さいたま市教育家会ジャーナル

TheJournal of Saitama City Educators (JSCE)A さいたま市教育家会 (SCE) Publication

ISSN: 2185-7822

Volume 2, Issue 4September 2012

EditorsJohn Finucane and Matthew Shannon

Co-editorBrad Semans

TranslatorBrad Semans

ProofreadingMatthew Shannon and Tomoko Ohashi

Cover Design and Layout byCarl Bloomfield and John Finucane

JSCE and JSCE submission guidelines can be found online at:SaitamaCityEducators.org

Copyright and License

JSCE is an open access journal is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License

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Foreword

All of the participants in the Nakasendo Conference sought to improve themselves and their field through the sharing of improved techniques, informed perspectives, and the strength of their character. A clear example of these qualities can be found in Lawrence Cisar, whom we were lucky to have as a plenary speaker at the 2012 event, and are proud to have as the first article in this year's proceedings. 

Like Lawrence, or "Larry" to those fortunate enough to know him, the work of Taeko Doi, Aiko Minematsu, Peter Mizuki, and Hitomi Sakamoto is presented to you as a call to action - in this case, we ask that you embrace the goals of Nakasendo, and expand your knowledge of fields beyond your own. We ask that you talk about, use it, reflect on it, and pass along your experiences forward. Respond to the authors if you can. 

Matthew Shannon, Nakasendo 2012 Conference Chair

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Contents

Lawrence J. Cisar: Help Wanted: Revolutionaries!" ローレンス　シザー: 募集：革命家！" Page 5

Taeko Doi: Writing Training: Written Output and Visual-Auditory Input土肥　妙子: 初級の作文練習:アウトプット(作文)と、インプット(読み、聞く)の反 復による作文練習

" Page 11

Hitomi Sakamoto: English as a Global Language: Promoting International Exchange with Turkey

" 坂本　ひとみ: グローバル・ランゲージとしての英語～トルコとの国際交流を進めて～

" Page 16

Aiko Minematsu: Literature Circles in Secondary School ELT峰松　愛子: 中学校英語教育での文学サークルPage 19

Peter Mizuki: Raising Consciousness and Developing Productive Fluency in the Classroom "水木　ピーター: 多作的な流暢の開発や意識の向上Page 25

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Lawrence J. Cisar, PhD, CP, RPHelp Wanted: Revolutionaries!

ローレンス　シザー募集：革命家！

About the Author

Larry Cisar is a retired educator which means he is busier than ever before. He taught for over 30 years in Japan and has worked extensively to bring technology into education. He is a member of the Omiya Chapter of JALT, Saitama Toastmasters, American Institute of Parliamentarians, and National Association of Parliamentarians. Oh, he doesn't speak Japanese.

ラリー・シザーは教職を辞していますが、つまり逆に以前より忙しいということです。30年以上日本で教壇に立ち、教育に技術を取り入れてきました。現在大宮JALT、埼玉トーストマスターズ、アメリカ議会研究会で活動しています。おっと、日本語は話しませんよ。

Abstract

This presentation looks at the need to move from the old Prussian model of education to the modern world. Technology is going to be highly encouraged and the typical administration is going to be criticized. Teachers need to revolt and take control of education – something that administrations do not want to happen. Technology needs to be drawn into the education process.

要約

本発表では古い明治時代からのプロイセンの教育モデルから現代に脱却すべきだ、という点に着目しました。新しい教育技術は大いに奨励されるでしょうし、一方で型にはまった従来の教育は批判されるでしょう。教師も意識を革新し、教育の主導権を握らなくては---それは行政の意にはそまない事ですが。技術こそ教育の過程に導入する必要があるのです。

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Education in Japan yields to the will of administrators. That is not real education. It is not concerned with the needs of the students. It is not concerned with keeping the students up to date.

First, let's take a quick look at the history of change in technology over the last few years. In the area of sound and video, the CD came out in 1976, the VCD in 1993, the DVD in 1995; however, tapes are still being used in 2012. If we look at sound programs and presentation programs, we hit the same types of lags.

The current model for the classroom goes back to the Meji Restoration – it is based on the old Prussian idea of what is the proper set up for the ideal classroom. Yes, it is the fixed desk, line after line – just like soldiers on parade. All are supposed to learn exactly the same thing; all are supposed to be together. Learning is from the teacher to the students; never student to student, or, god forbid, student to teacher. “You shall learn what the teacher tells you!”

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Technology in Teaching – often out of date

Let's take a brief look at the history of technology. The CD came out in 1976; the VCD (Video CD) in 1993; the DVD in 1995. But what technology is being used in your classroom – if any? These can be powerful tools but so many are afraid to make use of them. Many schools still lock up the machinery and make it hard to get the key. Trying to get a school to buy a video player can be an insurmountable task.

The same can be said about computer software. PowerPoint started in 1990; OpenOffice in 2000; GIMP (picture editing software) in 1995; Audacity (audio editing software) in 2000. Outside of PowerPoint, these are free powerful programs. How often are they used in education. Yes, I ended that last sentence with a period and not a question mark as the answer to such a question is embarrassing. These are tools that are needed in the business world; few educators encourage their students to make use of them.

I will save equipment for a little later.

Where can we go?

There are several changes we, as teachers, need to demand. These demands need to be presented politely, but firmly. They really are a minimum to move our students forward.

The first is to put all lectures online so students can watch them at their own pace. Lectures where students do not actively participate should not be given more than three times. The first time (or group if you have more than one class in that subject) is your practice time. The second is the recording time – video cameras are cheap. The third is to record any corrections you need for the previously made recording. After that, let students watch the video at their own pace and you go do something creative or productive or both. To make this work, you will need to make the lecture INTERESTING!

The same goes for drills. Put them online. Drills (including exercises) can be done much more efficiently online than in a traditional classroom as you will have students advancing at their pace. Programs like Hot Potatoes can easily produce online exercises. You can even have students create exercises. Plus you will save a few trees along the way.

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The role of the teacher has changed. No longer is the teacher just a presenter of knowledge; the teacher now needs to function as a guide helping students to find the knowledge they need. The learner needs to be in the driver's seat.

The classroom is already changing as more and more classes go online. Currently, you can attend Harvard, MIT, Stanford, and a lot of other universities all at the same time. These sources of education are putting material online where the education hungry can learn at his or her pace. Open Culture and other online sites allow individuals to connect to the material they need and want when they need and want it.

The classroom is also changing as it can be an e-book reader, a smart phone, a tablet, an mp3 player, or a game machine just to name a couple. The physical machines that can make education fun, exciting, and easy are here. No longer does the classroom need to be a physical room with other people close by. Meeting outside the classroom is better for the students as the atmosphere is more relaxed. And the teachers become students as well.

So What is the Hindrance

There are two main hindrances to making changes in education. The first is a fear of technology. “Technology needs technical knowledge which most people don't have.” That statement has no truth in it; yet it is repeated time and time again in one form or another. Technology is designed for daily common use. To give an example, my four year old grandson woke up one morning and found nobody home. He grabbed the phone and hit the speed dial for grandma. He talked to grandma for a few minutes until his mother came back from taking his older brother to the gathering spot for students going to school. If a four year old can make use of the technology, why can't older students? Smart phones, tablets, and other devices are easy to use. With a little effort, material can be quickly and easily developed.

The second problem is ADMINISTRATION! Most administrations want teachers to keep the students quiet and to do nothing controversial. Administrations think that they are in control of education and that education is to be what they want it to be. Malarkey!

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Action Time

It is time for teachers to revolt. It is time for educators to take control of education so that it serves the students and not the administration. But revolting by itself is worthless.

First and foremost, the educators need to have a plan. It can be a subtle plan, but it must be a solid one. It can even be listed as a secondary objective. When I taught at Saitama University, I enjoyed teaching TOEIC I. Horrors, enjoying teaching TOEIC. Yes, but not because I was teaching TOEIC. The good part, the part I worked hardest on, was teaching the basic study skills that the students needed to learn – skills that most students in the United States pick up well before they are out of high school. Skills such as how to take a test, how to find material, how to evaluate. Basic ideas such as that what works for one person does not necessarily work for another. That was not what the curriculum said I was teaching, but it was the more important part. Educators need to present what the students need.

Educators need to also make use of technology. The argument that technology won't work if the power goes out is just burying your head in the sand. If the power really goes out, learning a language or anything else is the least of modern society's worries. Laptops, cell phones, tablets, mp3 players exist and are used often by students. They are the Manga of this century. Fighting them by banning or ignoring them won't work; educators need to make use of them. Educators need to get after the administration so that the basic structure is there so that they can be used.

Educators need to cooperate with each other in the development of material and resources. Too often, each educator stands alone in preparing for class, in developing material, in building a course. Cooperation between can build a sound system. When I taught at Kanto Gakuen, I developed an outline for a CALL program. The implementation involved all the language teachers working on developing material. The outline was the simple beginning; the success was having all working on the program to make it strong."To go back to administration, educators need to come with a solid plan and

present it to the administration as what will be done – not as what can be done. Places where you have one good negotiator going after the administration are places that are going nowhere. It takes a united strive to win. If you must go it alone, do so. The fight will not be easy as bureaucracy does not like to yield authority. If you only win one battle in a hundred, you

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need to get through those 99 failures. The winners will be the students when they get a real education that leads them to the position where they can actually do something in their field.

The sign needs to be out at all places. HELP WANTED –REVOLUTIONARIES

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Taeko Doi: Founder, Teacher - Globist English School Writing Training: Written Output and Visual-Auditory Input

土肥　妙子: グロービスト英語スクール主宰 初級の作文練習:アウトプット(作文)と、インプット(読み、聞く)の反 復による作文練習

About the Author

Taeko Doi is founder, owner, and teacher -- Globist English School in Tokyo. She has designed and implemented curricula for learners at all developmental levels. She has her MA degree in TESOL from Teachers College Columbia University, Tokyo Campus, and her MA degree in Education from Rikkyo University.

Abstract

According to the Output Hypothesis, L2 learners can notice more language elements when they are given opportunities to produce the language after being exposed to it. An activity that helps elementary level students compose their own sentences in English will be explained. Elementary level learners normally have difficulty composing their own ideas in English without any models. This activity provides scaffolding with which the learners can compose their own ideas with the support of a model. The learners retell the same short story in written form over three lesson sessions through the repetitive processes of visual-auditory input, written output, followed by self-correcting the gap between what they want to say and what they can say. The processes allow them to become able to write meaningful sentences with many times of reviewing their corrected mistakes.

要約

アウトプット仮説によれば、学習者は、英語をインプットするだけではなく、その後アウトプットすることで、次のインップト時に英文の細かい要素をより確かにすることができる。ここでは、アウトプット仮説を下敷きにし、初級学習者が自分の考えを英語で書き表すための効果的な練習方法について紹介する。初級学習者が自分の考えを英語で表現するには通常手本なしには難しい。この活動ではまず手本という足がかりを与え、学習者を助ける。それが２ページのショートストーリーである。---読み／聞き（インプット）。次に学習者はその内容を自分の言葉で語り直す（アウトプット）。この作業を一つのストーリーにつき３回交互に繰り返す。一回ごとに手本と照らしてセルフチェックすることで、学習者は自分で書いてみた英文と正しい英文との違いを確認できる。こうして、直したところを何度も復習する事で意味の通った文章が書けるようになっていくのである。

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Summary

The objective of this practice is to set scaffoldings in order to make basic writing practice easier for the learners to start. Learners, especially elementary level learners, tend to have more hesitation when engaging in practicing production skills, such as writing and speaking, than when practicing receptive skills such as reading and listening. This method focuses on addressing the difficulties learners normally face in their initial stages of training for writing skills.

Both learners and teachers tend to face a number of challenges when working on writing training. First, in my classrooms, learners simply do not find ideas to write about. They sometimes spend more than half the allocated time thinking about what they should write. As a result, this leaves them little time to practice writing. Second, it is hard for elementary level students to produce English sentences that convey their intended meanings. This is partly because they are unable to find the models for what they intend to write except by consulting their dictionaries. Third, between the time when learners write their compositions and when the checked compositions are returned to the original writers, learners tend to lose interest in learning from the corrected mistakes. This time lag often leaves the compositions not reviewed by the original writers, and therefore the same mistakes continue to appear in their compositions. In addition, for the teachers who put considerable time and energy into checking individual students’ compositions, it is highly unrewarding when the checked compositions are not reviewed by the students. This exercise provides several steps to address the challenges listed above.

Procedure

This procedure takes a set of three steps across four lesson sessions. Those steps are visual-auditory input, written output and the Noticing.

Visual–auditory input:

Students listen to and read a two-page short story. This is followed by an activity of drawing a set of three pictures that illustrate their understanding of the content of the story. Those pictures signal their degree of understanding of the content the story. If the teacher learns that students do not have full understanding of the story at this point, she can provide extra assistance. The teacher could put the students in pairs so they can check the

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meaning of each sentence of the story together. Problems that are unresolved within the pairs can be dealt with in class later.

Written-output:

After listening to and reading the story, students are asked to describe the first picture of the story in a written form, which should be done without referring back to the text.

Noticing:

Students compare their own description of the first third of the story with the model description of the first third of the story that appears in the textbook. The compositions are then collected by the teacher and rechecked after being self-checked by the students, then returned to the original writers within the same lesson session, or before the second session starts.

" Basically, these three steps of visual-auditory input, written output and the

Noticing are repeated in each of the first three lesson sessions. " In the second lesson session, students are again asked to listen to and read

the whole two-page story and describe the first picture and the second picture. The self-checking process follows after these two steps. Then the teacher rechecks the newly written sections and returns them. In the third lesson session, the same basic procedure basically the same practice is repeated except that students describe the third picture as well as the first and second pictures. In the fourth lesson session, students produce compositions about the whole story by only looking at the three pictures.

Advantages of this approach

This approach addresses four of the difficulties traditional writing practices have. First, because the writing content is taken from the story, no time is wasted before students start writing. Second, as the storybook is there as a model for their writing, students can more easily develop their ideas for how to write what they want to write. Third, by the repetitive process of writing the same parts from two to four times, students have more opportunities to review and learn from their previous mistakes. Fourth, after students self-check their writings with the model, the teacher does not have to take excessive time and energy to correct their mistakes.

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Limitations of this method

The repetitive process of visual and auditory exposure to the same story allows students to memorize the model. This could cause them to lose the incentive to compose their own sentences, in spite of the fact that students are encouraged to describe the story in their own words. Another limitation is that if mistakes are overlooked in the checking processes either by the students themselves or the teacher, the same mistakes are reproduced in the following sessions.

Theoretical support for this approach

Second language learners can achieve linguistic competence by noticing the gap between what they want to say and what they can say. According to Swain (1995) in her Output hypothesis, output opportunities enhance the noticing in the input. The hypothesis affirms that output promotes L2 (Second Language) speakers’ syntactic analysis in two ways. First, in producing their own inter-language, they pay more attention to the forms through which the intended messages are conveyed. Second, in listening to the subsequent input, the previous output helps learners notice the gap in language form between the target language model and their own production. This approach provides L2 learners with the opportunity to produce their own inter-language with consequent input so that they can compare their previous output to the input. By introducing a self-checking process, learners can more easily notice the gap between them. Also, for elementary level students the teacher plays an important role in helping students notice the gap.

Conclusion

In this approach teachers provide elementary learners with subject matter to write about so they can be ready to produce meaningful sentences with no time wasted. Having a clear idea of what to write about raises their awareness of language forms through which their intended messages can be conveyed. Also, by alternating between listening/reading and writing, this method helps the elementary learners notice the gap between what they want to say and what they can say and to begin to close that gap. For example, after practicing this method for four months, the elementary level students in

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my classroom can now write a page-full of meaningful sentences with little hesitation and more confidence and effectiveness.

References

Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language learning. In " G. Cook & B. Seidelhofer (Eds.), Principle and practice in applied " linguistics (pp. 125-144). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

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Hitomi Sakamoto: Professor, Toyo Gakuen University English as a Global Language:

Promoting International Exchange with Turkey

坂本　ひとみ：東洋学園大学　教授 グローバル・ランゲージとしての英語～トルコとの国際交流を進めて～

About the Author

Hitomi Sakamoto teaches at Toyo Gakuen University. Her research interest includes global education in EFL classes and how to teach English to children.

Abstract

After the Great East Japan Earthquake, the author received a number of encouraging messages written in English from Turkey, which she forwarded to English teachers in the devastated area so that they could share them with their students. Since then, a Turkish teacher and the author have had their students exchange letters in English. In the feedback comments of the students who experienced this exchange of letters, they said that they were happy to use English and wanted to learn more English words to encourage people. In March the author visited the Turkish school with 170 cards written in English by Japanese elementary school students and gave them to the Turkish students, who made pleasing comments in English. The aim of this poster presentation is to show one way how to facilitate communication between Japanese students and students in other countries using English.

要約

２０１１年３月１１日の東日本大震災の直後から、筆者は世界の各国から激励のメールや手紙を受け取った。特に、トルコの子どもたちからは、簡単な英語のメッセージを入れた絵手紙がたくさん郵便で届いた。筆者はそれを被災地の英語の先生とその子どもたちにも見てほしいと送った。津波で家を流されたり、甚大な被害を受けたりした子どもたちも感動して、お礼のメッセージを書いてくれた。筆者はこんなにシンプルな言葉で人を励ますことができるということに感銘を受けた。それ以来一人のトルコの先生と筆者は子どもたちを通じて英語での手紙のやり取りを続けている。この交流での子どもたちの感想は、英語が使えて嬉しい、英語がネイティブでない人たちともこのように英語を通じて心を通い合わせることができるんだ、人を元気づけるような英語の言葉をもっと学びたい、トルコについてもっと知りたいというものだった。今年の３月、筆者は日本の小学校６年の子どもたちがトルコの子どもたちにあてて英語で書いたカード１７０通を持参してトルコの学校を訪れた。トルコの子どもたちに渡したところ、喜んでくれて英語で嬉しい感想を寄せてくれた。その様子は今年の６月、再度小学校で訪問授業をして、見てもらうことができた。このポスタープレゼンテーションでは、日本の子どもたちと他国の子どもたちとが英語を使うことでどんなふうに交流を深めていけるのか、一つの方法をお見せできると思う。

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The presentation made by the author at the Nakasendo English Conference in June 2012 aimed to show EFL teachers one way to facilitate Japanese students to communicate in English with students in other countries using English. Letters of encouragement written by Turkish children to Japanese students after the Great East Japan Earthquake were the focus of the communication and the language lessons. I designed an EFL lesson plan using those letters as realia. As a result of their communication with Turkish children, my students became interested in Turkey and Islamic culture, which was clarified in their feedback comments after the lesson.

I am a member of "e-Pals," a web-based organization which connects teachers from all over the world. In February 2011, I started exchanging e-mails with a Turkish teacher who teaches global issues in her English classes in primary school. One month later, the Great East Japan Earthquake occurred, and she asked me what her students could do for Japanese students. I asked her to have them write letters of encouragement for Tohoku students so that I could forward them to teachers in the devastated area. A lot of letters and colorful pictures reached me soon afterward.

First, I forwarded the Turkish picture letters to a friend of mine who teaches English to children in an area affected by the Great East Japan Earthquake. Her students appreciated them and said they would help foreign people when they were in trouble. I conveyed their message to the Turkish teacher, who was very much pleased.

Then, I sent the letters to teachers in Ishinomaki, Sendai and Ofunato. Those teachers appreciated the letters and shared them with their students, many of whose houses had been swept away by the tsunami. In response, the students wrote thank-you letters, which expressed their determination to get over the hard times.

My students at a university in Tokyo also responded to the letters written by Turkish children and those by Tohoku students. My students and I also wrote thank-you letters, and we made a video letter for the Turkish children. I felt my students were impressed that simple English expressions such as “we are with you,” “we are on your side,” “you are not alone” and “we care about you” could encourage people so much.

In October 2011, a big earthquake hit Turkey. My Turkish friend was safe, but she lost a friend. Students in my class read an English newspaper article about this earthquake and wrote letters to encourage our Turkish friends. Some students in Tohoku also wrote encouraging letters expressing

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sympathy as victims who suffered the same hardship. All communication was done in English.

In February and March in 2012, I visited two elementary schools near my university and gave English lessons using these letters and photographs from newspapers as realia. I also made a Turkish themed quiz. In the feedback comments of 170 students who are 11-12 years old, some said they wanted to learn more English words to encourage people. Ninety-six percent of the students liked the English class. They made very elaborate cards with messages written in English and Turkish. They drew beautiful pictures and put origami cranes on their cards.

In March 2012, I visited the primary school in Turkey to deliver those letters made by Japanese children. I interviewed the Turkish students what they liked about the cards and videotaped their messages spoken in English."In May 2012, I visited the Japanese elementary school to show the sixth

graders how happy the Turkish students were to receive their heart-warming letters from Japan. The Japanese students said that they felt they were connected to Turkish people through English. The goal of my lesson plan was heart-to-heart communication between Japanese students and foreign students, and it was achieved."As a global language, English is used by people throughout the world,

including non-native speakers of the language. Exchanging letters with students worldwide, not just Americans and Europeans, is a good way to promote global education. I intend to continue my English lessons to show students that English is a window to the world.

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Aiko Minematsu: Teachers College Columbia University Literature Circles in Secondary School ELT

峰松　愛子: コロンビア大学 ティーチャーズ・カレッジ 中学校英語教育での文学サークル

About the Author

Aiko Minematsu has been teaching in private and public junior and senior high schools in Tokyo.  She is currently pursuing her MA degree in TESOL at Teachers College Columbia University, Tokyo.

Abstract

Literature Circles (LC) are a way to break away from the grammar-translation approach, encouraging learners to perceive English reading as a form of communication, rather than as a mere deciphering of the language. It promotes student-led discussions which are purposeful and collaborative in nature, as well as providing contextualized input and opportunities for negotiating meaning. This paper introduces key elements for setting up LCs in an EFL classroom, and how an attempt was made at implementing LCs in an English course in a junior high school in Tokyo. Specific classroom procedures, student reactions and potential challenges for classroom implementation will be discussed.

要約

文学サークル(LC)とは英語の読書を文法解読的なアプローチから離れて行う一つの方法です。生徒たちには英語での読書を、単なる言葉の理解というよりはコミュニケーションの一つの形であるととらえてもらうようにしています。これによって生徒たちは自然に目的を持ち、共同で、生徒主導の討論をするようになりますし、同様に作品の内容も頭に入り、お互いの意見を擦りあわせる機会にもなります。ここではEFLの教室でLCを始めようとする際に鍵となる要素と、東京の中学校で実際どのように実践されたかを合わせてご紹介します。とっておきの授業の手順、生徒の反応、さらに発展させて実践できそうな提案まで話し合えればと思います。

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Teaching reading has always been one of the most challenging things to do as an English teacher in Japan. When it comes to reading, there is a firm belief in a word-for-word, sentence-by-sentence translation, and learners and teachers seem to believe that such intensive reading will build reading fluency, which is not the case (Furr, 2004). The concept of literature circles (LCs) works as “a combined approach” of intensive and extensive reading (Furr, 2004. p.3), and it is a method which incorporates collaborative learning and independent reading (Daniels, 2002). As Furr (2004) describes, “LCs are magic(…) they have transformed my students from passive, rather shy, reticent Japanese(…) students into students who eagerly point at their texts in order to support their arguments (p.1)”.

Key ingredients of Literature Circles

LCs are small, temporary discussion groups that have chosen to read the same book, as in a book club (Daniels, 2002). This method has gained popularity in elementary and secondary schools in the US, mainly for L1 reading instruction (Daniels, 2002; Furr, 2004). Daniels (2002) gives the following list of key elements necessary for setting up LCs in a L1 Language Arts class:

" The 12 key ingredients (Daniels, 2002, p. 18)

1) students choose their own material2) students form small, temporary groups based on book choices"3) groups read different books4) student groups meet regularly, and have a predictable schedule to discuss reading5) written and drawn notes are used to guide students’ reading and discussion6) students generate discussion topics7) group meetings are open, natural conversation about books, so personal comments are welcome8) discussion roles are rotated9) the teacher is a facilitator, not a group member or an instructor10) evaluation is conducted by teacher observation and student evaluation11) playfulness and fun are maintained in the classroom12) upon finishing books, readers share with others, and new groups form around new reading choices　

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Since these elements are designed for L1 learning environments, they may not necessarily be suitable for the EFL classroom. As Furr (2004) notes, “EFL students need more guidance, not only with choosing a text that is not overly difficult, but they also need guidance in choosing materials that they are able to use as a basis for discussion” (p.5). Hence, Furr has redesigned four of Daniel’s key ingredients:

1) students choose their own material → instructors select materials appropriate for their student population2) students form small, temporary groups based on book choices→ small temporary groups are formed, based on student choice or instructors’ discretion3) groups read different books→ different groups are usually reading the same text12) upon finishing books, readers share with others, and new groups form around new reading choices → backloading information; when books are finished, the instructor may provide additional information to fill in the gaps in student understanding (Furr, 2004, p.4).

LCs in a junior high school setting

In this section, an attempt at introducing LCs in a private junior high school will be introduced. This particular English course for 9th graders (ages 14 -15) aims to build reading fluency, and the class meets once a week for 50 minutes. Over a semester, the class is required to read the same material, usually a graded reader, and the students are assigned to read one chapter a week. The materials are chosen by the teachers in charge of the course. The attempt at introducing LCs in this particular course was evoked by a student’s plea for a translation of the whole book. The majority of the students seemed to believe that they would not be able to read a whole book in English, let alone enjoy it. Hence, the objective for implementing LCs was to transform the students’ beliefs that they cannot enjoy reading in English without translations.

Procedures

The overall structure of the course was already set within the school curriculum, and the instructor was required to: a) assign one chapter per week to students, b) give a short quiz with ten comprehension questions in

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the beginning of each lesson, and c) have students write a short summary of each assigned reading in class. In the very first session, the instructor conducted a survey to evaluate the appropriateness of the reading material in terms of the students’ reading proficiency. The survey was based on Waring and Takahashi’s (2000) “rule of thumb” for reading fluency. As a result, the material chosen was either appropriate or a little above their level for the majority of students, and beyond the level of a few students.

As part of their orientation to LCs, students were asked to choose and take note of any of six factors as they read: a) overall comments, b) summary, c) connection to yourself, d) five key words, e) puzzling or mysterious features, and f) cultural differences. The six factors were based on Furr’s (2004) discussion roles. Seeing that the students were not yet familiar with what was being asked of them, the instructor decided to use the class sessions to train students. Each session consisted of three parts: a) a short quiz (15 minutes), b) lecture for backloading information on cultural differences and vocabulary (15 minutes), and c) independent and/or collaborative reading using a worksheet (Appendix 1) (15 minutes).

Student responses

After finishing the whole book over the course of six class sessions, the instructor asked students for feedback and reflection. The majority of the student responses was positive, and can be categorized into the following five points: learning from others’ comments and questions, learning about cultural differences, an increase in reading speed, relating to and personalizing the text, and a feeling of success and achievement. Their comments seem congruent to what Hsu (2004) describes in her work with Taiwanese students.

Challenges

In a mixed-level class, one of the challenges is choosing material that is appropriate for the learners’ various levels. This may be overcome by providing different books, but when that is not allowed, encouraging discussion and collaborative reading may help low-level readers. Another challenge could be providing material that fit the learners’ interests.

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Conclusion

LCs is still a newly developed idea in EFL classrooms, but its effects seem promising in that it encourages learners to become active readers and contributing to the L2 community. The attempt to implement LCs introduced in this paper is still an ongoing process, and further research and analysis may suggest more positive results.

References

Daniels, H. (2002). Literature Circles: Voice and choice in book clubs and " reading groups. Second Edition. Portland, Maine: Stenhouse.

Furr, M. (2004). Literature circles for the EFL classroom. Retrieved from " http://eflliteraturecircles.com/litcirclesforEFL.pdf

Hsu, J. T. (2004). Reading without teachers: Literature circles in an EFL " classroom. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED492558.pdf

Waring, R. & Takahashi, S. (2000). Guide to the ‘why and how’ of using " graded readers. Tokyo: Oxford University Press. Retrieved from " http://extensivereading.net/docs/tebiki_GREng.pdf

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Appendix

Chapter 4 Worksheet

1.) 意見・感想/overall comments

2.) 疑問/questions, things that puzzle you

3.) Chapter ４のキーワード（５つ挙げる）/5 keywords

4.) Chapter ４の場面をドラマ化するとしたら、どのような役者が良いでしょう？/ dramatize(If you were to make this into a drama, who would you have as actors?)

5.) Chapter ４にＢＧＭをつけるならどのような音楽が良いでしょう？/background music(If you were to add music to this chapter, what kind of music would you have?)

6.) Chapter ４を下記にビジュアル化しよう（絵・図・文字を使い、自由に表 現してＯＫ）/visualize (Use pictures and graphs to visualize the chapter.)

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Peter Mizuki: Associate Professor, Nihon University Raising Consciousness and Developing Productive Fluency in the classroom

水木　ピーター： 日本大学 准教授 作的な流暢の開発や意識の向上

About the Author

My name is Peter Mizuki; I am originally from Seattle, WA. I work for Nihon University where I teach courses in Business English, Japanese Culture (taught in English), and English. I also spend my time practicing kendo (Japanese fencing).

Abstract

This paper will discuss how university EFL students can change to an English mode of thinking in the classroom while at the same time stressing the development of written and spoken fluency. This is done by introducing an activity at the beginning of class called fluency writing. In this activity the students are instructed to watch PBS (Public Broadcasting Service) news online and select a topic of their choice to listen to and write about it in class for five minutes without using erasers or dictionaries. The students then begin speaking in turns for two minutes about what they have written they are especially encouraged to express their opinions about what they have watched on PBS News and written about. Finally the students are given time to write down their reflections on their speaking. In conclusion the presenter observed improved verbal performances marked by fewer pauses in verbal activities such as individual presentations and class discussions.

要約

本論文では外国語としての英語の教育を受けている大学生がどのように英語モードの考え方に頭を切り替えていけるか、また同時に流暢に書き、話す能力をどう開発していけるかについて述べたいと思います。このために行った「fluency writing（すらすら書く）」という活動についてご紹介します。この活動では、学生は、オンラインでPBS(公共放送)ニュースを見るよう指示されます。自分で好きな話題を選び、そのニュースについてその場で５分間、消しゴムも辞書も使わずに書きます。それをもとにその後２分間話します。ここでは、今自分が見た、書いたニュースについて自分自身の意見を述べる事が求められます。最後に自分が話したことを反映させて書く時間が与えられます。結論ですが、この活動によって、個人の発表やクラス討論の際に言葉に詰まる、といった場面が減少し、言語活動において改善が見られました。

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When Japanese students enter their English university classroom they have to shift from a Japanese language environment to an English language environment. For Japanese students this requires them to shift from thinking in a Japanese SOV sentence structure to an English SVO sentence structure. This paper will discuss how university EFL students can change to an English mode of thinking in the classroom while at the same time stressing the development of written fluency and spoken fluency.

Shifting between language environments is accomplished by introducing an activity at the beginning of class called fluency writing. In fluency writing, the act of writing in the target language requires the students to think and focus in English. In this activity the students are instructed to watch PBS (Public broadcasting Service) news online before coming to class and select a topic of their choice to listen and write about it in class for five minutes without using erasers or dictionaries.

The reason for allowing them choices increases their motivation, improves their listening comprehension skills, and improves their critical thinking skills. PBS was selected since it has no commercials and it includes a written transcript of what is shown on the news; this is important for the students to insure the comprehensibility of the input. The students then write a brief summary of their topic and an opinion of their topic. They then speak in turns giving their opinions about their topics for two minutes to the class. Afterwards they are given a few minutes to write down their reflections on their speaking. Comments such as:

I have to summarize about the article and my opinion. And I want to speak more fruencely, I must train speak English (sic.)

The time constraints in both the speaking and writing activities compel the students to produce the target language at a faster than normal level of production therefore promoting both written and spoken fluency development (Nation P., 2003).

Critical thinking skills are developed in this exercise when the students are asked to express their opinions on their selected news topics. Fluency is developed (Nation 2003:1) because the students need to summarize their topic choices into a five minute writing exercise then speak to the class on their topic for two to three minutes. The fluency writing exercises are collected and the instructor counts the number of words written and does a cursory grammar check of their writing. The instructor finally offers comments and suggestions on the students’ writing and speaking. Comments

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for writing: good use of linking words and phrases etc. Comments for speaking: you are looking up more when you speak to the class.

These fluency activities are also transferable to other English courses or other foreign language courses. The author has used these fluency activities in Business English courses but instead of listening to PBS News the students read the Asian Wall Street Journal and select a newspaper article to write on and to talk about to the class.

At the beginning of the two to three-minute speaking fluency activity following the writing fluency activity the students’ speech was marked by noticeable long pauses. In subsequent classes the students’ discourse was marked by a much smoother delivery in compared to their initial speech efforts. The author also observed improved verbal performances marked by fewer pauses in other verbal activities such as individual presentations and class discussions. Having students preselect topics in advance gives the students an opportunity to practice and become more familiar with their material to improve their fluency performances. As stated by Nation 2003 p.1 “fluency development – learning through working with known material across the four skills at a higher than usual level of performance.”

In conclusion the five minute fluency writing activity and the two to three minute fluency speaking activity causes the students to shift their consciousness from their native language to the target language. The author concluded this based on the students’ response to the following question: When doing the fluency writing and speaking exercise are you thinking in Japanese or English?

One student commented: …I usually try to think in English to write and speak English fluently. Another student commented: I’m usually thinking in English, because if I’m thinking in Japanese, I can’t catch up with this class (sic.).

As mentioned above by using time constraints this exercise compels the students to produce the target language at a faster than normal level of production thereby stimulating written and spoken fluency.

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References

Nation, I.S.P. 2003.The role of the first language in foreign language learning. " Asian EFL Journal p.1. Retrieved from " http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/june_2003_pn.pdf 

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