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Without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary

nothing can be conveyed.

English Lexicology (II)

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English Lexicology(II) 2

Contents

5. Word-Formation I: the Major Processes

6. Word-Formation II: the Minor Processes 7. Motivation

To be continued

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Chapter 5 Word-Formation I:The Major Processes

5 1 General Remarks

5 2 Prefixation

5 3 Suffixation

5 4 Conversion

5 5 Compounding

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5.1 General Remarks

The three major processes affixation or derivation (17.5%)

Prefixation

suffixation

conversion (10.5%)

composition or compounding (27%)

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5.2 Prefixation

The definition of prefixation Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding

prefixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the

word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.

However, there is an insignificant number of class-changing prefixes

Non-class-changing prefixes: natural-unnatural, like-dislike, fair-

unfair

Class-changing prefixes: force-enforce, danger-endanger, form-

deform, little-belittle, war-postwar, college-intercollege

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5.2 Prefixation

The classification of prefixes In some reference books, prefixes (and suffixes)

are classified according to their source, but this

does not seem to help from a practical point ofview. It seems more helpful to classify the most

important productive prefixes by their meaning

into the following ten categories:

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5.2 Prefixation

1) Negative prefixesa-/an- amoral, asexual, atheism, anacid, anarchy,

dis- dishonest, discontent, discover, disobey, disagree

in- Incomplete, inconsistent, incorrect, invulnerable,illogical, illegal, impolite, immoral, imbalance,

irrational, irregular

non- nonviolent, non-cooperation, nonautomatic,

nonadjustable, nonalcoholicun- uninformative, unexpected, unease, unrest

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5.2 Prefixation

Order Literate

Symmetry

Governmental

Relevant

Productive Believable

Vulnerable

Sane

Related

Aligned

Mature

Disorder Illiterate

Asymmetry

Nongovernmental

Irrelevant

Unproductive Unbelievable

Invulnerable

Insane

Unrelated

Nonaligned

Immature

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5.2 Prefixation

2) Reversative or privative

de- defrost, deregulation, degeneration, deformed,

denationalize

un- undo, unpack, untie, unwrap, unmask

dis- disconnect, dishearten, disinterested

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5.2 Prefixation

Centralize Plane

Infect

Zip Regulate

Possess

Pollute

Decentralize Deplane

Disinfect

Unzip Deregulate

Dispossess

Depollute

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5.2 Prefixation

3) Pejorative prefixes

mis- misguide, misapplication, misbehavior, mischoice,

misgiving

mal- maladjustment, maldigestion, malfunction,maldevelopment

pseudo- pseudonym, pseudoscience, pseudoclassic,

pseudo-friend

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5.2 Prefixation

4) Prefixes of degree or sizehyper- hyperactive, hypercritical, hyperaggressive, hypercautious

ultra- ultramodern, ultrasecret, ultraclean, ultrasonic, ultraconservative

mini- minibus, minicamera, miniskirt

out- outdo, outgrown, outlive

over- overwork, overestimate, overemphasize, overabundance, overburden

under- underdeveloped, underpopulation, undergraduate

super- supermarket, superpower, superstar

sub- subadult, subtitle, subbreed, subatom

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5.2 Prefixation

Computer Critical

Conscious

Natural

Sensitive

Simple

Number

Statement culture

Minicomputer

Ultracritic /hypercritic

Subconscious

Supernatural

Hypersensitive/ultrasensitive

Oversimple

Outnumber

Understatement

Subculture

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5.2 Prefixation

5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude

co- Co-author, co-star, co-prosperity, cooperation

counter- Counterexample, counterclaim, counteractive,counterattack, counterculture, countermeasure

anti- anti-abortion, anti-art, antiwar, antibacterial, antisocial,

anticancer, antibody

pro- pro-American, pro-revolutionary, pro-Fascism , pro-student, proslavery

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5.2 Prefixation

6) Locative prefixesfore- forearm, foreleg, forename, foreword

inter- international, intergovernmental, intertwine,

interdisciplinary, intercollege

trans- transatlantic, transoceanic, transform, transplant

tele- telephone, telegram, telecommunication

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5.2 Prefixation

View Conference

Continental

Ground Cast

Specific

Racial Shore

Interview teleconference

Intercontinental

Foreground Telecast

Transpacific

Transracial Foreshore

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5.2 Prefixation

7) Prefixes of time and order

ex- ex-husband, ex-president, ex-colony, ex-convict

fore- foresee, foretell, forefather, forewarn

pre- premature, prewar, prehistoric, prepay, premarital

post- post-election, postwar, postgraduate, postdoctoral

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5.2 Prefixation

8) Number prefixesuni-/mono- unilateral, unicell, unicircuit, unicolor, unicycle,

unidimensional, uniform, unipolar, monoxide, monocrystal,

monogamy, monologue

bi-/di- bicycle, bilingual, bimonthly, dioxide, dialogue, dichotomy,disyllable

tri- triangular, triatomic, trimonthly, trilateral, trilingual

multi-/poly- multipurpose, multipolar, multiangular, multilingual,

polyatomic, polycrystal, polygamy

semi- semicircle, semiliterate, semivowel, semiannual,

semicolony, semiautomatic

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5.2 Prefixation

Lingual Lateral

Polar

Dimensional

Unilingual, bilingual,trilingual, multilingual

Unilateral, bilateral,trilateral, multilateral

Unipolar, bipolar, tripolar,multipolar

Unidimensional,bidimensional,tridimensional (three-

dimensional),multidimensional

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5.2 Prefixation

9) Conversion prefixesa- aloud, asleep, aglow, awash

be- belittle, bestir, befriend, bewitch

en- endanger, enforce, enable, embody, embitter, empower

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5.2 Prefixation

10) Miscellaneous prefixesExtra- Extralinguistic, extraordinary, extraterrestrial

Neo- Neo-classicism,neo-colonialism, neo-fascism,

Neolithic

Pan- Pan-Pacific, Pan-Arabism, Pan-Africanism

..

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5.3 Suffixation

The definition of suffixation Suffixation is the formation of new words by

adding suffixes to stems. Unlike prefixes which

primarily change the meaning of the stem,suffixes have only a small semantic role, their

primary function being to change the

grammatical functionof stems. In other words,

they mainly change the word class. However,they may also add attached meaning to the stem.

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5.3 Suffixation

The classification of suffixes Since suffixes mainly change the word class, we

shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into

1) noun suffixes 2) adjective suffixes

3) adverb suffixes

4) verb suffixes

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5.3 Suffixation

1) Noun suffixes Noun suffixes may be subdivided into the

following five kinds.

Denominal nouns (concrete or abstract) Deverbal nouns

De-adjectival nouns

Noun and adjective suffixes

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5.3 Suffixation

1) Noun suffixes

Denominal nouns (concrete)

-eer auctioneer, engineer, mountaineer, pamphleteer,

profiteer, racketeer-er Londoner, teenager, villager

-ess actress, waitress, stewardess, hostess, lioness

-let booklet, leaflet, piglet, starlet

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5.3 Suffixation

1) Noun suffixesDenominal nouns (abstract)

-age baggage, luggage, mileage, percentage

-dom freedom, kingdom, stardom, officialdom-ery/-ry drudgery, slavery, nunnery, nursery, machinery

-ism idealism, optimism, individualism, consumerism

-ship dictatorship, scholarship, friendship, sportsmanship

-ocrasy aristocracy, democracy, meritocracy

-hood boyhood, brotherhood, neighborhood, adulthood

-ful handful, mouthful, plateful, tubful

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5.3 Suffixation

1) Noun suffixesDeverbal nouns

-ant contestant, inhabitant, assistant, informant

-ee interviewee, addressee, appointee, nominee, employee

-er/-or driver, employer, interviewer, computer, silencer, accelerator,

supervisor, actor, window-shopper

-ation foundation, exploration, nomination, starvation

-ing building, dwelling, earnings, savings, clothing, stuffing

-al refusal, revival, survival, arrival, dismissal

-ment amazement, arrangement, movement, government

-age breakage, coverage, shrinkage, drainage

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5.3 Suffixation

1) Noun suffixes

De-adjectival nouns

-ity diversity, equality, rapidity, verbosity, responsibility,

actuality, regularity, popularity, respectability-ness accurateness, falseness, kindness, selfishness,

happiness, largeness, frankness, unexpectedness,

thickness, goodness

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5.3 Suffixation

1) Noun suffixes

Nouns and adjective suffixes

-ese Burmese, Chinese, Cantonese, officialese, journalese

-(i)an Darwinian, republican, Elizabethan, Shakespearean,

Indonesian, Russian

-ist communist, pianist, specialist, socialist

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5.3 Suffixation

2) Adjective SuffixesDenominal suffixes

-ed dogged, rugged, pointed, chocolate-flavored

-ful delightful, successful, faithful, meaningful-ish childish, foolish, snobbish, Irish, Turkish

-less homeless, hopeless, merciless, harmless

-like childlike, ladylike, statesmanlike

-ly friendly, cowardly, motherly, daily, weekly

-y milky, sandy, hairy, meaty

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5.3 Suffixation

2) Adjective Suffixes

Denominal suffixes

-ic (-atic) ethnic, economic, historic, problematic

-ous (-ious,-eous)

ambitious, desirous, marvelous, courageous,erroneous, courteous

-al (-ial, -ical) accidental, professional, residential, musical,

philosophical

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5.3 Suffixation

2) Adjective Suffixes

Deverbal suffixes

-able (-ible,

-uble)

debatable, drinkable, changeable, perishable,

permissible, visible, dissoluble, soluble-ive (-ative,

-sive)

attractive, reflective, productive, negative,

decorative, talkative, affirmative, expansive,

explosive, decisive

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5.3 Suffixation

3) Adverb Suffixes-ly smoothly, personally, extremely, publicly, naturally

-ward(s) downward, eastward, homeward, forward

-wise clockwise, lengthwise, weatherwise, educationwise,taxwise, moneywise

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5.3 Suffixation

4) Verb suffixes-ate Originate, hyphenate

-en Deepen, harden, strengthen, hasten

-ify Solidify, modify, beautify, classify, identify-ize(-ise) Symbolize, computerize, legalize, publicize,

specialize

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5.3 Suffixation

False Sterile

Intense

Fat Horror

Memory

Apology

Falsify Sterilize

Intensify

Fatten Horrify

Memorize

Apologize

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5.4 Conversion

The definition of conversion Conversion is a word-formation whereby a word

of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of

another without the addition of an affix. It is also

called zero derivation().

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5.4 Conversion

Major types of conversion Noun-verb conversion

Verb-noun conversion

Adjective-noun conversion

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5.4 Conversion

Noun-verb conversion He elbowed his way through the crowd.

Problems snowballedby the hour.

The newspaper headlined his long record ofaccomplishments.

Kissinger got the plans and helicopteredto

Camp David.

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5.4 Conversion

Abuse

Advice

House

Use

Belief

Grief

Shelf

mouth

Abuse

Advise

House

Use

Believe

Grieve

Shelve

Mouth

Changes of pronunciation and spelling

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5.4 Conversion

Verb-noun conversion He was admitted to the university after a three-

year wait.

This little restaurant is quite afind. It is a good buy.

He took a close look at the machine.

doubt, smell, desire, want, attempt, hit, reply,

divide

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5.4 Conversion

Verb-noun conversion Phrasal verb-noun conversion

Right branching Left branching

Break down Breakdown Break out OutbreakPick up Pick-up Spill over Overspill

Take over Take-over Start up Upstart

Get together Get-together Put in Input

Break through Breakthrough Keep up upkeep

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5.4 Conversion

Conflict

Abstract

Contrast Decrease

Discount

Export

Rebel

Permit

Progress

Protest Transfer

Transplant

Survey

Torment

Shift of stress

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5.4 Conversion

Adjective-noun conversion Partial conversion

Complete conversion

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5.4 Conversion

Adjective-noun conversion Partial conversion

Denoting a quality or a state common to a group of person: the

deaf, the blind, the poor, the wounded

Denoting peoples of a nation (ending insh, -se, -ch): theEnglish, the Chinese, the Danish, the Scotch

Denoting a quality in the abstract: a strong dislike for the

sentimental, to distinguish the false and the true, from the

sublime to the ridiculous

Denoting a single person (converted from participles): theaccused, the deceased, the deserted, the condemned

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5.4 Conversion

Adjective-noun conversion Complete conversion

A native, two natives, a returned native

He is a naturalfor the job.

Tom is one of ourregulars, he comes in for a drink

about this time every night.

To them she is not a brusque crazy, but appropriately

passionate.

They are the creativesin the advertising department.

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5.5 Compounding

The definition of compounding Composition or compounding is a word-

formation process consisting of joining two or

more bases to form a new unit, a compound

word. It is a common device which has been

productive at every period of the English

language. Today the largest number of new

words are formed by compounding.

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5.5 Compounding

Forms of compounds Solid: bedtime, honeymoon

Hyphenated: above-mentioned, town-planning

Open: reading material, hot line

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5.5 Compounding

Types of compounds Noun compounds

Adjective compounds

Verb compounds

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5.5 Compounding

Noun compounds Headache, housekeeping, hot line, swimming

pool, raindrop, breakdown, biological clock,

identity crisis

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5.5 Compounding

Adjective compounds Weather-beatenrocks,peacelovingpeople,

everlastingfriendship, a difficult-to-operate

machine, a made-upstory, an on the spot

inspection, taxfreeproducts, fire-proofdress

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5.5 Compounding

Verb compounds Formed by back-formation

hou se-keepfrom housekeeper

windowshopfrom window-shopp ing

mass produ ce from mass product ion

hen-peckfrom hen-pecked

spoon -feedfrom spoon-fed.

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5.5 Compounding

Verb compounds Formed by conversion

to blue-print, to cold-shoulder, to outline, to

honeymoon, to snowball, to chain-smoke, to sweet-

talk, to job-hop.

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Chapter 6 Word-Formation II:

The Minor Processes

6 1 Blending

6 2 Backformation

6 3 Shortening

6 4 Analogy

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6.1 Blending

The definition of blending Blending is a process of word-

formation in which a new word is formed by

combining parts of two words. The result of such

a process is called a blend or telescopic word or

portmanteau word. Blending is thus a process of

both compounding and abbreviation. Structurally

blends may be divided into four types (see page45-46).

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6.1 Blending

Examples newscast(newsbroadcast)

brunch(breakfast

lunch)

smog (smoke

fog) talkathon(talkmarathon)

slimnastics(slimgymnastics)

videophone( video

telephone)

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6.1 Blending

sci-fi hi-fi

workaholic

stagflation Unicom

sitcom

motel

dawk

science

fiction highfidelity

workalcoholic

stagnation

inflation UnitedCommunications

situationcomedy

motorhotel

dovehawk

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6.2 Backformation

The definition of backformation Back-formation is a process of

word-formation by which a word is created by

the deletion of a supposed suffix. It is also

known as a reverse derivation.

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6.2 Backformation

Examples edit from editor

automate from automation

enthuse from enthusiasm

gloom from gloomy

donate from donation

brainwash from brainwashing

sleep-walk from sleep-walking

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6.3 Shortening

Types of shortening or abbreviation

1) clipped words : those created byclipping part of the word (usually a noun),

leaving only a piece of the old word. The clippedform is normally regarded as informal.

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6.3 Shortening


2) initialisms : a type ofshortening, using the first letters of words to

form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase;an initialism is pronounced letter by letter.

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6.3 Shortening


3) acronyms : words formedfrom the initial letters of words and pronounced

as words. Acronyms differ from initialisms in thatthey are pronounced as words rather than assequences of letters.

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6.3 Shortening

1) Clipped words ad=advertisement

expo=exposition

phone=telephone

pro=professional

memo=memorandum

tec=detective

heli or copter=helicopter

comfy=comfortable

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6.3 Shortening

gymnasium

dormitory

handkerchief

gasoline kilogram

influenza

business

parachute refrigerator

taxicab

gym

dorm

hanky

Gas

kilo

flu

biz

chute fridge

taxi or cab

Give clippings for the following words

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6.3 Shortening

2) Initialisms IOC=International Olympic Committee

BBC=British Broadcasting Corporation

ISBN=International Standard Book Number CAD=computer assisted design

cm=centimeter

TB=tuberculosis

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6.3 Shortening

CPU

DIY

CEO

IT

AI

SOS

IDD

GMT

VIP

P.S. a.m.

p.m.

central processing unit

Do it yourself

Chief Executive Officer

Information technology

artificial intelligence

Save our ship

international direct dial

Greenwich Mean Time

very important person

postscript ante meridiem

post meridiem

Write out in full the following initialisms

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6.3 Shortening

3) Acronyms Basic=Beginners All-purpose Symbolic

Instruction

TEFL=teaching English as a foreign language UNESCO=the United Nations Educational,

Scientific and Cultural Organization

Sars=Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome

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6.3 Shortening

Tofel

ROM

NATO

FIFA Aids

radar

Test of English as a foreign language

read only memory

The North Atlantic Treaty organization

Federation Internationale de Football Acquired Immune Deficiency syndrome

Radio detecting and ranging

Write out in full the following acronyms

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6.4 Analogy

Examples Marathon-----telethon, talkathon

blue-collar workers-----white-collar workers, gray-collar

workers, pink-collar workers, gold-collar workers

environmental pollution-----visual or eye pollution, noisepollution, cultural pollution, graffiti pollution

First Family-----First Lady, First Dog

Landscape-----moonscape, marscape

Birdseye------fish-eye, worms-eye, cats-eye

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Chapter 7 Motivation

7 1 Conventionality and Motivation

7 2 Onomatopoeic motivation

7 3 Morphological motivation

7 4 Semantic motivation

7 5 Logical motivation

7 6 Motivation and Culture

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7.1 Conventionality and Motivation

Meaning (Concept)

Word

Triangle of significance

Form Referent.

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The debate over the connectionbetween sound and meaning

The naturalistsmaintain there is anatural/intrinsic connection between sound and

meaning. The Conventionalists, on the other hand, hold

that the relations between sound and meaningare conventional and arbitrary. The meaning of a

word is a kind of linguistic social contract.

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Conventionality

Whatsin a name? That we call a rose

By any other name would smell as sweet.

-----Shakespeare: Romeo and Juliet Words have no meaning, people have meaning

for them.

------ Eric Partridge

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Conventionality ---Chinese

---Japanese

arbre---French baun---Germany

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Motivation

Motivation deals with the connection between

name (word-symbol) and its sense (meaning). It

is the relationship between the word structure

and its meaning.

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Non-motivated and motivated From the point of view of motivation, the great

majority of English words are nonmotivated,

since they are conventional, arbitrary symbols.

However, there is a small group of words that

can be described as motivated, that is, a direct or

somewhat connection between the symbol and

its sense can be readily observed.

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Examples of motivation The pigeon coos.

airmail, miniskirt, hopeless

a coat of paint He has a stony heart.

The question was like the Sphinxs riddle to them.

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Types of motivation Onomatopoeic motivation

Morphological motivation

Semantic motivation Logical motivation

Motivation and Culture

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7.2 Onomatopoeic motivation

Onomatopoeic motivation

meansdefining the principle of motivation by sound.

Words motivated phonetically are called

onomatopoeic words, whose pronunciation

suggests the meaning. They show a closeconnection between sound and sense.

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Primary onomatopoeia Primary onomatopoeia means the imitation of

sound by sound. Here the sound is truly an

echo to the sense.

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Primary onomatopoeia

cats mew, purr lions roar

eagles scream mice squeak

frogs croak Snakes hiss

hens cluck wolves howl

(For more examples, see page 60-61)

7 2 O i i i

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Secondary onomatopoeia Secondary onomatopoeia means that certain

sounds and sound-sequences are associated

with certain senses. In other words, certain

sounds evoke symbolic connotations,suggesting particular senses.

7 2 O i i i

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Secondary onomatopoeia -are suggests big light or noise

Blare, flare, glare, stare

-ump suggests protuberance

Plump, chump, rump, hump, stump, dump, mump sk- suggests touching or moving on the surface

Skate, skim, skin, ski, sketch, skid

h- suggests moving with great speed, force, or violence

Heavy, haste, hurry, hit, hurl, hammer, hinder

7 2 O i i i

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But it has to be pointed out that onomatopoeicwords constitute only a small part of the

vocabulary; some onomatopoeic words are not

completely motivated phonetically and are

conventional to quite a large extent. If you throwa stone into water, the sound you hear is by no

means the same as when you say splash. Flies

do not exactly make the sound of buzz.

7 3 M h l i l ti ti

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7.3 Morphological motivation

We say the word is morphologically motivated,for a direct connection can be observed between

the morphemic structure of the word and its

meaning. This is called morphological

motivation(

7 3 M h l i l ti ti

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7.3 Morphological motivation

Derivational wordsare morphologically motivated. If oneknows the meaning of the affix and the base, then one

can immediately tell the meaning of the word.

Compounds words may be morphologically motivated

too. The meanings of words like good-looking, spaceman,

moonscape, daydreamand many others derive from the

combined meaning of the component parts.

One thing worth pointing out is that the morphemes, the

component parts of these words are themselves

conventional.

7 4 S ti ti ti

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7.4 Semantic motivation

Semantic motivation

refers to themental associationsuggested by the conceptual

meaning of a word. It explains the connection

between the literal sense and figurative senseof

the word. Here it is the figurative usage thatprovides the semantic motivation.

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Examples: When we speak of a stony heartwe are

comparing the heart with a stone.

when we say the leg of a table, we are comparing

the tables leg with one of the lower limbs of a

human being.

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Types of semantic motivation Metaphor

Metonymy

Synecdoche Analogy

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Metaphor Metaphor is a figure of speech

containing an implied comparison, in which a

word or phrase ordinarily and primarily used of

one thing is applied to another. It is a similewithout like or as.

7 4 S ti ti ti

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Metaphor The world is a stage.

A sea of troubles; a tide of popular applause.

The city is a jungle where no body is safe afterthe dark.

Some books are to be tasted, others swallowed,

and some few to be chewed and digested.

----- Bacon Of Studies

7 4 S ti ti ti

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Metonymy Metonymy is the device in which we

name something by one of its attributes. The

substitution of the name of one thing for that of

another with which it is closely associated.


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Metonymy Metonymy usually includes several classes:

container for its content, a thing closelyassociated for another, tool for the doer or deed,

writer for his works, the concrete for the abstractand so on.


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Metonymy He is too fond of bottles.

The hall applauded.

I have never read Li Bai. The pen is mightier than the sword.

He succeeded to the crown.

Uncle Sam; the Pentagon; Hollywood; the White

House;Beijing


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Synecdoche Synecdoche means using a part for a

whole, an individual for a class, a material for a

thing, or vice versa, the whole for a part.


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Synecdoche There are about 500 hands working in this

factory.

This newspaperand probably the countrywill

wait its time and see how the new faces performbefore judging them.

The birds sing to welcome the smiling year.

To earn ones bread

He is a clever creature .


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Analogy Analogy is a process whereby words or

phrases are created in imitation of existing

patterns in the language. The motivation is that

the meaning or sense of the created word sharessimilarity with the existing language pattern.


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Analogy Color: black list---white list, gray list; blue-color workers-

--white-collar workers, gray-collar workers, pink-collar

workers, and gold-collar workers

Number: the First World---the Second World, the Thirdworld, the Fourth World

Place and space: landscape---moonscape, marscape;

sunrise---earthrise; spaceman---earthman, moonman


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Analogy Similarity: missile gap---generation gap,

development gap, income gap, credibility gap

Antonym: hot line---cold line; baby boom---baby

bust; nightmare---daymare; cold-war---hot war;

high-rise---low-rise


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7.5 Logical motivation

Logical motivation

deals with theproblem of defining a concept by means of logic.

It means, first, identify the concept of a genus

, second, to identify the attributes

distinguishing onespecies

from othersimilar species in the same genus.


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Compounds combining species and genus

Crisis---economical crisis, financial crisis,

spiritual crisis, ecological crisis, credit crisis,

military crisis, identity crisis

Relations---international relations, business

relations, diplomatic relations, bilateral relations


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Clipped compounds by shortening species or genus

drug from narcotic or hallucinogenic drug

He is addicted to drugs

pill from birth control pill

The Hill from the Capitol Hill

Nobel from Nobel Prize


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7.6 Motivation and Culture

Relation Motivation is closely related to culture and

history. In English, some words are endowed

with rich cultural connotations. Words that

epitomize cultural history are call culturally-bound words or allusive words. These words

originated from religion, mythology, history and

literature.


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forbidden fruit: sth. alluring but prohibitedbecause of terrible consequences

Odyssey: a long, adventurous journey

the last straw: the last thing that leads one to a

final loss of patience, temper, trust, or hope Waterloo: a final, crushing defeat,eg. meet one's

Waterloo

Uncle Tom: a person who compromises and

conforms


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Prometheus unbound:an overwhelming power Solomon: a wise man

Sphinx: A puzzling or mysterious person or thing.

Eg.a Sphinxs riddle: a puzzling, mysterious

question, problem.


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Judas: One who betrays another under the guise offriendship. Judas kiss: a malicious intention underthe guise of intimacy and friendship

pound of flesh: legal but unreasonable demand orclaim

white elephant: A rare, expensive possession that isa financial burden to maintain, no longer wanted

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A non-native learner should haverelevant background knowledge

about the target languages history,

geography, customs, habits,

knowledge about the Bible and

Christianity.


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National psychology To take French leave

Double Dutch; Dutch bargain; Dutch courage;

Dutch comfort; Dutch treat; to go Dutch; to talk

Dutch; Im a Dutchman if .


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Religious Philosophy As poor as a church-mouse

As patient as Job

As wise as Solomon


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as strong as a horse

as dump as an oyster;assilent as the grave; as closeas wax

spring up like a mushroom like a cat on hot bricks

Its no use crying over spiltmilk.

As timid as a rabbit

20085316518875

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