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MUGHAL ART AND

ARCHITECTURE


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The Mughal Empire wasanIslamic and

Persianate imperialpower ofthe Indian

subcontinent which beganin 1526, invaded

and ruledmostofHindustan (South Asia)by

the late 17th and early 18th centuries, and

endedinthe mid-19thcentury.


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The Mughal Emperors were descendantsofthe Timurids, andatthe heightoftheir poweraround 1700, theycontrolledmostofthe

IndianSubcontinent extending fromBengalinthe easttoBalochistan inthe west, Kashmirinthe north tothe Kaveri basininthe south.Itspopulationatthattime hasbeen estimatedasbetween 110 and 130 million, over aterritoryofover 4 million km(1.5 millionmi).


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The "classicperiod" ofthe Empire startedwiththe accessionofJalaluddin Mohammad Akbar,better knownas Akbar the Great, in 1556. It

endedwith the death ofEmperor Aurangzeb in1707although the Empire continuedfor another150 years. During thisperiod, the Empire wasmarkedbya highlycentralizedadministration

connecting the different regions. Allthesignificantmonumentsofthe Mughals, theirmostvisible legacy, date tothisperiod.


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The name Mughalisderivedfromthe originalhomelandsofthe Timurids, the Central Asiansteppesonce conqueredbyGenghis Khan and

hence knownasMoghulistan, "LandofMongols". Although early Mughals spoke theChagatailanguage andmaintainedTurko-Mongol practices, theywere essentiallyPersianized. Theytransferredthe Persianliterature andculture to India, thusformingthe base for the Indo-Persianculture.


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The foundationfor the empire was establishedaroundthe

early 1500sbythe Timurid prince Babur, when he took

controlofthe Doab and eastern regionsofKhorasan, which

controlledthe fertile Sindh regionandthe lower valleyofthe

Indus River. In 1526, Babur defeatedthe lastofthe Delhi

Sultans, IbrahimShah Lodi, atthe First Battle ofPanipat. To

secure hisnewlyfounded kingdom, Babur then hadtoface

the formidable Rajput confederacyledbyRanaSanga of

Chittor, atthe Battle ofKhanwa. RanaSangaofferedstiffresistance butwasdefeateddue totreacherywithin hisown

ranks.


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Babur'ssonHumayun succeeded himin 1530 butsuffered

major reversalsatthe handsofthe Pashtun Sher Shah Suri

and effectivelylostmostofthe fledgling empire before it

could growbeyondaminor regionalstate. From 1540

Humayunbecame a ruler in exile, reaching the Courtofthe

Safavid rule in 1554 while hisforce stillcontrolledsome

fortressesandsmall regions. Butwhenthe Pashtuns fellinto

disarraywith the death ofSher Shah Suri, Humayun returned

with amixedarmy, raisedmore troopsandmanagedtoreconquer Delhi in 1555.


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Humayuncrossedthe rough terrainofthe Makran people

with hiswife, butleftbehindtheir infantsonJalaluddin to

spare himthe rigoursofthejourney.Akbar, as Jalaluddin

wouldbe better knownin hislater years, wasborninthe

townofSindh inwhere he was raisedby hisuncle Askari.

There he became an excellentoutdoorsman, horseman, and

hunter, andlearnedthe artsofwar. The resurgent Humayun

thenconqueredthe centralplateauaround Delhi, butmonths

later diedinanaccident, leaving the realmunsettledandinwar.


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Akbar succeeded hisfather on14 February, 1556, while inthe

midstofawar againstSikandar Shah Suri for the throne of

Delhi. He soonwon his eighteenth victoryatage 21 or 22. He

became knownasAkbar, as he wasawise ruler, setfair but

steeptaxes. He wasashrewder administrator than his

predecessorsandsawthatthe proud Hindupopulace ofIndia

wouldnotjustcave inandconvertto Islamwhich wasthe

main goalofMughal rulersbefore him. He sawthisstiff

resistance fromthe proudandstrong Hindu heritage asthemain reasonwhythe Mughals hadnotsucceededinannexing

the complete geographical extentofIndia.


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Sotobe more organicandtruly royalin hisapproach he gave

upthe mainagendaofIslamicconquestofspreading religion.

He investigatedthe productioninacertainareaandtaxed

inhabitantsone-fifth oftheir agriculturalproduce. He alsoset

upan efficientbureaucracyandwastolerantofreligious

differenceswhich softenedthe resistance bythe locals. He

made allianceswith Rajputsandappointed Hindu generals

andadministrators. Later inlife, he alsocame upwith hisown

brandofreligionbasedontolerance andinspiredbyviewsfromboth Hinduismand Islam. However, after hisdeath this

religiondidnotcatch onbutisstill rememberedfor itsnoble

intentionsofbringing people andmindstogether.


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Jahangir, sonofEmperor Akbar, ruledthe empire from 16051627. In

October 1627, Shah Jahan, sonofEmperor Jahangir succeededtothe

throne, where he inheritedavastand rich empire. Atmid-centurythiswas

perhapsthe greatest empire inthe world.Shah Jahancommissionedthe

famousTaj Mahal (16301653)inAgra which wasbuiltbythe PersianarchitectUstad Ahmad Lahauri asatombfor Shah Jahan'swife Mumtaz

Mahal, whodied giving birth totheir 14th child. He proceededto

apparently have the architects handscutoffsothat he wouldnever be

able tobuildamore beautifulbuilding. By 1700 the empire reachedits

peak under the leadershipofAurangzeb Alamgir with major partsof

presentday India, Pakistan andmostofAfghanistan under itsdomain.Aurangzebwasthe lastofwhatare now referredtoasthe Great Mughal

kings.


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The greatestportionsofMughal expansionwasaccomplished

during the reignofAkbar (1556-1605). The empire was

maintainedasthe dominantforce ofthe present-dayIndian

subcontinent for a hundredyearsfurther by hissuccessors

Jahangir, Shah Jahan, andAurangzeb. The firstsix emperors,

who enjoyedpower are usually referredtobyjustone name,

atitle adoptedupon hisaccessionby each Emperor.


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Akbar the Greatinitiatedcertainimportantpolicies, such as religious

liberalism(abolitionofthejizya tax), inclusionofHindus inthe affairsof

the empire, andpoliticalalliance/marriage with the HinduRajput caste,

thatwere innovative for hismilieu; he alsoadoptedsome policiesofSher

Shah Suri, such asthe divisionofthe empire intosarkars, in hisadministrationofthe empire. These policies, which undoubtedlyservedto

maintainthe power andstabilityofthe empire, asthe fiercelyproud

Hindupopulace hadshownstiffresistance andnosignsofmeekly

converting tothe whimsofIslamicconquestinitsyearsinthe Indian

subcontinent.


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These were preservedby histwoimmediate successorsbut

were discardedby Aurangzeb, whofollowedamore strict

interpretationofIslamandfollowedastricter policyof

intolerance tothe practice ofreligionsthan hisown.

Furthermore, Aurangzebspentnearly his entire career

seeking to expand his realmintothe Deccan andsouth India,

Assaminthe east;thisventure sappedthe resourcesofthe

empire while provoking strong resistance fromthe Marathas,

Sikhs ofPunjab, Ahoms ofAssamandsome elementswithinHindu Rajputs. Ahomsin Assamsuccessfully resistedthe

mughalinvasions, the lastbattle being the Battle ofSaraighat.


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Influence on the Indian Subcontinent ofMughals:

The Taj Mahal inAgra, India builtbythe Mughal Empire

The Red Fort in Delhiwasthe mainpalace ofthe empire during the reignofShah

Jahan.

A major Mughalcontributiontothe IndianSubcontinent wastheir uniquearchitecture. Manymonumentswere builtbythe Muslim emperors, especially

Shahjahan, during the Mughal eraincluding the UNESCO World Heritage Site Taj

Mahal, which is knowntobe one ofthe finer examplesofMughalarchitecture.

Other World Heritage Sites includesthe Humayun's Tomb, Fatehpur Sikri, Red Fort,

Agra Fort andLahore Fort.

The palaces, tombsandfortsbuiltbythe dynastystandstodayinDelhi,Aurangabad, Fatehpur Sikri, Agra, Jaipur, Lahore, Kabul, Sheikhupura andmany

other citiesofIndia, Pakistan, Afghanistan andBangladesh. With fewmemoriesof

Central Asia, Babur'sdescendentsabsorbedtraitsandcustomsofthe Indian

Subcontinent[, andbecame more or lessnaturalised. The Mughalperiodwouldbe

the firsttowitnessthe blending ofIndian, Iranian and Central Asiancustomsand

traditions.


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The Taj Mahal inAgra, India builtbythe Mughal Empire


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The Red Fort


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The Alamgiri Gate isthe main entrance tothe Lahore Fort builtduring the

reignofAurangzeb.


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Humayun's Tomb Lahore Fort, Lahore


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Tomb of Anarkali, Pakistan Fatehpur Sikri


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The fewmosquesandpalacesbuiltby Babar and Humayunare notof

much architecturalsignificance

Sher Shah ofthe Sur Dynastywho ruledover the Kingdomofthe Mughals

after driving Humayunoutof the countrywasnotonlya great

administrator butalover ofartalso. He builtseveralforts, tombsandmosques. The monumentsofSher Shah are acontinuationofthe Lodi

style. The mausoleumsare octagonalinplanand have verandahsaround

them, surmountedby huge domes. The verandahs have three smaller

domeson each side.


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Purana Quila (Old Fort), Delhi


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Sher Shah builtthe Purana Quilain Delhi.Startedby

him, itwascompletedby Humayun. Builtofredand

buffsand-stone, itisornamentedwith black and

white marble andcolouredtiles. A beautifulmosqueinside the Quilawith ornamentalarches, decorative

panels, geometricaldesignsandinscriptionsisan

example ofthe developmentofarchitecture and

ornamentationduring Sher Shah's reign.


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Sher Shah's tomb, Sasaram


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Sher Shah'stombatSasaramin Bihar builtin 1549 is

inthe centre ofalarge square tank and rises 46

metres high. Itisatwostoreyconstructionona

terracedplatform. The upper terrace haspillareddomesandthe twostoreysabove have apillared

kiosk atthe four corners. The base ofthe large

centraldome hasthirtytwosides. The tombis

decoratedwith colouredtiles, veryfewofwhichremainnow. Entrance tothe tombisthrough a

domedstructure.


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Mughalarchitecture beginswith Akbar whoshowed his

passionfor building byplanning andconstructing splendid

edifices. During his reign Mughalarchitecture took onnew

forms. Akbar made free use ofboth Hinduand Persianstyles.

The use ofredsandstone inlaidwith white marble and

painteddesignsonwallsandceiling are the salient-features

ofAkbar'sbuildings.

Akbar constructednumerousforts, towers, palaces, mosques,

mausoleumsand gateways. A structure ofnote builtduringhis reignis Humayun's Tombin Delhi.


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Humayun's Tomb


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Humayunstombwasbuiltby hiswidow Haji Begumin 1565 A.D.in Delhi

in 1569A.D., fourteenyearsafter hisdeath. The mausoleumstandsinthe

centre ofasquare enclosed garden. The gardenisdividedandsub-divided

intosquares, typicalofMughal gardens. The loftydouble storeyed

structure isbuiltona huge high platformterrace which hasa rowofcallswith archedopenings. The centralchamber isoctagonalinshape and

containsthe tomb. Each side ofthe mausoleum hasalarge archedalcove

inthe centre with smaller oneson either side. It hasa high marble double

dome inthe centre andpillared kioskswith cupolassurrounding it. Built

ofredsandstone with aninlayofblack, white andyellowmarble it

presentsanimposing picture. Plannedbya Persianarchitectandconstructedby Indianworkers, itisacombinationofboth Persianand

Indianstylesofarchitecture. Entrance tothe mausoleumisthrough two

double storeyed gateways.


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AGRA FORT


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A greater partofthe fortat Agrawasconstructedby Akbar starting in

1565 AD andcompleteditin 1574 A.D.Situatedonthe bank ofthe river

Jamuna, itisamassive and grandstructure. The specialfeature ofthis

fortisthe 2.5 kms.long and 21 metres high circuitouswallofsolid red

sandstone. The stonesare linkedwith iron ringssoclose thatnot evena

hair canpassthrough. The entrance tothe fortisthrough two

gateways. The main entrance knownas Delhi Gate wasthe ceremonial

entrance tothe fort. The other smaller gatewayiscalledthe Hathi Polor

Elephant Gate because ofthe two huge elephantson either side ofthe

gate andwasmeantfor private use.

The Delhi Gate entrance archwayisflankedbytwodouble storeyedoctagonalbastionscrownedbyoctagonaldomed kiosks. A balcony

separatesthe twostoreys. The structure above the balcony hasarched

recesses. The gatewayisdecoratedwith beautifulpanelsofcolouredtiles

andmarble inlaywork.


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The fortissurroundedbyadeepmoat. The fortformerlycontained

numerousbuildingsofredsandstone butthese were later demolishedin

the reignofShah Jehanwhoconstructedmarble pavilionsinstead. Some

ofthe importantbuildingsinside the fortare the Jahangiri Mahalbuiltfor

Jahangir and hisfamily, the Moti Masjid, and Mena Bazaars. The Jehangiri

Mahalisanimpressive structure and hasacourtyardsurroundedby

double-storeyed hallsand rooms. The corbelbrackets, doorwaysandthe

chajjaabove themare profuselycarved.

The elaborate architecture ofthe bracketsseemstobe animitationof

woodwork. The planning andconstructionofthe fortshowthat Rajput

architecturalstyleswere freelyadopted.


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Jami Masjid, Fatehpur Sikri


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Akbars greatestarchitecturalachievementwasthe

constructionofFatehpur Sikri, his Capital Citynear Agra. The

constructionpfthe walledcitywasstartedin 1569 A.D.and

completedin 1574 A.D. containedsome ofthe mostbeautiful

buildings both religiousandsecular which testifytothe

Emperorsaimofachieving social, politicaland religious

integration. The religious edificesworth mentioning are the

Jami MasjidandSalim Chistis Tomb. The tombbuiltin 1571

A.D.inthe corner ofthe mosque compoundisasquaremarble chamber with averandah. The cenotaph hasan

exquisitelydesignedlattice screenaroundit.


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Tomb ofSheikh Salim Chisti, Fatehpur

Sikri


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Panch Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri


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The Diwani Khas, anoutstanding structure wasmeantfor the

Emperor tositinaudience with hisministersandlistento

disputesanddiscussions. A novelstructure, itisalarge hall

with a giantmonolithicpillarsinthe centre with acircular

railedplatformontoplike acupwhich issupportedbya

circular arrayofbeautifullycarvedbrackets. Fromthe Central

platformbranch outfour diagonal railed galleriessymbolizing

Akbarssupremacyover hisdominions. The galleryis

continuedonallfour sidesofthe hall. The audience satinthe galleriesandinthe hallbelow giving itthe effectofatwo-

storeybuilding. Sitting inthe centre, Akbar hearddiscourses

anddiscussionson religions.


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Diwani Khas


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A magnificent gatewaywasaddedlater in 1571-72 to

commemorate hisconquestofGujarat. Builtofredsand

stone andmarble itissaidtobe the mostperfect

architecturalachievementinthe whole ofIndia". A flightof

stepsleadtothe gatewaywhich isabout 53 metresin height

and 39 metresinwidth. Entrance isthrough a huge arched

domed recess. A broad rectangular stripbordering the

archway hascalligraphicinscriptionsonit. Atthe cornersare

slender turrets. The beautifulperforatedparapetandthe rowofkioskswith cupolasaddtothe dignityofthe

monument. Aninscriptiononthe gatewaytestifiesto Akbars

religioustoleration.


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Buland Darwaza, Fatehour Sikri, Agra


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Jehangir though alover ofartwasfondof

naturalbeauty andsodevoted histime tothe

laying ofbeautiful gardenssuch asthe

Shalimar and Nishat Bagh inSrinagar, Kashmir

andtominiature paintings. Outofthe fewof

hisconstructionsofnote are Akbar'stombat

Sikandraandthe tombofhisfather-in-lawItmad-ud-Daulaboth near Agra


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Akbar's Tomb, Sikandra


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The MausoleumofAkbar atSikandranear Agrawasstartedby

Akbar andcompletedby hisson Jahangir in 1612 A.D.who

changedthe originaldesignofhisfather. Designedonthe

modelof a Buddhist Vihara, itissetinthe centre ofasquare

garden. The enclosure wallon each side hasa gateway. The

main gateway hasfour white marble minaretsinthe four

corners. The Mausoleum hasfive terraces, rising fromthe

basement, one above the other, diminishing insize asthey

ascend. The redsand-stone entrance gatewayisthe largestandis richlydecoratedwith inlaidcolouredstone work. With

itscharming proportions, itisbyitselfawork ofart.


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The MausoleumofItmad-ud-Daula, the revenue minister ofJahangir and

Nur Jehansfather wasbuiltin Agraonthe banksofthe Jumuna.Started

by Jahangir itwascompletedby Nur Jehanin 1628 A.D. A small

rectangular structure inwhite marble, inlaidwith semi-preciousstones

andcoloured glass, itisadelicate andbeautifulpiece ofarchitecture. Itis

the firstpure marble monumentanddiffersfromthe typicalmassive, red

sand-stone structuresofearlier Mughals. Situatedina gardenamidst

fountains, it hasasquare lower storeywith four minaretsinthe four

corners. A traceriedpavilionformsthe secondstorey. A centralchamber

inside containsthe tombsandissurroundedbyan enclosedverandah. A

jewelinmarble-there isnoother building like itinthe entire range ofMughal Architecture.


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Itmad-Ud-Daulas Tomb, Agra


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Shah Jahan, the mostfamousofthe Mughalbuilders hadapassionfor

building. His reignmarksthe constructionofnumerouspalaces, forts,

mosquesand gardens. Hisbuildingsare markedbythe qualityfeminity,

grace and elegance. Theydonotshowthe masculinityofAkbar'ssolid red

sand-stone constructions. Mughalarchitecture reachedthe peaksof

excellence during this reign. The maincharacteristicsofhisbuildingsare -

the use of delicatelycarvedwhite marble richlydecoratedwith pietra

duraor inlayofcolouredstonesandcalligraphyinblack marble.Some of

hisoutstanding worksare the Moti Masjidor Pearl Mosque in Agra Fort

andthe Taj Mahal, the Redfortin Delhiwith the Diwan-i-Amand Diwan-i-

Khas, the Jami Masjidin Delhiandthe mausoleumofJehangir inShahdara, Lahore (in Pakistan).


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The Jama Masjidin Delhiisthe largestmosque in Indiaand

wasbuiltbetween 1650-1656A.D. Itisconstructedona high

platformandapproachedbyaflightofstepsonthree sides.

The main entrance isadouble storeyed gatewayandleadsto

avastsquare courtyardwhich is enclosedbypillared

corridors. The prayer hall, rectangular inplan hasafacade of

elevenarches. The high centralarch isflankedbytallslender

minaretswith cupolas. White marble panelswith inscriptions

frame the arches. Three domeswith alternate black andwhitemarble stripessurmountthe prayer hall. Onthe eastern

corners, standtwotapering four storeyedminarets.


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RED FORT


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Soonafter laying the foundationor hisnew CapitalcityofShahjehanabad

Shah Jahanstartedconstructionofthe redsandstone Red Fortor Lal Quila

in 1638 A.D.onthe banksofthe river Jumuna. The forttook nearlynine

yearstocomplete. Withinthe walledcity, the fortressisinthe shape ofa

rectangle 900 metresby 550 metres. The rampartwallsare about 34

metres high. A moatsurroundsthe rampart. Twoofthe five gatewaysof

the fortare three -storeyedstructuresflankedbyoctagonaltowers. These

are the Lahori Gate andthe Delhi Gate. Figuresoftwo huge elephants

flank the Delhi Gate. The main entrance tothe fortisthrough the Lahori

Gate. A coveredpassage with shopson either side leadstothe palaces

inside the fort. Barracksfor soldiers, audience halls, horse and elephantstables, andornamental gardensare other featuresofthe fort.


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Some ofthe beautifulbuildingsare the Diwan--i-Am, Diwan-i-Khas, Moti

Mahal, Hira Mahaland Rang Mahal, the latter three, all hallsdecorated

with pietroduraandpatternsin goldandcolour andfloorspavedwith

marble slabs. The Moti Masjidwasaddedlater in 1654 A.D.andisan

excellentspecimenofthe balance and rhythmmaintainedin Mughal

constructions.

The Diwan-i-Am(HallofPublic Audience)isanarchedpillareddurbar hall.

A white marble throne, embellishedwith colouredinlaywork stands

under amarble canopy. Belowthe throne isamarble daisinlaidwith semi-

preciousstones. Behindthe throne, the wall hasbeautifulpanelsof

flowersandbirdsincolouredinlaywork. The Diwan-i-Khas(HallofPrivate Audience)isa rectangular central hall

with aislesofarchesandpaintedpillars. The four cornersofthe roofhave

pillarswith chhatrisonthem. The walls have the famousversesofAmir

Khusrowhich saysthat Ifthere isparadise on earth itis here


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The crowningjewelofIndo-Islamicarchitecture, the Taj Mahalisone of

the worldsmostbeautifulandbelovedstructures. The monumentwas

builtin Agra, India, for Mumtaz Mahal, the favorite wife ofMughal

emperor Shah Jahan. Constructionofthe tombbeganin 1632 and

employedmore than 20,000 laborersfor 20 years. During the reignof

Shah Jahan, the structure was knownsimplyasthe rauza, the tomb. Later,

the mausoleumwouldbe calledthe Taj Mahal, aderivative ofthe name

Mumtaz Mahal.

According tothe Frenchjeweler Tavernier, whoclaimedto hadseenthe

constructionofthe Taj Mahalfrombeginning to end, the white marble

monumentwas erectedatatime whenthe resourcesofthe MughalEmpire were such thatonlythe finestmaterialswere utilizedfor the

structure andits embellishmentandwhenthe qualityofthe

craftsmanshipavailable innorthern Indiawasprobablysuperior tothatof

anypreviousperiod.


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Knownfor itssymmetry, the Taj Mahalsitsona raisedplatform

surroundedbyfour minarets. Inside are delicate mosaicworksandmarble

wallsadornedwith intricate patternsofinlaidpreciousstones. The

emperor Shah Jahanissaidto have celebratedthe anniversaryofhiswife's

death inthe mausoleum, kneeling before the cenotaph ofwhite marble

studdedwith gemsandsemipreciousstones, asprayerswere offeredup

for the peace and repose ofthe empresssoul.

Mumtaz Mahal, whose name means Chosen One ofthe Palace, hadbeen

more thanthe emperorswife. Indeed, Shah Jahan hadanumber ofwives.

But Mumtaz Mahalwasthe love ofhislife.She was hisbestfriendand his

mosttrustedpoliticaladviser. Mumtaz Mahalbore 14 children;sevenofthemsurvived.She diedin 1631 after giving birth toa healthybaby girl.


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After hiswifesdeath, Shah Jahan reportedlylocked himselfin his rooms

and refusedfoodfor eightdays. According tolegend, whenthe emperor

emergedfrom hisseclusion, hisblack beard- visible inmany Mughal

miniature paintings- hadturnedcompletelywhite.

For the monumentto hiswife, Shah Jahanchose asite occupiedbysprawling gardensonabendinthe leftbank ofthe Yamuna River. Author

Christine MoorcroftwritesinThe Taj Mahal (1998) thatShah Jahanmay

have chosenthisspecificsite because ofitsbeautyandbecause there was

aclear viewofthe site fromthe imperialpalace atthe Red Fort. Poet

Rabindranath Tagore describesthe monumentas rising above the banksof

the river like asolitarytear suspendedonthe cheek oftime.


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Refuting the romanticismofthe aforementioned, manycontemporary

historianscontendthatthe Taj Mahalisamausoleumfar tooimposing to

commemorate the memoryofone woman, eventhe favorite wife ofan

emperor, write Amina Okadaand M.C. JoshiinTaj Mahal (1993).Some

historiansbelieve, continue Okadaand Joshi, thatbehindthe monuments

beautyandmajestyofform, behindthe purityofitsline, andbehindthe

sober refinementofitsdecorationisanautocratic ruler vaunting his

grandeur andmunificence tothe world. While the monumentisclearly

funereal, these historiansalsoperceive asymbolicandallegorical

significance for the mausoleum- asignificance equallyaccountedfor by

the omnipotence ofasovereigninfatuatedwith hisown grandeur. Evenifthe Taj Mahal representsjustone morejewelinthe imperialcrown

ofShah Jahan, note Okadaand Joshi, the emperor stillmustbe credited

with having made ofthe death ofaspouse asymboloflasting beauty. He

bequeathedto Indiaandthe worlditsmostbeautifulmausoleum.


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Following the standard Mughalarchitecturalarrangement, write SheilaS.

Blair and Jonathan M. BloominThe Art andArchitecture of Islam (1994),

the tombissetinalarge quadripartite chahar bagh gardenthatmeasures

about 1,900 feetby 1,000 feet. The tombstandsatthe north endofthe

gardenalong the riverbank balancedbyalarge gatewayonthe south. In

planandmassing, note Blair and Bloom, the mausoleum refinesthe model

providedby Humayun'stombat Delhi. However, the greatbulboustomb

ofthe Taj Mahalissetona higher drum;itsoctagonal roomsinthe

cornersare more logicallyconnected;andthe tombisframedbyfour tall

minarets.

The carefullybalancedimage, reflectedinthe water channeldividing thegarden, is enhancedbythe superbpolish anddetailedcarving ofthe

marbles, write Blair and Bloom. Builtin redsandstone onthe sidesofthe

platformand enshrining the mausoleumare twostructures:amosque

(masjid)tothe westanda guest house (mihman khana)tothe east.


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The Taj Mahal has restrainedpietraduradecorationthatformsvining

floraldesigns. Above these beautifulfloralpatternsare extensive

calligraphicinscriptionsinblack lettering. Mostofthe textisshortverses

fromthe Qur'an emphasizing eschatologicalthemes, particularlythe Day

ofJudgment. It hasbeensuggested, write Blair and Bloom, thatthe

epigraphicprogramdesignedbycalligrapher Amanat Khanwasmeantto

drive home the message implicitinthe building'sformandlocation- that

the tombwasanallegorical representationofthe Throne ofAllah above

the GardenofParadise onthe DayofJudgment.


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The beautyofthe pietraduraofthe Taj Mahalandofthe fortsat Agraand

Delhistillinspire numerousartistsfromallover the world. Moreover,

write Okadaand Joshi, the four canalsclearlysymbolize the four riversof

Paradise mentionedinthe Holy Qur'anandseenbythe Prophet

Muhammedduring hismiraculousascentto Paradise (al-Mi'raj). The

symbolicandallegoricalnature ofthe gardenandthe canalsat Taj Mahal

isnotsurprising considering the funerealnature ofthe monumentit

enshrines. The Qur'anicinscription onthe southernfacade ofthe Main

Gate givesunequivocalcredence tothe comparisonofthe Taj Mahalwith

the GardenofParadise, where the appeasedsoulsofthe deadfindtheir

ultimate refuge.


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Thisinscriptionsays:

(Itwillbe saidtothe pious): O (you)the one in

(complete) restandsatisfaction!

Come back toyour Lord, -- well-pleased

(yourself)

andwell-pleasing unto him!

Enter you, then, among My honoredslaves,And enter you My Paradise


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The Taj Mahalcontains 16 chambers, eight each ontwolevels,

thatsurroundthe octagonalfunerarychamber surmounted

byasurbasedinner dome. Inthe funerarychamber are found

the cenotaphsofMumtaz MahalandShah Jahan, enclosedin

abaluster ofdelicatelyperforatedmarble andstuddedwithsemipreciousstones. Asdictatedby Islamictradition, write

Okadaand Joshi, the bodiesofthe emperor and hisspouse

are buriedwith their facestoward Mekka(the Holy Muslim

cityinthe Arabian Peninsula)with the husbandon hiswife'srightside.


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The Taj Mahal- initsperfectionofspace and

proportion, inthe classicalperfectionofits

shape, initscombinationofmonumentality

anddelicacy, andinthe qualityofits

decoration- representsthe culminationon

Indiansoilofthe Persian geniusatwork.


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The sinuousandaustere lettersinblack marble inscribedwith

heraldicprecisiononthe wallsofthe mausoleum heighten

the whitenessofthe marble andundeniablycontribute tothe

ornamental richnessandbeautyofthe edifice. There are 22

different Qur'anicSurahsor versesinscribedonthe tomb,more thanonanyother monumentsbuiltduring the reignof

Shah Jahan. Thismakesthe Taj Mahalan extremely

exceptionalfuneralmonument. Moreover, the locationsof

the calligraphicinscriptionscorrespondtoapreciseiconographicplan.


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Alsoadding tothe beautyofthe Taj Mahalisthe extraordinarydelicacyof

the floralmotifsthat embellish the marble surface. These floralmotifsare

sculptedinmarble insober relief(munabbatkari)or inlaidwith

semipreciousstones(parchin kari)thatproduce incandescent reflections.

Other diverse kindsofflowersopenin gracefularabesquesandcover in

profusionthe imperialcenotaphsandtheir enclosuresshowing the

dazzling virtuosityofthe Mughallapidaries.

The stone flowersofthe Taj Mahal, depictedwith astampofrealismand

with asoftlyricism, captivate the visitor with their grace andcolorful

freshness In Islamicculture, flowersand rosesare oftenseenassymbols

ofthe KingdomofAllah. Thus, the Taj Mahalsallusionto Paradise canbeseeninthe motifofflowerscarvedonthe funerarychambersofthe

mausoleum. Accompaniedbyfruitor bunchesofgrapes, the vasesof

flowers expressthe abundance thatawaitsthe faithfulin Paradise.


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a 17th century Mughalpainting


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Mughal painting isaparticular style ofSouth

Asianpainting, generallyconfinedto

miniatures either asbook illustrationsor as

single workstobe keptinalbums, whichemergedfromPersianminiature painting,

with Indian Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist

influences, anddevelopedduring the periodofthe Mughal Empire (16th -19th centuries).


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Animage ofRhino huntfromBaburnama, firstbiographyof

Islamicliterature

h hj h l b id h


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Shahjahan on globe, mid 17th

century


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Painting by Ustad Mansur (diedafter 1621)


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A durbar scene with the newlycrowned Emperor Aurangzebin his goldenthrone.

Though he didnot encourage Mughalpainting, some ofthe bestwork wasdone in his

reign, andfor him.


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Mughalpainting reflectsan exclusive combinationofIndian,

Persianand Islamicstyles. Asthe name suggests, these

paintings evolvedaswellasdevelopedduring the rule of

Mughal Emperorsin India, between 16th to 19th century. The

MughalpaintingsofIndia revolvedaroundthemes, likebattles, courtscenes, receptions, legendarystories, hunting

scenes, wildlife, portraits, etc. The Victoriaand Albert

MuseumsofLondon house alarge andimpressive collection

ofMughalpaintings.


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History ofMughal Painting

Indian Mughalpaintingsoriginatedduring the rule ofMughal Emperor,

Humayun(1530-1540). When he came back to Indiafromthe exile, he

alsobroughtalong two excellent Persianartists, Mir-Sayyid Aliand Abd-us-

samad. With time, their art gotinfluencedbythe localstylesand

gradually;it gave rise tothe Mughalpainting ofIndia. The earliest exampleofthe Mughalstyle isthe Tutinama('Talesofa Parrot') Painting, nowin

the Cleveland MuseumofArt. Then, there isthe 'Princessofthe House of

Timur', apainting redone numeroustimes.


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Growth ofMughal Painting

MughalpaintingsofIndiadevelopedaswellasprospered

under the rule ofMughal Emperors, Akbar, Jahangir andShah

Jahan.

Under AkbarMughalpainting experiencedlarge-scale growth under the

reignofEmperor Akbar. During thattime, hundredsofartists

usedtopaintunder the directionofthe two Persianartists.

Since the Emperor wasfondoftales, one cansee the

paintingsmainlybeing basedonthe Mahabharata, Ramayana

and Persian epics. Mughalpaintingsalsostartedillustrating an

enhancednaturalism, with animaltales, landscape, portraits,

etc.


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Under Jahangir

Emperor Jahangir reignedfrom 1605 to 1627 and extended greatsupport

tovariousartforms, especiallypaintings. Thisperiodsawmore andmore

refinementinbrushwork, along with the use ofmuch lighter andsubdued

colors. The mainthemesofthe Mughalpaintings revolvedaroundthe

eventsfrom Jahangir'sownlife, along with portraits, birds, flowers,animals, etc. One ofthe mostpopular examplesofMughalpaintingsof

thistime include the pictorialillustrationsofthe Jehangir-nama, the

biographyofEmperor Jahangir.

Under Shah JahanThe grace and refinementofthe Jahangir periodwasseenatthe time of

Emperor Shah Jahan(1628-1658). However, the sensitivityofthe paintings

was replacedbycoldnessand rigidity. The themesofthattime revolved

aroundmusicalparties, loversonterracesand gardens, ascetics gathered

aroundafire, etc.


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Decline ofMughal Painting

The trendthatwasseenduring the time ofShah Jahanwasalsofound

under the rule ofAurangzeb(1658-1707). However, the emperor didnot

paytoomuch attentiononthe growth ofthe Mughalpaintings.Still, the

artformcontinuedtosurvive with the support receivedfromitsother

patrons. However, gradually, because ofdiminishing support, adecliningtrendsetin. The time ofMuhammadShah, (1719-1748), did experience a

briefrevivalofthe Mughalpaintings. Nonetheless, with the arrivalofShah

Alam II (1759-1806), the artalmostbecame extinctandanother schoolof

painting, knownas Rajputpaintings, started evolving.


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