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INTRODUCTION:

Blue green algae possess an autotrophic mode of growth like eukaryotic plant

cells, metabolic system like bacteria and occupy a unique position. They possess

chlorophyll a, are gram negative and carry out photosynthesis. They exhibit a great

morphological diversity and their broad spectrum of physiological properties reflects

their widespread distribution and tolerance to environmental stress (Tandeau de

Marsac and Howard, 1993). Interesting results are obtained from detailed studies

carried out on the distribution and periodicity of BGA from various parts of India

(Venkataraman, 1975; Kolte and Goyal, 1985; Singh, 1985). Several reports have

indicated a widespread distribution of forms like Oscillatoria, Nostoc, Anabaena,

Phormidium and Aphanothece (Gupta, 1975; Sinha and Mukherjee, 1975; Paul and

Santra, 1982). Research has also shown the occurrence of mostly heterocystous forms

due to their competitive ability in comparison to non-heterocystous forms (Garcia-

Pichel and Belnap, 1996). The dominating heterocystous nitrogen fixing BGA species

of Aulosira, Cylindrospermum, Nostoc, Anabaena, Tolypothrix and Calothrix were

reported from soils of Cuttack and Orissa (Singh, 1961). Distributional profiles of

cyanobacterial isolates from soils of Bhubaneshwar, Cuttack and Howrah indicated

the predominance of heterocystous strains (Saxena et al., 2007).

Paddy field ecosystem provides a unique aquatic-terrestrial habitat for the

favourable growth and nitrogen fixation by cyanobacteria meeting their requirements

for light, water and higher temperature thus maintaining the stable yield of paddy

under flooded conditions and also the productivity of soils (Roger et al., 1993).

Cyanobacteria are a morphologically diverse organisms. Generally they can be

grouped into unicellular, colonial, unbranched, filamentous, pseudoparenchymatous,

heterotrichous and heterocystous forms (Desikachary, 1959). Paddy-fields are the


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most extensive freshwater aquatic ecosystem on Earth with more than 1.5 million

km2. The abundance of cyanobacteria in paddy fields was first observed by Fritsch

(1907). Paddy fields in several countries like Japan, Thailand, China, Philippines,

Bangladesh and India have been investigated and reported to have dominant presence

of cyanobacteria (Venkataraman, 1981; Roger and Kulasooriya, 1989).

BGA are more prevalent in Tropical and Sub-tropical regions as compared to

Temperate belts (Vaishampayan et al., 2001). They find a highly favourable

environment in the water-logged conditions of rice fields where they provide nitrogen

to plants, improving crop yields by making soil fertile, vital and productive. BGA

inoculation popularly known as Algalization helps to provide an environmentally

safe agro-ecosystem contributing to economic viability in paddy cultivation, reducing

cost and energy inputs (Sunil Pabbi, 2008). The inoculation studies of soils with BGA

or algalization carried out in India and abroad have shown beneficial effects on grain

yield and nitrogen savings (Venkataraman, 1972; Singh, 1978).

With increasing population, the only way out is to intensify agricultural

production by adopting improved cultural practices and use high yielding crop

varieties with agrochemicalization of fields, wherein intense use of fertilizers and

pesticides is required. Anand and Karuppuswamy (1987) reported lower concentration

of fertilizers supported all morphological types of cyanobacteria. Anand (1992)

reported certain cyanophycean members continue to fix nitrogen even in the presence

of commercial nitrogen fertilizers. The inoculation of chemical pest control measures

has brought into uses many powerful pesticides and insecticides. Generally pesticides

may be inhibitory, stimulating or neutral to the growth of algae depending on the

nature of the chemical, its concentration and the algal strain (Roger and Kulasooriya,

1980). Since BGA are increasingly used as biofertilizers in paddy fields


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(Venkataraman, 1981), it is imperative that the influence of various agrochemicals on

these organisms be thoroughly understood.

Goa is a coastal region with a hot, humid and tropical climate. Paddy (Oryza

sativa L.), the staple food of Goans is being cultivated over an area of 47,104

hectares both in kharif (31,166ha) and rabi (15,938ha) (Sakshena, 2003). This cereal

crop accounts for 31% of the total cropped area and 86% of the

food grain production. It is cultivated on three different land types viz.,Kher lands

(rainfed lowlands), Morod lands (rainfed uplands) and Khazan lands (coastal saline

lands). Our investigation is directed towards identification, evaluating the density and

diversity of BGA in four different types of paddy fields in Goa which are influenced

by different environmental conditions.

OBJECTIVES:

1. Survey and distribution of BGA in the selected study sites.

2. Seasonal variations in BGA.

3. Effect of selected species of BGA on growth, yield and biochemical

characteristics of Oryza sativa L.

4. Effect of inorganic fertilizers on selected species of BGA.

5. Effct of pesticides on selected species of BGA.

METHODOLOGY:

1) Four paddy fields study sites were selected depending on their various

environmental influences viz., hinterlands of Quepem, coastal paddy fields of

Utorda, khazan paddy fields of Quelossim and mining affected paddy fields of

Velguem.


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10) The effect of different concentrations of locally used commercial fertilizers

Samarth and Samrat on biomass content (g/10ml) (Richmond and Grobbelaar,

1986), chlorophyll a (g/ml) (Mckinney, 1941), total proteins (g/ml) (Lowry

et. al., 1951) and total carbohydrates (g/ml) (Dubois et. al., 1956) was studied

inAnabaena oryzae, Calothrix membranacea and Nostoc rivulare.

11) The effect of different concentrations of locally used commercial pesticides

Rogar 30, Monocrotophos , Butachlor and Phorate on biomass content

(g/10ml), chlorophyll a content (g/ml), total proteins (g/ml)) and total

carbohydrates (g/ml)was studied inAnabaena oryzae, Calothrix membranacea

and Nostoc rivulare.

OBSERVATIONS:

The first chapter deals with the general introduction & objectives of the

research work carried out. It also deals with previous work done on paddy field blue

green algae. The paddy fields of Goa were surveyed and fields that are influenced by

different environmental conditions were selected for study. The fields selected for

study were hinterlands of Quepem, coastal fields of Utorda, khazan fields of

Quelossim and mining affected paddy fields of Velguem.

The second chapter deals with the review of literature on blue green algae &

its role in paddy cultivation. Third chapter gives the physico-chemical analyses of the

water and soil samples from the selected study sites, besides the meteorological data

collected from the state meteorological department during the study period from 2006

to 2009.

The results revealed that the paddy fields in different areas show variable

parameters. The study indicated that the highest pH was recorded in the hinterlands

of Quepem, followed by coastal fields of Utorda and khazans of Quelossim. The least


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pH was recorded in the mining area fields of Velguem. Among the other physico-

chemical parameters analyzed higher values were recorded in Quepem followed by

Utorda and Quelossim and least in the mining fields of Velguem. Phosphate content

dissolved Oxygen, Calcium, Magnesium, N, K and micronutrients were higher

Quepem followed by Utorda and Quelossim and least in Velguem. The

meteorological data indicated adequate sunshine and rainfall during the study period.

The fourth chapter deals with taxonomic identification of BGA from different

study sites and their distribution in kharif and rabi seasons during the three

consecutive years of study from June 2006 to June 2009. Besides taxonomic

identification, the study also recorded the distribution of BGA in the two growing

seasons of paddy i.e.kharif and rabi and determined the most dominant heterocystous

BGA species in paddy fields of Goa. The study revealed 84 species belonging to 16

genera from four different habitats of Goa that belonged to three different groups viz.,

unicellular, heterocystous and non-heterocystous forms.

All the 13 species of unicellular forms belonged to five genera belonged of

family Chroococcaceae of order Chroococcales. Microcystiswas represented by two

species viz., M. aeruginosa and M. elabens, Chroococcus was represented by C.

turgidus,C. minutes, C. pallidus andC. cohaerens,Gloecapsa was represented byG.

punctata, G. aeruginosa and G. kuetzingiana, Aphanocapsa was represented A.

banarensis;while Aphanothece was represented byA. stagnina, A. saxicola and A.

castegnei.

The study recorded 30 species belonging to four genera of non-heterocystous

BGA that belonged to family Oscillatoriaceae of order Nostocales. Lyngbya was

represented by L. spiralis, L. bergei, L. dendrobia, L. confervoides and L.

martensiana;Oscillatoriawas represented by 19 species viz.,O. ornata, O. limosa, O.


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subbrevis, O. curviceps, O. princeps, O. anguina, O. proboscidea, O. chlorina, O.

martina, O. chalybea, O. tenuis, O. simplissima, O. limnetica, O. psudogeminata, O.

claricentrosa, O. formosa, O. salina, O. accuminata and O. brevis; Spirulina was

represented byS. meneghinian and S. princeps; whilePhormidium was represented by

P. jadinianum,P. microtomum,P. purpurascensandP. mucosum.

The heterocystous BGA identified belonged to family Nostocaceae,

Scytonemataceae and Rivulariaceae. A total of 41 species belonging to seven genera

of heterocystous forms were recorded during the study period. Family Nostocaceae

was represented by genera Cylindrospermum, Nostoc and Anabaena.

Cylindrospermum was represented by C. stagnale and C. musicola; Nostoc was

represented by 14 species viz.,N. punctiforme, N. entophytum, N. paludosum, N.

linkia, N. rivulare, N. carneum, N. ellipsosporum, N. calcicola, N. passerinianum, N.

muscorum, N. commune, N. microscopium, N. hatei andN. sphaericum;Anabaena is

represented by six species viz., A. sphaerica, A. oryzae, A. fertilissima, A.

naviculoides, A. variabilis andA. torulosa. Family Scytonemataceae was represented

by two genera viz.,Scytonema andTolypothrix. Scytonema was represented by five

species viz., S. simplex, S. coactile, S. bohneri, S. schmidtii and S. fremyii while

Tolypothrix was represented by five species viz., T. nodosa, T. tenuis, T. fragilis, T.

byssoidea andT. conglutinata. Family Rivulariaceae recorded nine species belonging

to two genera. Calothrix is represented by C. castellii, C. elenkinii, C. braunii, C.

parietina, C. weberi, C. membranacea andC. marchica;Rivularia is represented by

only two species viz.,R. aquatica andR. globiceps.The forms showed variations in

their occurrence during both kharif and rabi seasons. Maximum diversity of the BGA

forms was observed in the hinterlands of Quepem, followed by coastal fields of


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Utorda and khazan fields of Quelossim, while the least diversity was recorded in

mining affected paddy fields of Velguem.

Fifth chapter deals with the density and diversity of BGA in selected paddy

fields of Goa. The objective of this study was to find the density and diversity of BGA

in the fields which differ in their physico-chemical parameters and are also influenced

by different environmental conditions. The present study indicates that the overall

density and diversity of BGA is highest in the hinterlands of Quepem followed by

coastal fields of Utorda, khazan fields of Quelossim and least in mining affected

fields. It is observed that the physico-chemical parameters showed higher values in

Quepem followed by Utorda and Quelossim while least in mining fields of Velguem.

Phosphorus content, dissolved oxygen, Calcium, Magnesium, N, K and

micronutrients recorded highest amounts in Quepem followed by Utorda and

Quelossim and least in Velguem. Hinterland paddy fields show higher density and

diversity of BGA than coastal and khazan fields indicating that the hinterlandsfavour

better growth of BGA compared to other study sites. The mining affected fields

showed poor growth of BGA. It was observed that Anabaena oryzae Frithsch,

Calothrix membranacea Schmidle andNostoc rivulareKtzing ex Born et Flah, were

the dominant heterocystous forms.

Sixth chapter relates to studies on the effect of selected heterocystous forms of

BGA on Oryza sativa L. (var. Jaya) using pot experiments. The objective of this study

was to determine the biofertilizing efficiency of the individual and combination

treatments of indigenous heterocystous BGA isolated from the paddy fields of Goa on

growth, yield and biochemical characteristics of Oryza sativa L. (var. Jaya). The

study indicates that BGA individually or in combination with other blue greens

produced significant results in most of the parameters studied. The combination

treatment of BGA (Ao + Cm + Nr) resulted in maximum increase in plant growth and


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yield parameters compared to control. The combined treatment of Ao+Cm+Nr

resulted in 88% increase in grain yield over control. Biochemical parameters showed

similar results. It is revealed that the combined treatment Ao+Cm+Nr leads to an

increase in growth and yield parameters in paddy. It also improves the carbohydrate

and protein content of grains. Effects of selected BGA and their combinations on

plant growth parameters, grain yield and biochemical aspects were studied and their

comparative results were analyzed by one way ANOVA. Most of the parameters

analyzed showed significant results, significant at P


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Finally, the eighthchapter deals with the effect of pesticides on selected BGA.

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of locally used pesticides viz.,

Rogar 30, Monocrotophos, Butachlor and Phorate on the selected indigenous strains

of BGA. Effect of these pesticides on biomass, chlorophyll, total proteins and total

carbohydrate content on Anabaena oryzae (Ao), Calothrix membranaceae(Cm) ,

Nostoc rivulare(Nr), revealed that at low concentration of 0.1 and 0.5 mg/100ml of

the pesticides, growth is stimulated as seen by its increasing biomass, chlorophyll,

total protein and total carbohydrate content. However, at higher concentrations (1, 2

and 3 mg/100ml) of the pesticides, growth was retarded as indicated by a decline in

biomass, chlorophyll, total protein and total carbohydrate content.

CONCLUSION:

The study revealed rich density and diversity of indigenous flora of BGA in

the undisturbed paddy fields of Goa. However disturbed sites like the mining affected

paddy fields recorded less density and diversity of BGA. An understanding of the

physico-chemical parameters, density and diversity of indigenous BGA in the paddy

fields may help in studying the distribution of BGA and thus develop niche specific

inocula for biofertilization. The present study also revealed that the use of indigenous

cyanobacterial strains for algalization with pot experiments using Oryza sativa L.

(var. jaya) was encouraging and proved to be an efficient biofertilizer. It may be thus

concluded that biofertilization of jaya variety of paddy could be extended for field

trials in future. The study also revealed that these indigenous nitrogen fixers are

affected by agrochemicalization of paddy fields but recommended doses of fertilizers

do not affect the BGA. But however sensitivity of BGA to pesticides is more even at

low concentration.


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