加不同词缀 由词根加派生词缀构成，同一词根加不同词缀可表示不同的意义或不同的词性。如：可表示不同的意义或不同的词性。如：

unfair, nonsmoker, misjudge, overeat, international,unfair, nonsmoker, misjudge, overeat, international, belittle belittle 等等

c) Compoundc) Compound （合成词）（合成词） 通常由两个或两个以上自由词素构成。如： 通常由两个或两个以上自由词素构成。如： dedeadline, handbook, driveway, toothpick, downfall adline, handbook, driveway, toothpick, downfall 等等

backback

Closed Class (Closed Class ( 封闭词类封闭词类 ) ) 封闭词类指所有的功能词，包括封闭词类指所有的功能词，包括 ::

介词 介词 (Preposition), (Preposition), 如：如： in, of, on, without in, of, on, without 代词 代词 (Pronoun), (Pronoun), 如：如： you, he, one, whichyou, he, one, which

限定词 限定词 (Determiner), (Determiner), 如：如： a, the, thisa, the, this连词 连词 (Conjunction), (Conjunction), 如：如： and, or, butand, or, but

助动词 助动词 (Auxiliary), (Auxiliary), 如：如： dodo ，， can, maycan, may

b) Open Class (b) Open Class ( 开放词类）开放词类）开放词类指各种实义词，包括：开放词类指各种实义词，包括：

名词 名词 (Noun)(Noun) ， 如：， 如： man, Paris, dramaman, Paris, drama形容词 形容词 (Adjective), (Adjective), 如：如： old, big, cheapold, big, cheap

副词 副词 (Adverb), (Adverb), 如：如： here, there, late here, there, late 主动词 主动词 (Main Verb),(Main Verb), 如：如： work, give, makework, give, make

此外还有基数词 此外还有基数词 (Cardinal Numer(Cardinal Numeral)al) ，序数词，序数词 (Ordinal Numeral)(Ordinal Numeral) ，，感叹词感叹词 (Interjection)(Interjection) 是介乎“封是介乎“封

闭”与“开放”之间的词类闭”与“开放”之间的词类

03. Phrases

The phrase is composed of one or more than one word. Generally, the phrase is a group of words organized in a specific way with a key word as its head. The word class of the head determiners the class of the phrase and the way in which the words are organized.

1) The noun phrase The noun phrase is a phrase with a noun as its

head. The general pattern of a noun phrase is: (determiner+) (premodifier+) noun (+postmodifier)

e.g. all the college students his new book on phonology the tall boy sitting in the corner the author’s new novel that will soon come out

2) The verb phrase The verb phrase is a phrase with a main verb as

its head. A verb phrase can be simple or complex. A simple verb phrase is just a main verb or “modifier + main verb”. A complex verb phrase is a main verb preceded by an auxiliary (or auxiliaries) (+ modifier).

e.g. She looks pale. It is getting dark. John will certainly object and so will Mary.

3) The adjective phrase

The adjective phrase is a phrase with an adjective as its head. The general pattern of an adjective phrase is:

(modifier+) adjective (+postmodifier/

complementation)

e.g. The weather is fine today.

The course is pretty difficult.

You’re not careful enough.

4) The adverb phrase The adverb phrase is a phrase with an adverb as

its head. The general pattern of an adverb phrase is:

(modifier+) adverb (+postmodifier)

e.g. He spoke loudly and clearly.

Be a man. Do not act so slowly.

She spoke very clearly indeed.

5) The prepositional phrase

The prepositional phrase is a phrase with a preposition as its head. The general pattern of a prepositional phrase is:

(modifier+) preposition + complementation

e.g. We’re collecting money for the benefit of some

orphans.

The student consulted his adviser about the

two courses.

0.4 Clause0.4 Clause

• The clause is composed of one or more The clause is composed of one or more than one phrase. A full-fledged clause is than one phrase. A full-fledged clause is structurally a sequence of phrases and structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of “subject + logically a construction of “subject + predicate”.predicate”.

• 1) Independent and dependent clauses1) Independent and dependent clauses

①①An independent clause is a clause that can An independent clause is a clause that can stand by itself and act as a complete utterance.stand by itself and act as a complete utterance.

e.g. e.g. He knows everything about it.He knows everything about it.

That hat does not fit;That hat does not fit; you may try another. you may try another.

② ②A dependent clause forms only part of A dependent clause forms only part of another clause or of a phrase.another clause or of a phrase.

e.g. I don’t think e.g. I don’t think he knows everything about ithe knows everything about it..

If that hat does not fitIf that hat does not fit, try another., try another.

• 2) Simple and complex clauses2) Simple and complex clauses

① ①When a clause consists of only one When a clause consists of only one construction of “subject + predicate”, it is a construction of “subject + predicate”, it is a simple clause.simple clause.

e.g. e.g. It is not trueIt is not true..

He said He said that it was not truethat it was not true..

②②When a clause comprises another clause When a clause comprises another clause or other clauses as its element or elements, or other clauses as its element or elements, it is a complex clause.it is a complex clause.

e.g. e.g. What you said is not trueWhat you said is not true..

He complained He complained that what you said was that what you said was not not

true.true.

• 3) Main and subordinate clauses3) Main and subordinate clauses In a complex clause, the clause that takes anothIn a complex clause, the clause that takes anoth

er clause as its element is the main clause, while ter clause as its element is the main clause, while the clause that forms part of the main clause is a she clause that forms part of the main clause is a subordinate clause.ubordinate clause.

He complained that what you said was not true.He complained that what you said was not true. 从句从句 主句主句 从句从句 主句主句

• 4) Finite and non-finite clauses4) Finite and non-finite clauses

① ①A finite clause is one with a finite verb A finite clause is one with a finite verb phrase as its predicate verb or predicator.phrase as its predicate verb or predicator.

e.g. He complained that what he said was e.g. He complained that what he said was not not

true.true.

②②A non-finite clause is a clause with a A non-finite clause is a clause with a non-finite verb phrase as its predicator. non-finite verb phrase as its predicator.

e.g. I signed the paper e.g. I signed the paper to get the licenseto get the license..

Can’t you recall Can’t you recall telling me that story telling me that story last last

weekweek??

• 5) Verbless clauses5) Verbless clauses

When a clause is marked by the absence When a clause is marked by the absence of any form of verb element. It is a of any form of verb element. It is a verbless clause. A verbless clause is just a verbless clause. A verbless clause is just a construction of “subject + predicate” construction of “subject + predicate” without any form of verb element.without any form of verb element.

e.g. e.g. Hungry and exhaustedHungry and exhausted, the climbers , the climbers

returned.returned.

Christmas then only days awayChristmas then only days away, the , the family family

was pent up with excitement.was pent up with excitement.

0.5 Sentence0.5 Sentence

The sentence is the highest rank of The sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit. Based on one or more than grammatical unit. Based on one or more than one clause, the sentence is also the basic one clause, the sentence is also the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse; it can linguistic unit of connected discourse; it can stand alone and perform a function in social stand alone and perform a function in social communication. Thus, a sentence can be communication. Thus, a sentence can be defined as a grammatical unit that can perform defined as a grammatical unit that can perform a communicative function.a communicative function.

1) Full and minor sentences1) Full and minor sentences

① ①A full sentence is a sentence with an A full sentence is a sentence with an expressed subject and predicate.expressed subject and predicate.

e.g. I signed the paper to get the license.e.g. I signed the paper to get the license.

② ②A minor sentence is only a sentence A minor sentence is only a sentence fragment which in specific contexts and fragment which in specific contexts and situation can stand by itself and perform a situation can stand by itself and perform a communicate function.communicate function.

e.g. No smoking!e.g. No smoking!

2) simple, compound, Complex and 2) simple, compound, Complex and compound-complex sentencescompound-complex sentences ① ①A simple sentence is a sentence that A simple sentence is a sentence that

comprises only one independent clause. comprises only one independent clause. ② ②Two or more coordinated independent Two or more coordinated independent

clauses make a compound sentenceclauses make a compound sentence ③ ③When an independent clause comprises When an independent clause comprises

one or more dependent clauses as its elements. one or more dependent clauses as its elements. This makes a complex sentence.This makes a complex sentence.

④ ④Two or more coordinated independent Two or more coordinated independent clauses with at least one complex clause make clauses with at least one complex clause make a compound-complex sentence. a compound-complex sentence.

AssignmentAssignment

Exercise in the textbook