Ancient Egypt Based along the Nile River and at its

delta with the Mediterranean Sea. Divided into two regions :

Upper Egypt – 8 miles wide Lower Egypt, where the river fans

out into a delta 100 miles wide. Surrounded by high desert plateaus

and rocky, impassable terrain to the south.

Civilization Earliest settlements are along the

western edge of the Nile delta c4000BCE.

Upper Egypt – communities develop later but achieve political centralization earlier.

c3200 BCE – pictographic script develops in Upper Egypt – indicates contact with Mesopotamian culture.

c3150 BCE – King Narmer establishes control over the southern Nile and unites the region, capital at Memphis.

Chronology Egypt has 31 identifiable dynasties

grouped into 6 periods: Pre-dynastic – 3150BCE to 2770BCE Old Kingdom – 2770BCE to 2200BCE Middle Kingdom – 2050BCE to 1786BCE New Kingdom – 1560BCE to 1087BCE Late Kingdom – 752BCE to 343BCE Ptolemaic Period – 332BCE to 30BCE Intermediate periods – periods of disruption and political confusion.

Centralized government breaks down, several pharaohs may rule at one time

Politics and religion Kings ruled through divine right – king was the incarnation of the god of light

Horus, later as the sun god Ra (Amon-Re) The king was obliged to care for his people – “divine herdsman”

Oversaw the flooding of the Nile Preserved ideal state of the universe and society with justice and harmony -

maat

Government Kings were not warriors, but

administrators overseeing a vast bureaucracy – no standing army.

Court officials and provincial administrators carry out the will of the god-king as religious leaders, judicial officers, and military leaders.

Subordinate overseers, scribes, artisans, masons, tax collectors, all form part of the political apparatus.

Local nobles and governors (viziers) ran basic political unit – 42 nomes.

The dominant feature of the administration was the archives, everything was recorded, wills, taxation, commerce.

Role of Women More independent and involved in public

life than in Mesopotamia: Owned property Conducted business transactions Entered legal contracts Brought lawsuits However, they were prohibited from

receiving a formal education and were therefore unable to achieve government office.

Construction Entire bureaucracy was focused on the

construction of royal houses and monuments.

The king lived in the per-ao (Great House) in Memphis.

Worship of the king continued after death. Temples and pyramids were constructed to continue the worship of each king after death.

These consumed the excess resources of the state, taxes were very heavy on the population.

Purpose of Pyramids Pyramids were built to honor dead kings. A cult of worshippers would continue

serving their dead pharaoh long after his death through the construction of the pyramid.

This reinforced the rule of the present monarch. Also focused material and human resources.

Organized labor Royal construction projects employed much of the male population.

These workers were also seasonal farmers. When the Nile flooded, the peasant farmers worked the pyramids.

Old Kingdom – 1.5 million ppl – 70,000 workers. 4.7% of population. Pyramid at Khufu (c 2600BCE) 481 ft high, 6,ooo,ooo tonnes of stone.

Old Kingdom (2770BCE to 2200BCE) King Zoser founds the Old Kingdom. Lived at the same time as Gilgamesh. He built the first pyramid at Sakkara the architect was

Imhotep. Pyramids were one part of massive religious complexes that

also included temples and monuments. As soon as the one pyramid is finished, the

next is begun Succeeding dynasty (4th) constructs the

Great Pyramid at Giza – houses the 2nd

pharaoh Khufu (Cheops).

Old Kingdom State rules begin across entire kingdom. By the 5th Dynasty (2465BCE to 2345BCE)

the decline of central authority begins. Bureaucrats focus their attention on

supplying the needs of the living and dead kings, the “cattle of the gods” are not being well tended.

Decline All the resources of the kingdom gradually

went into maintaining existing cults and establishing new ones.

Gradually this weakened the power of the central authority, small provinces begin to challenge Memphis.

More poor quality land had to be put into production to meet the expanding needs of the king-cults, which were tax-exempt. They also receive donations from wealthy citizens, increasing their power and authority.

Collapse The Old Kingdom comes to an end with the pharaoh queen Nitocris 1st female ruler of Egypt 2152-2150BCE She was the wife of the murdered pharaoh Merenre II. According to legend, she had the conspirators who murdered her husband killed.

Then committed suicide herself.

Middle Kingdom Civil war and struggles for control of city-states marks the intermediate period

2575BCE – 2055BCE. Kingdom reunited under Mentuhotep II, capital established at Thebes.

The period is marked by expansion into Lybia and the Sinai, a focus on the arts and architecture, and consolidation.

Dynastic change Mentuhotep is usurped by his vizier Amenemhet when he is on a trading

expedition to Punt (Sudan). Capital is moved to Crocodilopolis. Begins a golden age for Egypt. Campaigns against Libyans and nomadic tribes in the Sinai lead to the construction

of the Wall of the Prince to keep out invaders. Forts are constructed and trading posts established in Nubia.

Social Change The influence of the intermediate

period had an important effect on Egyptian society.

The middle class rises in importance.

Non-royal tombs become common.

Trade becomes more important.

Social stratification develops.

The Testament of Amenemhet He said: O you who appear as a god, hear what I shall say

to you, that you may be king of the land and rule the Banks, and achieve abundance of good fortune. Be on your guard against all who are subordinate to you when

there occurs something to whose terrors no thought has been given; do not approach them in your solitude, trust no brother, know no friend, make no intimates, for there is no profit in it. When you go to rest, guard your own heart, for no man has partisans on the day of trouble. I gave to the poor man, I cherished the orphan, I caused him who had nothing to attain (to wealth) like him who was wealthy, but it was he who ate my bread who raised levies; he to whom I had given my hand created terror thereby; those who wore my fine linen looked on me as a shadow; and they who smeared on my myrrh poured water under (me).

Contrast this text with the previous relationship between kings and people in Egypt “the tender of the cattle of god”.

Amenemhet was murdered by members of his own harem while he slept. Senusret, his son, had the conspirators murdered then published his father’s

testament which became a popular literary work

How have things changed?

Fall of the Middle Kingdom

Again, power was shifting to the military leaders who controlled the eastern border regions.

The pharaoh queen Sobekneferu dies without and heir and Egypt is divided under separate rulers.

Settlers came and went freely and many Canaanites settled the region. They gradually increased in power.

The most important of these Semitic settlers were the Hyksos.

Hyksos ruleHyksos – “shepherd kings”

Nomadic peoples who settled the eastern Nile delta. They conquered Memphis in 1674BCE and established their

capital at Avaris aka. Tanis. However, they never controlled all of Egypt. Their expansion was stopped at Thebes.

They maintained Egyptian laws, language and customs. Egyptians were employed as administrators in government.

Hyksos Influence The most important influence left behind by the Hyksos was

military: Horse drawn war chariot Bronze weapons Improvised defenses – fortresses Composite bows Forcibly ends Egypt’s relative isolation in

the region

Reestablishing central control The kings at Thebes continue to battle the

Hyksos until Amhose I drove the Hyksos from Tanis in 1550BCE.

Theban queens were essential to the conquest of the Hyksos – they often led troops into battle personally.

New Kingdom Amhose I establishes the new capital at Thebes. Egypt now becomes an expansionist empire. Encompasses three dynasties and 31 pharaohs.

Egyptian Religion The most important aspect of Egyptian religion

was that it changed constantly over time as

dynasties, capitals, and political power fluctuated.

Polytheistic, anthropomorphic, but mixed with characteristics of various animals. Over 2000 gods.

Duality The dominant theme in Egyptian religion was

duality and unification: Divided land :Upper and Lower Divided existence: life and after-life Divided Nile: controlled and flooded

It was the unification of these elements that led to creation: symbolized in the union of man and woman

Sex and fertility play an important role in religious life.

Creation

Like Judeo-Christian religions, creation took several days:

Day 1 – Light is created, there is only water (Nu) primary god Ra emerges

Day 2 – Creation of Air and Moisture (Shu and Tefnut)

Day 3 – Shu and Tefnut give birth to the sky (Nut) and earth (Geb)

Day 4 – Geb and Nut produce Osiris, Horus, Seth, Isis, and Nephthys Day 5,6,7 – Khnum, a self-created god, makes all living things on his potters wheel.

The Soul The human soul has two parts: Ka – physical – not in our definition of physical, it was a twin

of our bodies that would live on after we died. Associated with material objects – it needed a body after death – thus mummification and sacrifice of food and drink to deities

Ba – conscience – represented by animals, who were thought to be the Ba of the gods – non-material components of people

The Afterlife

The afterlife was only open to those who were mummified and had a temple.

The god of the afterlife and underworld was Osiris.

The Ba would travel into the afterlife but the Ka would need the mummified body for eternity

Tombs contained worldly possessions indicating that people would need them (or their Kau) in the afterlife.

Tombs would therefore have to be maintained by family members or cults to ensure their upkeep.

Judgment In the underworld, a person’s heart was weighed

against the feather of Maat. Hell did not exist until later in the New Kingdom but

was represented by the god Ammut, who would devour souls of sinners.

Egyptian heaven was the “Field of Reeds”

Egyptian Gods

Ra – God of the Sun Cult centered at Heliopolis Father of Thoth, Shu, Tefnut, and Sekhmet One of the creators of the world Worshipped throughout each dynasty and

kingdom Was amalgamated with Anum in the New

Kingdom and called Amon-Ra

Ra’s journey across the sky took place in three stages:

Khepri – Sunrise – Ra emerges from the blue lotus

Horakhty – Noon – Most powerful phase of the sun, identified with the rule of the pharaoh and symbolized by the crook and flail, items of office for kings

Atum – the sun grows weak and is swallowed by the sky goddess Nut who gives birth to it the next morning.

Amun – King of the gods, the Hidden God Cult centered at Thebes

Formed a trinity with Mut and Khonsu, his consort and child

Came to prominence after being considered a minor god during the reign of Thebes in the New Kingdom, combined with Ra to form Amon-Ra. God who is hidden in the sun

Monotheism Gradually grew in

importance and formed an early version of monotheism as all other gods lose their independence.

At this time, Moses (Amenmesse) conducts his rebellion, he was a follower of the cult of Amon-Ra and many believe this to be the basis for Judeo-Christian monotheism.

Ptah – God of Wisdom Cult centered at Memphis Considered the god of arts, craftsmen, and

architects Brings all living things into being as well as

morality and ethics He rose in importance as Memphis rose but was

absorbed by the Orisis cult as Amon-Ra grew in importance.

Geb – God of the Earth, earthquakes, mountains, provider of crops/fruits

Along with his sister/wife, gave birth to Horus (the elder), Osiris, Isis, Nephthys, and Seth

Geb was the mythical first pharaoh, all pharaohs after him claim to be his descendants

Nut – Goddes of the sky, resurrection and rebirth Her body forms the sky, separated from the earth,

represented by Geb, her brother and lover by Shu. She gives birth to the sun and swallows it again every

evening. She is represented by a woman arching over her lover

and separated from him by Shu

Creation She was originally betrothed to her father Ra but

loved her brother Geb. She was punished by Ra and cursed to be forever separated from Geb and forbidden to bear any children during the 360 days of the calendar. Thoth created 5 more days with light from the moon and on those days she gave birth to Osiris, Isis, Nephthys, Horus, and Seth.

Shu – God of Air Cult centered at Heliopolis He separates his two children, the sky from the earth and

prevents any further union between them by order of Ra. Along with Tefnut, they became the first embodiment of

duality, union, and creation

Tefnut – Goddess of Moisture, clouds, and water Cult centered at Heliopolis Egypt would be barren without her to protect the land

from the sun. She was the first mother in the cosmos, giving birth to

Geb and Nut.

Seth – God of the Deserts, Infertility, and Thunder Cult centered at Avaris (Tanis) He was worshipped in Lower Egypt and battled

with his nephew Horus for control of the living, this reflects the struggles between Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt

He was the patron God of Ramses and his successors Seti, Seti II and Setnakhte, who were the enemies of Moses during the Exodus. This

could account for their transition in to the Judeo Christian Satan.

Nephthys – Goddess of darkness, the desert, and infertility

Cult centered at Heliopolis She was the daughter of Geb and Nut and sister of

Isis, goddess of fertility. She was married to Seth but could not bear children

from him.

Murder of Osiris So she seduced her brother Osiris by getting him drunk.

Their child was Anubis. When Seth learned of his betrayal, he had Osiris killed and chopped into 14 pieces. Nephthys aided Isis in his resurrection.

Osiris –God of the underworld, shepherd of souls Cult centered at Abydos He was killed by his brother Seth and chopped into 14

pieces and thrown into the Nile. He was resurrected by his sister/consort Isis and his son Horus avenged his

murder on Seth. This made him an important god of the afterlife and resurrection. He performs the Judgment of Maat over souls.

There are many comparisons to Jesus.

Anubis – Mummification God Cult centered at Cynopolis He is the illegitimate son of Osiris and Nephthys All tombs are technically temples to Anubis. He is the god who leads souls on their

journey to the Underworld

Isis – Goddess of magic, patron of motherhood Cult centered at Philae Isis is one of the children of Geb and Nut, she recreated

Osiris after his murder by Seth. She created the Spell of Life and brought Osiris back so she could conceive Horus the Younger through him. Seth dedicated himself to the murder of Horus and Isis protected him.

The Mother Cult The popularity of her cult grew beyond the borders of Egypt

and she was worshipped in Roman temples as well. She is a parallel to the Virgin Mary as they are depicted in the same fashion traditionally.