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Journal of Instructional Pedagogies

Developing Higher Level Thinking, Page 1

Developing higher level thinking

Barbara Limbach

Chadron State College

Wendy WaughChadron State College

Abstract

This paper identifies an interdisciplinary, five-step process, built upon existing theory and

best practices in cognitive development, effective learning environments, and outcomes-based

assessment. The Process for the Development of Higher Level Thinking Skills provides teacherswith an easy to implement method of moving toward a more purposeful and active-learning

environment, which encourages higher level thinking.

Keywords: critical thinking, higher-level thinking, active-learning, learning environments,assessment

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Introduction

Pedagogy is a word that

better and to perfect the art (Que

study of teaching methods, whic

may be achieved. One of the mskills in students (Halpern, 1999

and achieve intellectual freedomworld; questioning everyday ass

impact the quality of their lives.

art of teaching to a pedagogicallevel thinking skills deemed nec

Active learning can mak

most importantly, can cause stud

must give up the belief that stud"covers it". While students may

overview lectures, true understawith and reflect on the meaningThe authors propose the

Thinking Skills, can be impleme

active learning environment and

Figure 1: Proces

4.Refi

Im

Journal of Instruct

Developing Higher Level

escribes the art of teaching. Most teachers stri

nsland Government, 2002). A strong pedagog

includes the study of specific ways in which t

st common goals of teaching is to develop criti. This higher level thinking is what allows stu. Thinking is the cognitive process used to makmptions will direct students to new solutions t

The purpose of this paper is to introduce those

rocess that can be utilized to develop in studenssary for a quality life.

a course more enjoyable for both teachers and

ents to think at a higher level. For this to happe

nts will be unable to learn the subject at hand ugain some exposure to material through pre-cla

ding of the material takes place when they aref what they are doing.ollowing five-step Process for the Developmented in virtually any teaching or training setting

to move learners toward higher level thinking.

s for the Development of Higher Level Thinking Skills

1. DetermineLearningObjectives

2. TeachThroughQuestioning

3. PracticeBefore

Assessment

eview,ne, andprove

5. ProvideFeedback &

Assessmentof Learning

ional Pedagogies

Thinking, Page 2

e to become

necessitates the

aching goals

al thinkingents to excel

e sense of theat can positively

interested in the

s the higher

students, and

n, educators

nless the teachers readings and

ctively involved

t of Higher Level

to create a more

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Step One: Determine Learnin

Considering the importan

providing a base of knowledge,

recognize what students should

happen, these learning objectiveto perform and demonstrate high

a specific behavior, introduce anexhibition of the behavioral resp

accelerate a learner's movement

Figure

A well-written objective

of the thinking. Bloom's Revisecurriculum that incorporates low

accomplishment of low level thi

the use of Bloom's Revised Taxostudent thinking at all levels.

With the dramatic chan

Taxonomy provides an even mopara. 16). The structure of the Rof the alignment between standa

(Krathwohl, 2002). Teachers m

instructional time; Bloom's Revi

learning objective.The progressive levels of

Understanding, Applying, Analyupper three levels are practicing

demonstrates a simple recall of i

concepts. Applying requires therequires an answer that demonst

concepts, and theories into comp

1.DetermineLearning

Objectives

2.

3.

4.

5.

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or course of action. Finally, Cre

viewing things (Krathwohl, 200

Step Two: Teach Through Qu

Questioning is a vital parbegins with establishing what is

ideas and understandings. Clasethat can impact student thinking,

indicate that the level of student

When teachers plan, they must cappropriate level and type of que

with higher level questioning on

Figur

Questioning techniques c

can be categorized in a number o

categories of convergent and divspecific correct answers, while d

Convergent questions apply to B

Applying. Divergent questions aCreating; and are generally openencouraging higher level thinkin

To most effectively enco

questioners. This is understanda

Strategies (2003), the crucial eleconcise questions, are prepared t

from participants, use a variety oreinforcement without repeating

Elder and Paul (1997) pr

learning and that, to the extent thquestions, students are not likely

questioning techniques to inspire

1.

2. TThroQue

3.

4.

5.

Journal of Instruct


atingrequires the generation of new ideas, prod

).

stioning

t of the teaching and learning process. The artknown and allows the teacher to extend beyond

n and Bonk (1990) posited that although manyteacher questions have the greatest impact. The

thinking is directly proportional to the level of

onsider the purpose of each question and then dstion to accomplish the purpose. All students n

e they become familiar with a concept.

3: Step Two: Teach Through Questioning

an be used to foster the thinking ability of stude

f different ways. One simple method is to use t

ergent questions. Convergent questions seek oivergent questions seek a wide variety of correc

loom's lower levels ofRemembering, Understa

pply to Bloom's higher levels ofAnalyzing, Eva-ended to foster student-centered discussion, thg (Theijsmeijer, 2009).rage student participation, teachers must beco

bly difficult and takes commitment. According

ents of a skilled questioner are that they: poseo rephrase questions, are prepared to draw furth

f techniques, redirect questions/responses, provanswers, and spread questions around the class.

posed that the art of questioning is essential to

at they fail to ask genuine questions and seek ataking the content seriously. Teachers can and

higher level thinking in the classroom.

Develop appropriate questions

Employ questioning techniques

Encourage interactive discussion

achughtioning

ional Pedagogies

Thinking, Page 4

ucts, or ways of

f questioningto develop new

trategies existy went on to

uestions asked.

velop theeed experience

nts. Questions

he general

e or more veryt answers.

ding, and

luating, and

reby

e highly skilled

to Teaching

brief ander responses

ide feedback and

the art of

swers to thoseshould use

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Step Three: Practice Before A

To make learning more a

opportunities for reflective dialo

pose arguments, state opinions,

Practice is necessary to master aknowledge, skills, attitudes, and

activities that allow them to prac(Schafersman, 1991).

Figure

In the past decade, a maj

learning. Teachers that have use

that the courses are more enjoyamust pose arguments, state opini

fair-mindedness. Bonwell and E

in activities that cause them to thconcept of active learning suppo

knowledge longer when they acq

make learning more active, somdialog should be included as par

When teachers think abo

that can encourage higher level t

learning experience and to create

the view of active learning to incwhen possible, direct experience

secondary sources accessed in clobserving, and simulations; refle

experience activities include doi

reflective thinking, service learni

1.

2.

3. PracticeBefore

Assessment

4.

5.

Journal of Instruct


sessment

ctive, teachers need to add experiential learning

. For students to participate in higher level thi

nd critique evidence using primary and second

y skill; students must have the opportunity to pbehaviors that will be evaluated. Therefore, ch

tice, while causing them to critically think, is i

4: Step Three: Practice Before Assessment

r shift has taken place in education; that shift is

d this approach generally find that the students

le. For students to participate in higher level tons, look for evidence, critique the evidence, an

ison (1991) described active learning as involvi

ink about what they are doing. Fink (2003) indrts research which shows that students learn mo

uire that knowledge in an active rather than pas

kind of experiential learning and opportunitiesof the course.t what should happen in a course, the kinds of

hinking is important to consider. To enhance th

a complete set of learning activities, it is neces

lude getting information and ideas, experience,(Fink, 2003). Information and ideas include pr

ass, outside class, or online; experience includective dialog includes papers, portfolios, and jou

g in an authentic setting, direct observation of

ng, journaling, and dialog in or outside of class.

Choose active learning activities

Use primary and secondary sources

Link activities to learning objectives an

ional Pedagogies

Thinking, Page 5

and

king, they must

ry sources.

ractice theosing learning

portant

toward active

earn more and

inking, theyd think with

ng the students

icated that there and retain

sive manner. To

for reflective

ctive learning

e overall

sary to enlarge

reflection, and,imary and

doing,rnaling. Direct

phenomenon,

assessment

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Step Four: Review, Refine, an

Teachers should strive to

techniques are in fact moving st

their own learning when teacher

carefully track student participathave not learned, may present th

need of improvement.

Figure

Creating a classroom envgood about participating is a ver

to continually refine their course

students develop higher level thiclassroom activities very closelythat identifies the students that p

assessment of their success.

Student feedback is alsoAngelo and Cross (1993) sugges

student learning and response to

identify the most important poinfuture classes to emphasize issue

bearing a key question on it that

Discussing the patterns of respo

Memory matrixes ask students tFor example, labels may corresp

to classify events. The teacher c

what might be the cause(s). TheStudents will become better mon

study skills to improve their suc

teacher cares about their learnin

Monitor class activ

Collect feedback fr

Offer opportunities

Journal of Instruct


Improve

continually refine their courses to ensure that t

dents toward critical thinking. Students becom

monitor class activities, create a supportive en

on. Collecting feedback from students about wneed to offer opportunities for re-learning and

5: Step Four: Review, Refine, and Improve

ironment conducive to discussion in which all simportant step in higher level thinking. Teach

s to ensure that their instructional techniques ar

nking skills. To accomplish this, teachers shoul. To track student participation, a teaching diarrticipated, describes the main class activities, a

n important tool to be used in the improvemened numerous methods for collecting key infor

instructional techniques. The 2-minute paper, a

s learned. Teachers can review the commentss identified. Chain notes can be implemented

students respond to by placing their answers in

ses with the students can lead to better teachin

fill in two-dimensional cells with labels relateond to different periods of history and students

an look for patterns among the incorrect respon

se types of activities can have positive benefitsitors of their own learning. Students may find t

ess in the course. Students will also witness, fi

.

ities

om studentsfor re-learning

3.

4. Review,

Refine, andImprove

5.

ional Pedagogies

Thinking, Page 6

eir instructional

responsible for

ironment, and

hat they have, orexpose areas in

tudents feelers should strive

in fact helping

d monitor thecan be kept

nd provides an

of a course.ation related to

sks students to

nd use them inith an envelope

he envelope.

and learning.

to a concept.ould be asked

es and decide

or the students.hey need to alter

st hand, that the

1.

2.

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Step Five: Provide Feedback a

Feedback, like assessme

effort to evaluate the quality of

what is to be assessed; it is impe

will be assessed. Next, studentsthe teacher and peers, as well as

assessment provides an immediaassessment process in evaluating

activities, the course, departmen

Figure 6: Step

Comparing criteria and s

assessment of course and departinformation when determining e

evaluate the students quality of

quality of student learning and pimportantly, it has the potential t

future. Feedback allows the teac

distinguishes successful performstandards (Fink, 2003).

Teachers should provide

to practice whatever they are ex

time helping students to understa

Student peers may also providelearn to distinguish between sati

Conclusion

The successful implemen

Thinking Skillsrequires the thou

commitment to an active, studen

Provide feedback to stud

Create opportunities for s

Utilize feedback to improv

Journal of Instruct


d Assessment of Learning

t, compares criteria and standards to student pe

ork (Ko, 2004). Prior to providing opportuniti

ative that students first understand the standard

should be provided with constructive and relevassessing their own performance. Student feed

te and significant source of information for theinstructional techniques, student achievement,

al program, and/or the general studies curriculu

Five: Provide Feedback and Assessment of Learning

andards to student performance in feedback to

ental or discipline programs provides a signififectiveness. Teacher feedback, like assessmen

work. However, the purpose of feedback is to e

rformance, rather than to grade the performanco help students learn how to assess their own pe

her and student(s) to engage in dialogue about

ance from unsuccessful performance as they dis

good feedback to their students through frequen

ected to do at assessment time. Teachers shoul

nd what the criteria and standards are and what

eedback and evaluation. Each of these techniqfactory and unsatisfactory performance.

tation of the Process for the Development of Hihtful consideration of current instructional tec

-centered learning environment. This may, at l

nts

lf-assessment

e instruction1

3.

4.

5. ProvideFeedback

andAssessmentof Learning

ional Pedagogies

Thinking, Page 7

formance in an

s to practice

s by which they

nt feedback byack and

utcomes-basedspecific learning

m.

tudents and

ant source of, can be used to

nhance the

e, and,rformance in the

hat

cuss criteria and

t opportunities

d spend ample

they mean.

es help students

her Level

niques and the

ast initially, be

.

2.

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somewhat unfamiliar and uncomfortable to both students and teachers. Potential roadblocks in

the application of this process can be overcome with some planning and creativity. Althoughthere is little question that class size and time constraints may limit the frequency and duration of

the techniques that encourage higher level thinking, it is still very possible to engage students in

large groups. Although the use of the five-step process to move students toward higher level

thinking may necessitate a change in instructional techniques, the efforts will prove beneficial tostudents, teachers, administrators, and accrediting bodies.

References

Anderson, L. W. & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching andassessing: A revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of educational objectives: Complete edition,

New York: Longman.

Angelo, T. A. & Cross, P. K. (1993). Classroom assessment techniques (2nd ed.). San

Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Ball, Anna L. & Garton, Bryan L. (2005). Modeling higher order thinking: The alignment

between objectives, classroom discourse, and assessments. Journal of AgriculturalEducation46(2).Bonwell, C. C. & Eison, J. A. (1991). Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the Classroom.

ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 1. Washington, D.C.: George Washington

University.Clasen, D. R. & Bonk, C. (1990). Teachers tackle thinking. Madison, WI: Madison

Education Extension Program.

Elder, L. & Paul, R. (Winter, 1997). Critical thinking: Crucial distinctions for questioning,

Journal of Developmental Education 21(2), p. 34.Fink, L. D. (2003). A self-directed guide to designing courses for significant learning. Retrieved

May 13, 2009, from

http://www.finkconsulting.info/files/Fink2005SelfDirectedGuideToCourseDesign. docForehand, M. (n.d.). Blooms Taxonomy. Retrieved May 13, 2009, from

http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Bloom%27s_Taxonomy

Halpern, Diane F. (Winter, 1999). Teaching for critical thinking: Helping college studentsdevelop the skills and dispositions of a critical thinker. New Directions for Teachingand Learning(80),p. 69. Jossey-Bass.

Ko, Susan. (November-December, 2004). Assessment, feedback and rubrics. Retrieved May 9,

2009, from http://deoracle.org/online-pedagogy/assessment-feedback-rubrics/assessment-feedback-and rubrics.html?PHPSESSID=752c9504781f3ef

2b8df4ecdad8ce589

Krathwohl, D. R. (2002). A revision of Bloom's taxonomy: An overview, Theory intoPractice41(4), p. 212-218.

Queensland Government: Department of Education and Training. (2002). Retrieved June 14,

2009, from http://education.qld.gov.au/curriculum/learning/teaching/technology/pedagogy/index.html

Schafersman, Steve D. (1991). An introduction to critical thinking. Retrieved May 13, 2009,

from http://www.freeinquiry.com/critical-thinking.html

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Teaching Strategies (2003). The Educational Technology Centre, University of Sydney,

Australia. Retrieved May 13, 2009, fromhttp://alex.edfac.usyd.edu.au/BLP/Teaching_Skills/questioning.htm

Theijsmeijer, Heather R. (2009). The Art of Questioning. Canadian Astronomy Education.

Retrieved May 15, 2009, from

http://www.cascaeducation.ca/files/proAstro_questions.html

Biographies

Dr.Barbara Limbachis a Professor of Business Administration at Chadron State College,

Chadron, Nebraska, USA. Her research interests include gender issues, customer service,service learning, critical thinking, technology, and professional development topics. Dr.

Limbach was honored with the Nebraska State College System Teaching Excellence Award in

1999.

Dr. Wendy Waughis a Professor of Management Information Systems at Chadron State

College, Chadron, Nebraska, USA. Her research interests include critical thinking, teachingmethodologies, and technology adoption. Dr. Waugh was honored with the Chadron StateCollege Teaching Excellence award in 2009.

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