The effects of Pranayama yoga on Stress and Anxiety
-
Upload
jatin-chaudhary -
Category
Documents
-
view
816 -
download
2
Transcript of The effects of Pranayama yoga on Stress and Anxiety
The Effects of Pranayama Yoga on
Stress and Anxiety
By
Jatin Chaudhary
Supervisor
Dr. Kim Yong-Kyu
DECEMBER 2012
GRADUATE SCHOOL
DAEGU UNIVERSITY
REPUBLIC OF KOREA
- i -
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. INTRODUCTION ····································································································1
1. Purpose ······················································································································2
2. Hypothesis ·················································································································2
II. LITERATURE REVIEW ····················································································3
1. Yoga ···························································································································3
2. Concept of Pranayama ···························································································5
2-1. Pranayama Techniques ···············································································6
3. Stress ·························································································································9
3-1. Sources of Stress ·······················································································10
3-2. Stressors ·······································································································11
4. Anxiety ····················································································································12
III. METHOD ··············································································································13
1. Study Participants ·································································································13
2. Inventory ·················································································································14
3. Experimental Protocol ··························································································15
- ii -
3-1. Weekly Program ·························································································17
3-2. Exercise Program ·······················································································18
3-3. Yoga Asana(postures) ···············································································19
4. Statistical Analysis ·······························································································22
IV. RESULTS ·············································································································23
1. The Effect of Pranayama on Positive Stress ···············································23
2. The Effect of Pranayama on Negative Stress ·············································24
3. The Effect of Pranayama on State Anxiety ·················································25
4. The Effect of Pranayama on Trait Anxiety ·················································26
V. DISCUSSION & SUGGESTIONS ································································27
VI. CONCLUSION ····································································································29
REFERENCES ············································································································30
ABSTRACT ·················································································································37
APPENDIX ···················································································································39
- iii -
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Eight Limbs of Yoga ················································································4
Table 2. Characteristics of Stress ········································································11
Table 3. Subjects ·········································································································13
Table 4. Questionnaire ·······························································································14
Table 5. Study Design ·······························································································15
Table 6. Weekly Schedule ·························································································16
Table 7. Breathing Exercises ···················································································17
Table 8. Positive Stress Analysis by Independent T-test ······························23
Table 9. Positive Stress Analysis by Paired T-test ·········································23
Table 10. Negative Stress Analysis by Independent T-test ···························24
Table 11. Negative Stress Analysis by Paired T-test ···································24
Table 12. State Anxiety Analysis by Independent T-test ······························25
Table 13. State Anxiety Analysis by Paired T-test ·········································25
Table 14. Trait Anxiety Analysis by Independent T-test ······························26
Table 15. Trait Anxiety Analysis by Paired T-test ·········································26
- iv -
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Subjects ·······································································································13
Figure 2. Pose of the corpse ····················································································18
Figure 3. Child's resting pose ·················································································18
Figure 4. The monkey pose ·····················································································19
Figure 5. Crocodile pose ····························································································19
Figure 6. Cobra pose ··································································································20
Figure 7. The grasshopper pose ··············································································20
Figure 8. The wind-relieving pose. ········································································21
- v -
The Effects of Pranayama Yoga on
Stress and Anxiety
Jatin Chaudhary
Department of Physical Education
Graduate School, Daegu University
Gyeongbuk, Korea
Supervised by prof. Kim, Yong-Kyu
(Abstract)
Stress and anxiety have been implicated as contributors to many chronic
diseases and to decreased quality of life, even with pharmacologic
treatment. Yoga has been implemented to alleviate both mental and
physical ailments. The objective of this study was to assess the effect of
pranayama yoga on negative and positive stress levels and state-trait
anxiety. Fifteen healthy women subjects(39.12±3.04 years, 57.25±4.52 kg)
attended a 6-week pranayama yoga program for 60 minutes, 3 times a
week. They were assigned into two groups: A(experimental n=8) and
B(control n=7). Both groups were requested not to participate in any
physical activity until the end of the study. The pre and post pranayama
yoga effects were assessed by using the stress scale(Cohen, Kamarch &
Mercelstein, 1983) for positive and negative stress levels and state-trait
anxiety inventory: STAI(Spielberger, 1970). The data handling of the test
results was used by WINDOWS SPSS 18.0 statistics program with
Independent T-test and Paired T-test. Statistical significance was accepted
at α=.05. This study had two major findings. First, in both positive and
- vi -
negative stress levels there were no significant changes occur within
6-weeks of pranayama practice. Second, there were positive effects in
anxiety conditions on experimental-group subjects.
The observations suggest that pranayama yoga leads to remarkable
reduction in the anxiety scores within a period of 6-weeks and contributes
to increased relaxation.
- 1 -
I. INTRODUCTION
Yoga has been practiced for over thousands of years in ancient India but
recently it gained popularity in the United States and Europe. In America,
the yoga market emerged as a 5.7 billion dollar industry in 2008. The
practice of yoga has been implemented to alleviate both mental and
physical ailments, including bronchitis(Behera D, 1998), chronic pain(da
Silva GD., Lorenzi-Filho G., & Lage LV., 2007), and symptoms of
menopause(Booth-LaForce C., Thurston RC., & Taylor MR., 2007). Yoga
has also been associated with improved cardiorespiratory performance,
highlighting the aerobic nature of yoga. To focus the human mind,
traditional yoga texts instruct students to practice yogic breathing
exercises(pranayama). Pranayama is one of the central teachings in
classical yoga(Muktibodhananda, 2006). Pranayama is the science of breath
control. Many studies have reported the effect of yoga and pranayama on
various systems(Roggla, 2001; Stanescu, 1990; Sequeira, 1999). Gupta et al.,
(2006) has reported the role of pranayama on stress by focusing our mind
on our breath. The present study follows a reproducible sequence, and both
research and clinical experience demonstrate that it significantly alleviates
stress and anxiety(Gangadhar et al., 2000; Janakiramaiah N., 2000; Suarez,
2002; Weintraub, 2004). Yoga has also been shown to improve immune
function and allows patients a way to engage in self-management. Due to
its good compliance and lack of drug interactions, yoga appears to be safe
and could be encouraged to improve quality of life and, perhaps, the
symptoms of stress and anxiety. Given that there are few to no side
effects, it is relatively inexpensive and can be performed anywhere by
nearly everyone.
In this study, we focused on a yogic breathing program to determine
whether the existing primary literature supports the incorporation of yoga
- 2 -
into the cognitive behavior therapy plan for stress and anxiety, or whether
additional research in the field is warranted. If deemed beneficial, yoga
could be an adjunctive option to pharmacologic therapy for patients with
stress and anxiety disorders or potential alternative to cope with daily life
stress and psychological related conditions.
1. Purpose
The purpose of this master's thesis was three-fold. First, to introduce an
important limb of yoga(pranayama) to Korean society. Second, to determine
if practice of pranayama for 6-weeks was a sufficient stimulus to decrease
stress levels. Third, to determine if pranayama practice would have
positive effects on state or trait anxiety scale.
Through this study fitness professionals and personal trainers would
become more aware of the myths of breathing, related conditions and they
can better guide their students and clients. There is no doubt that
pranayama practice can help to cure many human physical and mental
ailments, so today's enlightened medical experts should give them a fair
trial.
2. Hypothesis
2-1. Pranayama yoga would have an effect on stress.
1) Pranayama yoga would have an effect on positive stress.
2) Pranayama yoga would have an effect on negative stress.
2-2. Pranayama yoga would have an effect on anxiety.
1) Pranayama yoga would have an effect on state anxiety.
2) Pranayama yoga would have an effect on trait anxiety.
- 3 -
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
1. Yoga
Yoga is the oldest system of personal development encompassing body,
mind, and spirit. The word yoga is derived from the Sanskrit root Yuj,
which means to join or to yoke. In philosophical terms, yoga refers to the
union of the individual self with the universal self(Hadi, 2007). Yoga is
based on ancient theories, observations and principles of the mind-body
connections. Yoga refers to traditional physical and mental disciplines. For
many years in India, and currently in the western world, yogic breathing
exercises(pranayama) have been used with varying success for the
treatment of chronic physiological and psychological disorders such as
asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and depression(Brown &
Gerbarg, 2005; Cooper et a.l., 2003; Pomidori et al., 2009). People practice
pranayama with different goals in mind; some for the purpose of relaxation
and spiritual gain, others with the hope that yogic breathing exercise will
provide physiological or psychological benefit. Traditional Ashtanga Yoga is
the name given to a set of practices compiled by the sage Patanjali some
time between 200 BC to 250 AD. Ashtanga yoga is translated from the
Sanskrit language as: Eight Limbs of Yoga(Hari Dass, 1999).
Modern day yoga practice has been discovered in the Western world by
many people. Hatha yoga has become increasingly popular in western
countries as a method for coping with stress and as a means of exercise
and fitness training(Schell et al., 1994). Yoga practices can also be used as
psycho-physiological stimuli to increase the secretion of melatonin which,
in turn, might be responsible for perceived well-being(Harinath et al.,
2004). During past few decades, pranayama is being discussed all over the
world, not only by yoga teachers, but also by the general public and by
- 4 -
Limbs of Yoga Meaning Definition
Yama Self-restraintHow we relate to
others.
Niyama RoutinesHow we relate to
ourselves.
AsanaPostures and
physical exercises
How we relate to
our body.
PranayamaUse of breathing to
achieve focus
How we relate to our
breath.
PratyaharaWithdrawal of mind
from sense organs
How we relate to
our sense organs.
Dharana ConcentrationHow we relate to
our mind.
Dhyana MeditationMoving beyond the
mind.
Samadhi EmancipationDeep realization and
inner union.
scientists.
Table 1. Eight Limbs of Yoga
Yoga is not magic or a feat of any kind, physical or mental. Yoga is
based on a sound philosophy and deep psychology(Krishnananda, 1981). It
is an educational process by which the human mind is trained to become
more and more natural and weaned from the unnatural conditions of life.
Yoga has particular concern with psychology, and, as a study of the ‘self’,
it transcends both general and abnormal psychology. The benefits of yoga
are intensely interwoven. “Change your posture and you change the way
you breathe. Change your breathing and you change your nervous system.
This is one of the great lessons of yoga: Everything is connected(Timothy
McCall, M.D www.drmccall.com).
- 5 -
2. Concept of Pranayama
Pranayama is an important anga(limb) of yoga. Prana is define as life
force or energy(in Japan = Qi, China = Chi). Ayama means to control flow
of life force through the body. Pranayama helps in controlling all the
functions of breathing namely inspiration, expiration, and retention.
Pranayama is one of the yogic techniques that can produce different
physiological responses in healthy individuals(Upadhyay et al., 2008).
Breathing techniques and patterns are regularly advocated for relaxing,
stress management, control of psycho physiological states(Ritz & Roth,
2003). Various respiratory patterns and maneuvers can provide striking
influences on the autonomic nervous system and may exacerbate or reduce
adverse responses to stressors. For example, an increased breathing rate is
a typical response to stressful situations(Grossman, 1983; Magarin, 1982).
The diaphragm is the most important muscle for inhalation. Diaphragmatic
breathing appears to lead to advantageous psychological effects through
autonomic nervous system activity. A slow, large-tidal-volume,
predominantly abdominal pattern of ventilation is associated at the
psychological level with emotional stability, sense of control over the
environment, calmness, a high level of physical and mental activity, and
relative absence of perceived or objective stressors(Grossman, 1983).
Pranayama is a science related to vital force supplying energy and
controlling the body mind complex. The mind, consisting of thoughts and
emotions is closely related to the breath. When the mind is calm and
relaxed, the breathing is smooth and slow and when the mind is stressed
breathing is fast and shallow(Shantikumarm, 1974). Pranayama aims at
normalizing and regulating the distribution of air throughout the whole
body.
- 6 -
2-1. Pranayama Techniques
1) Bhastrika pranayama(deep breathing), a complete breath technique,
also called three part breathing, slowly fills and empties the entire lung
capacity(Christensen, 1987; Samskrti & Veda, 1985; Satchidananda, 1970). A
smooth maximum inhalation is accomplished by first expanding the
abdomen and lower rib cage, then expanding the middle rib cage, and
finally expanding the upper rib cage. The abdomen naturally withdraws as
the chest is fully expanded. A slow maximum exhalation follows in the
reverse order sinking the upper chest, then the middle chest, and finally
pulling in the abdomen. The complete breath may be done in either a
sitting or a standing position. The mind is focused on the breath and the
release of tension during breathing. This technique is often done three to
five times at the beginning of the yoga breathing practices. Yoga texts
recommend this technique at other times to counter stress and refresh the
mind and body.
2) Kapalbhati pranayama(rapid exhalation), two rapid breathing
techniques are used in basic yogic practices(Samskrti & Franks, 1978;
Satchidananda, 1970). One technique is a quick short forced exhalation
using the abdominal muscles, followed by a slower automatic
diaphragmatic inhalation as the abdominal muscles are relaxed. The volume
of air is smaller than normal tidal volume. The other technique has the
same short forced exhalation, but the inhalation is also short and forced
using the diaphragm and extending the abdomen. These two techniques
will be referred to here as automatic inhalation and forced inhalation,
respectively. The automatic inhalation technique is more common. Both
techniques use nasal breathing and are done in a sitting position. The
mind is focused on breathing, particularly the abdominal contractions. For
- 7 -
both techniques, beginners repeat about ten to twenty cycles at a rate of
about one cycle per second. One complete breath technique is usually done
very slowly after the series of rapid cycles. After a short rest, the series
of cycles and complete breath may be repeated once or twice. Over a
period of several weeks or months the practicer may work up to two to
three cycles per second for a series of one hundred or even several
hundred cycles. In the advanced stages, breathing may be very vigorous
and the breath is held after a series of rapid cycles. Most yoga manuals
and instructors state that a person should stop and rest if any sensations
of dizziness or light headedness occur during rapid breathing. Also, rapid
breathing should not be done within about two hours after a meal. In more
advanced, vigorous practice, the stomach, bladder and bowels should be
empty.
3) Anulom-vilom pranayama(alternate nostril breathing) consists of slow
deep quiet breaths using one nostril at a time(Samskrti & Franks, 1978;
Satchidananda, 1970). The thumb and middle two fingers are used to close
off the nostrils. Three variations exist, depending on when the nostrils are
switched. In one variation, the active nostril is switched after each inhalation.
In the second variation, exhalation is through one nostril and inhalation
through the other. After a few cycles, the inhalation and exhalation nostrils
are reversed. The third variation switches nostrils after several breaths. For
all three techniques, each breath is as slow as comfortable using full lung
capacity as in the complete breath. A sitting position is used. Beginners
attempt to make the duration of inhalation and exhalation equal and do only
about six single nostril breaths between rests. With practice, the duration of
exhalation is slowly extended to twice the duration of inhalation and the
practice is continued for several minutes. The mind is focused on the slow
deep breathing in a manner similar to meditation. The advanced practice
- 8 -
continues for 10 to 20 minutes or longer with the breath held after inhalation
and/or exhalation. Yoga writings use a variety of terms for alternate nostril
breathing, including nadi shodhanam, nadi suddhi and sukha purvaka.
According to yoga tradition, alternate nostril breathing improves the
functioning, coordination and balance for two modes of cognitive activity
that are reasonably similar to current concepts of right and left hemispheric
brain functioning(Rama, Ballentine, & Ajaya, 1976). Ancient yoga writings
claim that the modes of mental activity are related to which nostril is
dominant or most open to air flow. Mental capabilities corresponding the left
hemisphere dominate when the right nostril is more open. Likewise, right
hemispheric mental capabilities dominate when the left nostril dominates.
Equal air flow through both nostrils represents a balance of the two mental
modes. Yoga tradition also claims that nostril dominance and corresponding
cognitive mode alternate approximately every one(Bhole & Karambelkar,
1968) or two hours(Rama 1986). According to these writings, the cycle
becomes erratic with emotional disturbance, irregular eating or sleeping
habits, and various other life style factors.
4) Bhramri pranayama(humming bee breath) consists of very slow
smooth maximum inhalation, followed by slow smooth maximum
exhalation. Air flow is restricted by keeping the glottis in the throat
partially closed, which results in a soft uniform low hissing sound. During
inhalation, the abdominal muscles are kept slightly contracted, resulting in
increased emphasis on maximum chest expansion. The technique is
continued for a few minutes initially. In more advanced practice the breath
is held after inhalation and sometimes after exhalation. The mind is
focused on breathing, particularly the low hissing sound. Bhramri was one
of the techniques that induced the large oscillations of heart rate and blood
pressure reported by Schmidt(1983).
- 9 -
3. Stress
Stress is a fact of everyday life. When people reach out for help, they
are often dealing with circumstances, situations, and stressors in their lives
that leave them feeling emotionally and physically overwhelmed. Many
people consider stress to be something that happens to them, an event
such as an injury or a job loss. Others think that stress is what happens
to our body, mind, and behaviour in response to an event(E.g. heart
pounding, anxiety, or nail biting). Stress can be a result of both positive
and negative experiences, and it is a necessary part of our daily lives.
From an evolutionary standpoint stress was necessary for survival(i.e.,
imagine hunting large prey on which one’s entire tribe is dependent) and
some stress continues to be a helpful part of our modern lives since it
motivates us to accomplish tasks or make needed changes. We all feel the
pressure of our environment during times of transition(i.e., at the time of
high school graduation) and in preparation for significant life events(i.e., in
anticipation of a job interview). Although, response to stress is often
adaptive(i.e., feeling stress before an exam may be a critical motivator in
studying for it), too much stress or an inability to cope with it can cause
negative emotional and physical symptoms. Hundred of scientific studies
have found that mind-body interventions, including yoga practices, are
effective in treating stress-related mental and physical disorders(Becker,
2000; Benson, 1996; Jacobs, 2001). Recent research has focused on cardiac
vagal tone as a marker of emotional regulation, psychologic
adaptation(Beauchaine, 2001; Sargunaraj, et al., 1996). The relationship
between breathing and emotion is bidirectional(Ley, 1999). Yogic breathing
provides a unique and powerful tool for adjusting imbalances in the
autonomic nervous system and thereby influencing a broad range of mental
and physical disorders(Sovik, 2000). Slow and deep breathing itself has a
- 10 -
calming effect on the mind and helps an individual to de-stress(Sandeep et
al., 2002). The physiological and psychological benefits of yoga have been
demonstrated in several studies(Selvamurthy et al., 1983; Bal & Singh,
2010; Bal, 2010). These studies have shown that regular practice of yoga
leads to improvement in physiological functions and human performance.
Yoga and pranayama may be as effective as or better than exercise at
improving a variety of health related outcome measures(Ross and Thomas,
2010) and as a result this study was undertaken to find out the effects of
a 6-week pranayama practice on stress levels.
3-1. Sources of Stress
1) The Environment – the environment can bombard with intense and
competing demands to adjust. Examples of environmental stressors include
weather, noise, pollution, traffic, unsafe and substandard housing, and
crime.
2) Social Stressors – we can experience multiple stressors arising from
the demands of the different social roles we occupy, such as parent,
spouse, and employee. Some examples of social stressors include deadlines,
financial problems, job interviews, presentations, loss of a loved one, &
divorce.
3) Physiological – situations and circumstances affecting our body can
be experienced as physiological stressors. Examples of physiological
stressors include rapid growth of adolescence, menopause, illness, aging,
giving birth, accidents, lack of exercise, poor nutrition, and sleep
disturbances.
- 11 -
Positive stress Negative stress
Motivates, focuses energy Causes anxiety or concern
Is short-term Can be short or long-term
Is perceived as within coping
abilities
Is perceived as outside of coping
abilities
Feel exciting Feels unpleasant
Improves performance
Decreases performance
Can lead to mental and physical
problems
4) Thoughts – our brain interprets and perceives situations as stressful,
difficult, painful, or pleasant. Some situations in life are stress provoking,
but it is our thoughts that determine whether they are a problem for us.
3-2. Stressors
Situations that are considered stress provoking are known as
stressors(Klinic Community Health Centre, 2010). Stress is not always a
bad thing. Stress is simply the body’s response to changes that create
taxing demands. Many professionals suggest that there is a difference
between what we perceive as positive stress and negative stress. In daily
life, we often use the term “stress” to describe negative situations. This
leads many people to believe that all stress is bad for us, which is not
true. In the present study, we focused on positive stress as well as
negative stress levels.
Table 2. Characteristics of Stress
When under stress, people find it difficult to maintain a healthy balance
between work and non-work life. At the same time, they may engage in
- 12 -
unhealthy activities, such as smoking, drinking and abusing drugs. Stress
may also affect the immune system, impairing people's ability to fight
infections(Leka, Stavroula, 2003).
4. Anxiety
Anxiety is a feeling that we commonly experience when faced with
stressful life events. Anxiety can be one of the most distressing emotions
that people feel. The root meaning of the word anxiety is 'to vex or
trouble'; in either presence or absence of psychological stress, anxiety can
create feelings of fear, worry, uneasiness, and dread(Bouras, & Holt,
2007). However, anxiety should not be confused with fear, it is more of a
dreaded feeling about something which appears intimidating and can
overcome an individual(Robin Marantz Henig, 2012). Common reactions to
anxiety include; sweaty palms, muscle tension, racing heart, or light
headedness. Anxiety is a psychological and physiological state characterized
by somatic, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral components. It is the
displeasing feeling of fear and concern(Davison, 2008). Anxiety is
considered to be a normal reaction to a stressor. It may help an individual
to deal with a demanding situation by prompting them to cope with it.
However, when anxiety becomes overwhelming, it may fall under the
classification of an anxiety disorder. The psychological factors, including
anxiety, contribute significantly not only to the pathogenesis of medical
illness, but also affect their course and may be a target for effective
intervention(Schattner, 2003). So it becomes important to reduce the level
of anxiety as a part of prevention and management of diseases. Among
the various approaches to reduce the level of anxiety, yoga is the one that
combines the physical elements of a healthy lifestyle with prescriptions for
abiding mental peace(Bijlani, 2003).
- 13 -
Experiment group Control group
Participant 8 7
Gender Female Female
Average age 39.12±3.04 years 39.28±1.97 years
Average weight 57.25±4.52 kg 54.00±5.35 kg
Psychologist
consultantnone one
III. METHOD
1. Study Participants
Fifteen healthy females volunteered in the study. They were assigned
into two groups: A(experimental N=8) and B(control N=7). Expect one
participant in the control group, none of the subjects ever consulted with a
psychologist.
Table 3. Subjects information
Figure 1. Subjects
- 14 -
Factors Sub-factors Total Numbers Question no.
Stress
Positive Stress 7 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 13
Negative Stress 7 1, 2, 3, 8, 11, 12, 14
Anxiety
State-Anxiety 20 1-20
Trait-Anxiety 20 1-20
2. Inventory:
The Stress scale(Cohen, Kamarch & Mercelstein, 1983) for positive and
negative stress levels and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory: STAI(Spielberger,
1970) were used to analyze the statistical results of this study.
The questions in Stress scale subjects were asked about feelings and
thoughts during the last month. In each case, subjects were asked to
indicate how often they felt or thought a certain way. For example, in the
last month, how often have you been upset because of something that
happened unexpectedly? The answer was 1(never) to 4(very often). The
best approach was to answer fairly quickly.
The State-Anxiety scale consists of twenty statements that evaluate how
respondents feel "right now, at this moment." For example, I feel upset.
The answer was 1(not at all) to 4(very much so).
The Trait-Anxiety scale consists of twenty statements that assess how
respondents feel "generally." For example, I am a steady person. The
answer was 1(almost never) to 4(almost always). Subjects were instructed
to attempt all the questions.
Table 4. Questionnaire factors
- 15 -
3. Experimental Protocol:
Before the experiment formally began, all subjects gathered at the
venue(Taekwondo gym) and got a brief introduction of the study and
methodology of pranayama. Subjects were divided into two groups. Both
groups were requested not to participate in any physical activity until the
end of the study. Experimental group was scheduled to practice pranayama,
three times weekly for 60 minutes a day under guidance. The control
group did not receive any yoga training and requested to follow the
protocol of the study.
Table 5. Study design
- 16 -
3-1. Weekly program:
First day, a written consent was undertaken from the subjects. Pre test
of questionnaire was filled as per conditions. Control group left with their
daily routine. Experimental group positively practiced the pranayama
exercises for 60 minutes under the guidance of researcher. This routine
was followed obediently by subjects for 6-weeks. Control group was
contacted on regular basis. Last day of the study, after experimental group
finished the pranayama session, both groups gathered again and filled out
the post test questionnaire as per conditions. Open discussion was held and
written comments were collected from experimental group.
Table 6. Weekly schedule
- 17 -
3-2. Exercise program:
Starting with light warm up exercises from toe to head in sitting
position. There were four pranayama(breathing exercises) practiced
including breaks in between for yoga asana(postures or stretching) to relax
the body and to prevent the pressure in the joints and back.
Table 7. Breathing exercises and figures
- 18 -
3-3. Yoga asana(postures) practised in the study during rest:
Shav-asana(pose of the corpse): It is the primary position used in
yoga for relaxing, one is which we attempt to literally mimic the "lifeless
state" by completely letting go all the conscious tension. Lie down straight
with the back on the ground.
Figure 2. Pose of the corpse
Bal-asana(Child's Resting Pose): It's a simple relaxation position. Lie
down with the stomach on the ground. Keep both the hands under the
head. Fold the right knee slightly, the way a child sleeps.
Figure 3. Child's resting pose
- 19 -
Markat-asana(The Monkey Pose): Lie down and spread both the
hands at the shoulder level. The palm should be facing the ceiling. Fold
both the legs at the knees and keep them near the hips. Knees turn
towards right side. Left knee and ankle should rest on the right knee and
ankle. Turn the neck to the opposite side.
Figure 4. The monkey pose
Makar-asana(crocodile pose): Lie down on stomach. Joint the elbows
of both the hands, making a stand and place the palms under the chin.
Lift the chest up and keep the elbows and legs together. While inhaling,
first fold one leg at a time and then both the legs together.
Figure 5. Crocodile pose
- 20 -
Bhunjang-asana(Cobra Pose): Lie down on stomach. Keep the palms
on the ground and both the hands near the sides of the chest. The
shoulders should be lifted up. The legs should be straight and the toes
should be joined together. Inhale and slowly lift the chest and head
upwards.
Figure 6. Cobra pose
Salabh-asana(Grasshopper Pose): Lie on stomach and straighten the
right hand and keep the left hand on the back. While inhaling, lift the
head and right hand from the front, lift the left leg above the ground level.
Similarly, repeat from the left side.
Figure 7. The grasshopper pose
- 21 -
Pavanmukt-asana(Wind-Relieving Pose): Lie down straight and rest
the right knee on the chest. Interlock both the hands and keep them on
the knee. While exhaling press the knee on the chest. Life the head such
that the nose touches the knee. In the same way with the other leg and
then both the legs together.
Figure 8. The wind-relieving pose
- 22 -
4. Statistical Analysis:
The data handling of the test results was used by statistical program,
SPSS 18.0. Conventional statistical methods were used to calculate
mean(M) and standard deviation(SD). Independent T-test and Paired
T-test were applied to determine the difference in mean of stress and
anxiety within 2 groups. Statistical significance was accepted at α=.05.
- 23 -
Table 8. The difference in positive stress between groups pre and post test
test group N M SD t-value df p
precon 7 2.838 .567
-.745 13 .470exp 8 3.035 .454
postcon 7 2.918 .481
-.446 13 .663exp 8 3.052 .651
Table 9. The difference in positive stress between trials in groups
trial Npre post
t-value df pM SD M SD
con 7 2.838 .567 2.918 .481 -1.069 6 .326
exp 8 3.035 .454 3.052 .651 -.093 7 .929
IV. RESULTS
1. The effect of pranayama yoga on positive stress
1) The difference in positive stress between groups pre and post test.
The result represents the difference in positive stress between control
and experimental group in pre and post test by using Independent T-test
analysis(Table 8). Statistically, there were no significant changes occur in
positive stress levels between groups pre and post test(p>.05).
2) The difference in positive stress between trials in group.
Results of the analysis showed the difference in positive stress by using
Paired T-test(Table 9). Standard value of statistics was higher in the
test(p>.05). Thus, there was no significant effect of 6-weeks pranayama
practice on positive stress.
- 24 -
Table 10. The difference in negative stress between groups pre and post test
test group N M SD t-value df p
precon 7 2.591 .484
-.223 13 .827exp 8 2.660 .674
postcon 7 2.550 .460
-.261 13 .798exp 8 2.606 .372
Table 11. The difference in negative stress between trials in groups
trial N
pre post
t-value df p
M SD M SD
con 7 2.591 .484 2.550 .460 .220 6 .833
exp 8 2.660 .674 2.606 .372 .331 7 .750
2. The effect of pranayama yoga on negative stress
1) The difference in negative stress between groups pre and post test.
The result represents the difference in negative stress between control
and experimental group in pre and post test by using Independent T-test
analysis(Table 10). Statistically, there were no significant changes occur in
negative stress levels between groups pre and post test(p>.05).
2) The difference in negative stress between trials in group.
Results of the analysis showed the difference in positive stress by using
Paired T-test(Table 11). Standard value of statistics was higher in the
test(p>.05). Thus, there was no significant effect of 6-weeks pranayama
practice on negative stress.
- 25 -
Table 13. The difference in state anxiety between trials in groups
trial Npre post
t-value df pM SD M SD
con 7 2.321 .186 2.464 .080 -2.414 6 .052
exp 8 2.393 .156 2.443 .156 -.637 7 .544
Table 12. The difference in state anxiety between groups pre and post test
test group N M SD t-value df p
precon 7 2.321 .186
-.816 13 .429exp 8 2.398 .156
postcon 7 2.464 .080
.312 13 .760exp 8 2.443 .156
3. The effect of pranayama yoga on state anxiety
1) The difference in state anxiety between groups pre and post test.
The result represents the difference in state anxiety between control and
experimental group by using Independent T-test analysis(Table 12).
Statistically, there were no significant changes occur in state anxiety
between groups pre and post test(p>.05).
2) The difference in state anxiety between trials in group.
Results of the analysis showed the difference in state anxiety between
trials in control and experimental group by using Paired T-test(Table 13).
Standard value of statistics was higher in the test(p>.05). Thus, there was
no significant effect of 6-weeks pranayama practice on state anxiety.
- 26 -
Table 14. The difference in trait anxiety between groups in pre and post test
test group N M SD t-value df p
precon 7 2.407 .220
-1.092 13 .295exp 8 2.518 .175
postcon 7 2.450 .200
.263 13 .797exp 8 2.425 .069
Table 15. The difference in trait anxiety between trials in groups
trial Npre post
t-value df pM SD M SD
con 7 2.407 .220 2.450 .200 -1.000 6 .356
exp 8 2.518 .175 2.425 .169 2.525 7 .040
4. The effect of pranayama yoga on trait anxiety
1) The difference in trait anxiety between groups pre and post test.
The result represents the difference in trait anxiety between control
group and experimental group by using Independent T-test analysis(Table
14). Statistically, there were no significant changes occur in trait anxiety
between groups in pre and post test(p>.05).
2) The difference in trait anxiety between trials in group.
Results of the analysis showed the difference in trait anxiety by using
Paired T-test(Table 15). There were no changes occur between pre and
post test in control group trait anxiety(p>.05). However, in experimental
group there was a positive difference occur between pre and post
test(t=2.525, p<.05). Trait anxiety level in the post test(M=2.425) was lower
than the pre test(M=2.518). Therefore, results showed that 6-weeks
pranayama practice have positive effects on trait anxiety.
- 27 -
V. DISCUSSION AND SUGGESTION
Yoga practices are known to significantly improve health status, and
reduce stress and anxiety(Ross & Thomas, 2010). Since yoga aims at
perfection of the body and mind, it is natural to ask whether the progress
towards perfection is reflected in objective reproducible changes in
physiological variables. A study of Bhimani, N. T., Kulkarni, N. B.,
Kowale, A., & Salvi, S.(2011) showed the stress level has reduced after 2
months of practicing various pranayama as evident by decrease in total
stress score which is highly significant. However, the present study of
6-weeks pranayama found no significant difference in stress levels. The
duration of the current study could be insufficient for positive outcome in
stress levels. Therefore, future researchers should consider extending the
duration of the experiment in stress and breathing related studies.
This study shows that measurable improvement in the anxiety scores
occurs within 6-weeks as the result of an intervention that combines
practice of pranayama, asanas, relaxation techniques(shavasana and
meditation). Each of these measures individually can also influence the
anxiety levels favorably. Yogic relaxation can check sympathetic over
activity(Vempati R. P., & Telles S., 2002). The objective manifestations of
anxiety; a racing heart, palpitations, tremors, sweating, increased blood
pressure, dry mouth, avoidance behavior, signs of restlessness, and
heightened responsiveness decrease and slowly disappear. Prior studies
have also reported a significant reduction in the scores of trait anxiety
following meditation(Eppley KR, Abrams Al, Shear. 1989) and in state
anxiety following muscle relaxation techniques and listening to
music(Stoudenmire, J. A. 1975). Results of the current study is also
supported by(Brown R. P., & Gerbarg P. L., 2005) who suggest a sequence
breathing techniques(ujjayi, bhastrika, and sudarshan kriya) can alleviate
- 28 -
anxiety, depression, everyday stress, post-traumatic stress, and
stress-related medical illnesses. A study by Javnbakht, M., Hejazi Kenari,
& Ghasemi, M.(2009) concluded a 2-month yoga class can lead to
significant reduction in perceived levels of anxiety in women who suffer
from anxiety disorders. Another study focused on effects of Tai chi/yoga
on anxiety claimed similar results in self-reported anxiety(Tiffany Field,
Miguel Diego, & Maria Hernandez-Reif, 2010). Chris C. Streeter, Theodore
H. et al.(2010) reported: Effects of Yoga Versus Walking on Mood,
Anxiety, and Brain GABA Levels associated with greater improvement in
mood and anxiety than metabolically matched walking exercise. This was
the first study to demonstrate that increased thalamic GABA levels and
improvements in mean scores on mood and anxiety scales. Michael W.
Beets(2010) reported significant Effects of Yoga on Stress, Depression, and
Health-Related Quality of Life in a Nonclinical, Bi-Ethnic Sample of
Adolescents. A pilot study on State anxiety, psychological stress and
positive well-being responses to yoga and aerobic exercise in people with
schizophrenia demonstrated both yoga and aerobic exercise result in state
anxiety, stress reductions and increases in subjective well-being(Davy
Vancampfort, Marc De Hert, et al., 2011). These findings have implications
for add-on physiotherapist in patients with schizophrenia.
In summary, the data thus far are suggestive of beneficial outcomes
from the use of yoga as an intervention for stress and anxiety; yoga may
be considered as a possible adjunctive therapy for those experiencing
stress and anxiety.
- 29 -
VI. CONCLUSION
The overall goal of this master's thesis was to find the effects of
pranayama yoga on stress and anxiety.
1. In stress levels, there were no significant changes occur within
6-weeks of pranayama practice.
2. Results showed positive effects in anxiety conditions on
experimental-group subjects who practiced pranayama for 6-weeks.
This study suggest that yoga could be an effective treatment of anxiety
and that is has the potential to play an important therapeutic role in
addition to or indeed, instead of medication. It may also be useful for
treatment of patients affected by anxiety who would never accept drug
therapy.
- 30 -
REFERENCES
Bal, B. S. (2010). Effect of anulom vilom and bhastrika pranayama on the
vital capacity and maximal ventilatory volume. J. Phy. Educ. Sport
Manage., 1(1), 11-15.
Bal, B. S., & Singh K. (2010). Effects of 4-week rope mallakhamb training
on respiratory indices in adolescent girls. Biomed. Hum. Kinetics, 2,
70-73.
Beauchaine, T. (2001). Vagal tone, development, and Gray's motivational
theory: toward an integrated model of autonomic nervous system
functioning in psychopathology. Dev. psychopathol., 13, 183-214.
Becker, I. (2000). Uses of yoga in psychiatry and medicine. In
Complementary and Alternative Medicine and Psychiatry by Muskin
PR, ed., 19, 107-145.
Behera, D. (1998). Yoga therapy in chronic bronchitis. J. Assoc. Physician
India, 46, 207-208.
Benson, T. (1996). Timeless Healing: The Power and Biology of Belief,
222-234.
Bhargava, R., Gogate, M. G., & Mascarenhas, J. F. (1988). Autonomic
responses to breath holding and its variations following pranayama.
Indian J. Physiol, Pharmaco., 32, 257-264.
Bhimani, N. T., Kulkarni, N. B., Kowale, A., & Salvi, S. (2011). Effect of
Pranayama On Stress and Cardiovascular Autonomic Tone &
Reactivity, 2, 48-54.
Bijlani, R. L. (2003). Scientific medicine shows signs of a paradigm shift.
New Approach Med. Health(NAMAH), 11(1), 28–40.
Bisson, J., & Andrew, M. (2009). Psychological treatment of post-traumatic
stress disorder, 8-9.
Booth-LaForce, C., Thurston, R. C., & Taylor, M. R. (2007). A pilot study
- 31 -
of a Hatha yoga treatment for menopausal symptoms. Maturitas. 57,
286-295.
Bouras, N. & Holt, G. (2007). Psychiatric and Behavioral Disorders in
Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities.
Brown, R. P., & Gerbarg, P. L. (2005). Suarshan kriya yogic breathing in
the treatment of stress, anxiety, and depression. 11, 189-201.
Brown, R. P., & Gerbarg, P. L. (2005). Sudarshan Kriya Yogic breathing in
the treatment of stress, anxiety, and depression. J. Alt. Complement
Med. 11, 711-717.
Chopra, D., & Simon, D. (2004). The seven spiritual laws of yoga.
Christensen, A. (1987). The American Yoga Association Beginners Manual.
New York: Simon and Schuster.
Christopher, J. W. (1998). Yoga perfect balance.
Cohen, S., Kamarch, T., & Mermelstein R. (1988). A global measure of
perceived stress. J. Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385-396.
Collet, P. W., Roussos, C., & Macklem, P. T. (1988). Respiratory
mechanics. In J.F. Murray & J.A. Nadel (Eds.). Textbook of
respiratory med., pp.85-128.
Cooper, S., Oborne, J., Newton, S., Harrison, V., Thompson, C. J., Lewis S.,
& Tattersfield, A. (2003). Effect of two breathing exercises(Buteyko
and pranayama) in asthma: a randomized controlled trial. Thorax, 58,
674-679.
Da-Silva, G. D., Lorenzi-Filho, G., & Lage, L. V. (2007). Effects of yoga
and the addition of Tui Na in patients with fibromyalgia. J. Altern..
Complement Med. 13, 1107-1113.
Davison, G. C. (2008). Abnormal Psychology, Toronto: Veronica Visentin,
154.
Eppley, K. R., Abrams Al., Shear. (1989). J. differential effects of relaxation
techniques on trait anxiety. a metaanalysis. J. Clin. Psychol. 45(6):
- 32 -
957-974.
Gangadhar, B. N., Janakiramaiah, N., Sudarshan, B., & Shety, K. T. (2000).
Stress-Related Biochemical Effects of Sudarshan Kriya Yoga in
Depressed Patients Study#6. Bio. Psychiatry, UNNGO Mental Health
Committee.
Grossman, P. (1983) Respiration, Stress, and Cardiovascular function.
Psychophysiology, 20, 284-300.
Grossman, P., de Swart, J. C. G., & Defares, P. B. (1985). A controlled
study of a breathing therapy for treatment of hyperventilation
syndrome. J. Psychosomatic Res., 29, 49-58.
Gupta, N., Khera, S., Vempati, R. P, Sharma, R., & Bijlan, R. L. (2006).
Effect Of Yoga Based Lifestyle Intervention On State and Trait
Anxiety. Indian J. Physiol. Pharmacol, 50(1), 41–47.
Gupta, N., Khera, S., Vempati, R. P., Sharma, R., & Bijlani, R. L. (2006).
Effect of yoga based life style intervention on state and trait anxiety.
Indian J. Physiol Pharmacol 50(1), 41-47.
Hadi, N. (2007). Effects of hatha yoga on well-being in healthy adults in
Shiraz, Islamic Republic of Iran. East Mediterr. Health J. 13, 829-837.
Hancock, C. S., Mortimer, J. B., & Eckert, K. (2007). A randomised
comparative trial of yoga and relaxation to reduce stress and
anxiety. Complement Ther. Med., 15, 77-83.
Hari Dass, B. (1999). The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.
Harinath, K., Malhotra, A. S., Pal, K., Prasad, R., Kumar, R., Kain, T. C.,
Rail, L., & Sawhney, R. C. (2004). Effects of hatha yoga and omkar
meditation on cardiorespiratory performance, psy. profile, and
melatonin secretion. J. Altern. Complement Med., 10, 261-268.
Henig, M. R. (2011). The biology of anxiety.
Iyengar, B.K.S. (1997). Light on Yoga.
Jacobs, G. D. (2001). Clinical applications of the relaxation response and
- 33 -
mind-body interventions. J Altern. Complement Med., 7, 93-101.
Kennedy, J. E. (1990). Yoga Breathing Techniques: Implications for Stress
Management, Health, and Psycho-physiological Research, Unpublished
Manuscript.
Klinic Community Health Centre. (2010). Stress & Stress Management.
Krishnananda. (1981). The yoga system.
Kumar, L. R. (2011). Role Of Anuloma Viloma Pranayama in Reducing
Stress In Chronic Alcoholics. Pak J. Physiol. 7(2), 11-16.
Ley, R. (1999). The modification of breathing behavior. Pavlovian and
operant control in emotion and cognition, 23, 441-479.
Liebert, R., & Morris, L. W. (1967). Cognitive and Emotional Components
of Test Anxiety. 20, 975-978.
McKay, J. A. A. (2007). The Effect of Consistent Practice Of Yogic
Breathing Exercises On The Human Cardiorespiratory System, 19-23.
Miles, W. R. (1964). Oxygen consumption during three yoga-type breathing
patterns. J. Applied Phy., 19, 75-82.
Muktibodhananda, S. (2006). Hatha Yoga Pradipika.
Nooryan, kh., Najafi, sh., & Nobandegani, M. (2012). The Effect of Hatha,
Pranayama, and Raja yoga on the Feeling of Fatigue of Women
Suffering from Multiple Sclerosis. J. American Sci. 8(2), 251-254.
Pattabhi, K. (2000). Ashtanga yoga.
Pomidori, L., Campigotto, F., Amatya, T.,M., Bernardi, L., & Cogo, A.
(2009). Efficacy and tolerability of yoga breathing in patients with
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J. Cardiopulm. Rehabi. Prev.
29, 133-137.
Rama, S. (1986). Path of fire and light: Advanced practices of yoga.
Honesdale, PA. Himalayan Int. Institute.
Rama, S., Ballentine, R., & Ajaya, S. (1976). Yoga and psychotherapy.
Honesdale, PA. Himalayan Int. Institute.
- 34 -
Ramacharaka. (1904). The yogi philosophy of physical well-being.
Ramdev. (2005). Pranayama: Its philosophy and practice.
Rao, S. (1968). Oxygen consumption during yoga-type breathing at
altitudes of 520m and 3,800m. Indian J. Med. Res., 56, 701-705.
Ritz, T., & Roth, W. T. (2003). Behavioral intervention in asthma. Behavior
Modification. 27(5), 710-730.
Roggla, G., Kapiotis, S., & Roggla, H. (2001). Yoga and chemoreflex
sensitivity. Lancet, 357:807.
Ross, A, Thomas, S. J. (2010). The health benefits of yoga and exercise: a
Review of Comparison Studies. J. Altern. Complement. Med.., 16,
3-12.
Samskrti, & Franks, J. (1978). Hatha yoga manual II. Honesdale, PA: The
Himalayan International Institute.
Samskrti, & Veda. (1985). Hatha yoga manual I. Honesdale, PA: The
Himalayan International Institute.
Sandeep, B., Pandey, U. S., & Verma, N. S. (2002). Improvement in
oxidative status with yogic breathing in young healthy males. Indian
J. Physiol. Pharmacol., 46, 349-354.
Sargunaraj, D. Lehrer, P. M., Hochron, S. M., Rausch, L., Edelberg, R., &
Porges, S. W. (1996). Cardiac rhythm effects of .125-Hz paced
breathing through a resistive load: Implications for paced breathing
therapy and the polyvagal theory. Biofeedback Self Regul, 21,
131-147.
Satchidananda, S. S. (1970). Integral yoga hatha. New York: Henry Holt.
Schattner, A. (2003). The emotional dimension and the biological paradigm
of illness: time for a change. Q. J. Med., 96, 617–621.
Schell, F. J., Allolio, B., & Schonecke, O. W. (1994). Physiological and
psychological effects of Hatha-Yoga exercise in healthy women. Int.
J. Psychosom., 41, 46-52.
- 35 -
Selvamurthy, W., Nayar, H. S., Joseph, N. T., Joseph, S. (1983).
Physiological effects of yogic practice. NIMHANS J., 1, 71-80.
Sequeria, W. (1999). Yoga in treatment of carpal-tunnel syndrome. Lancet,
353, 689–90.
Shantikumar. (1974). The science of yogic breathing(Pranayama).
Singh, A., Singh, S., & Singh S. (2011). Effects of 6-week yogic exercises
training on blood pressure. Indian J. Sci. Technology, 4, 462-463.
Sivananda. (1999). Yoga in Daily life.
Sovik, R. (2000). The science of breathing- The yogic view. Progr Brain
Res. 122, 491-505.
Spielberger, C. D. Gorsuch, R. L., & Lushene. R. E. (1970). Manuel for the
state-trait anxiety inventory, Palo Alto.
Srinivasan, T. M. (1991). Pranayama and Brain Correlates: Ancient Science
of Life, XI;(1 & 2), 1-6.
Stanescu, D. (1990). Yoga breathing exercises and bronchial asthma.
Lancet. 336(8724), 1192.
Stavroula, Leka. (2003). Work Organisation & Stress. World Health
Organization.
Stoudenmire, J. A. (1975). Comparison of muscle relaxation training and
music in the reduction of state and trait anxiety. J. Clin. Psychol.
31(3): 49-492.
Suarez, V. (2002). Anxiety Study at Lance Alternative Program; Science of
Breath. International Symposium on Pranayam & Consciousness.
Upadhyay, D. K., Malhotra, V., Sarkar, D., & Prajapati, R. (2008). Effect of
alternate nostril breathing exercise on cardio-respiratory functions.
Nepal Med. Coll., J. 10, 25-27.
Vempati, R. P., Telles, S. (2002). Yoga-based guided relaxation reduces
sympathetic activity judged from baseline levels. Psycho Rep. 90:
487-494.
- 36 -
Weintraub, A. (2004). Yoga for Depression: A Compassionate Guide to
Relieve Suffering Through Yoga.
Wood, C. (1993). Mood change and perceptions of vitality: a comparison of
the effects of relaxation, visualization and yoga. J. Royal Society
Med. 86, 254-258.
- 37 -
The Effects of Pranayama Yoga on
Stress and Anxiety
챠우터리 쟈틴
체육학과
대구대학교 대학원
지도교수 김 용 규
(국문초록)
스트레스와 불안은 많은 만성적인 질병을 유발시키고, 삶의 질을 감소시키는
요인이 되기도 한다. 프라나야마(pranayama) 요가(호흡 운동)는 불안과 스트
레스를 포함하는 많은 건강적인 요인들을 향상시키는 것으로 보여 왔었다. 이
연구의 목적은 스트레스와 불안이 프라나야마 요가 운동을 통해 효과가 나타
나는 것을 검증하기 위한 것이다. 15명의 건강한 여성을 대상으로 실험군
(n=8)과 비교군(n=7)으로 나누어 6주 동안 실시하였으며, 요가 프로그램은 일
주일에 3번 60분 동안으로 구성되었다. 두 집단 모두 실험이 종료될 때까지
어떠한 신체적인 활동에 참여하지 못하도록 요구하였다. 요가를 통한 효과를
보기위해 사전 사후에 긍정적인 스트레스와 부정적인 스트레스 그리고 불안상
태를 측정하는 설문지를 사용하여 측정하였다. 수집된 모든 데이터는 SPSS
18.0 프로그램을 이용하였고, 통계적인 유의수준은 α=.05로 설정하였다. 이 연
구에서 나타난 결과들을 살펴보면 첫째, 6주간 프라나야마 요가 참여 후에 긍
정적 스트레스 수준은 실험군과 통제군 간에 유의한 차이가 나타나지 않았다.
그리고 6주간 프라나야마 요가 참여 전과 후 간에 실험군과 통제군 모두에서
긍정적 스트레스 수준은 유의한 차이가 나타나지 않았다. 둘째, 6주간 프라나
야마 요가 참여 후에 부정적 스트레스 수준은 실험군과 통제군 간에 유의한
차이가 나타나지 않았다. 그리고 6주간 프라나야마 요가 참여 전과 후 간에
- 38 -
실험군과 통제군 모두에서 부정적 스트레스 수준은 유의한 차이가 나타나지
않았다. 6주간 프라나야마 요가 참여 후에 상태불안 수준은 실험군과 통제군
간에 유의한 차이가 나타나지 않았다. 그리고 6주간 프라나야마 요가 참여 전
과 후 간에 실험군의 상태불안 수준은 유의한 차이가 나타나지 않았다. 넷째,
6주간 프라나야마 요가 참여 후에 특성불안 수준은 실험군과 통제군 간에 유
의한 차이가 나타나지 않았다. 그리고 6주간 프라나야마 요가 참여 전과 후
간에 실험군의 특성불안 수준은 6주간 프라나야마 요가에 참여 전보다 참여
후가 유의하게 낮게 나타났다. 이러한 결론을 통해 프라나야마 요가는 심리적
안정화에 기여할 수 있는 것으로 생각된다.
- 39 -
<APPENDIX>
Items for Perceived Stress Scale
For each question choose from the following
alternatives:Never
Almostnever
Sometimes
OftenVeryoften
1)In the last month, how often have you been upset
because of something that happened unexpectedly?① ② ③ ④ ⑤
2)In the last month, how often have you felt that you
were unable to control the important things in your life?① ② ③ ④ ⑤
3)In the last month, how often have you felt nervous and
"stressed"?① ② ③ ④ ⑤
4)In the last month, how often have you dealt
successfully with day to day problems and annoyances?① ② ③ ④ ⑤
5)
In the last month, how often have you felt that you
were effectively coping with important changes that
were occurring in your life?
① ② ③ ④ ⑤
6)In the last month, how often have you felt confident
about your ability to handle your personal problems?① ② ③ ④ ⑤
7)In the last month, how often have you felt that things
were going your way?① ② ③ ④ ⑤
8)In the last month, how often have you found that you
could not cope with all the things that you had to do?① ② ③ ④ ⑤
9)In the last month, how often have you been able to
control irritations in your life?① ② ③ ④ ⑤
10)In the last month, how often have you felt that you
were on top of things?① ② ③ ④ ⑤
11)
In the last month, how often have you been angered
because of things that happened that were outside of
your control?
① ② ③ ④ ⑤
12)In the last month, how often have you found yourself
thinking about things that you have to accomplish?① ② ③ ④ ⑤
13)In the last month, how often have you been able to
control the way you spend your time?① ② ③ ④ ⑤
14)
In the last month, how often have you felt difficulties
were piling up so high that you could not overcome
them?
① ② ③ ④ ⑤
NOTE: Items 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10 and 13 are scored in the reverse direction.
- 40 -
- 41 -
- 42 -
Kor-Ver.
아래는 지난 한달(1개월)동안 자신이 생활하면서 겪고 느꼈던 상황을 알아
보려 합니다. 가장 가까운 내용에 √ 표 해주시길 바랍니다.
내 용전혀없었다
거의없었다
가끔있었다
자주있었다
상당히자주있었다
1)지난 한달동안 예상하지 못한 일이 생겨서 기분 나빠진
적이 얼마나 있었나요?① ② ③ ④ ⑤
2)지난 한 달 동안 중요한 일들을 통제할 수 없다고 느낀
적은 얼마나 있었나요?① ② ③ ④ ⑤
3)지난 한 달 동안 초조하거나 스트레스가 쌓인다고 느낀
적은 얼마나 있었나요?① ② ③ ④ ⑤
4)지난 한 달 동안 짜증나거나 성가신 일들을 성공적으로
처리한 적이 얼마나 있었나요?① ② ③ ④ ⑤
5)지난 한 달 동안 생활 속에서 일어난 중요한 변화들을
효과적으로 대처한 적이 얼마나 있었나요?① ② ③ ④ ⑤
6)지난 한 달 동안 개인적인 문제를 처리하는 능력에 대
해 자신감을 느낀 적은 얼마나 있었나요?① ② ③ ④ ⑤
7)지난 한 달 동안 자신의 뜻대로 일이 진행된다고 느낀
적은 얼마나 있었나요?① ② ③ ④ ⑤
8)지난 한 달 동안 해야 할 모든 일들을 다 대처할 수 없
다고 느낀 적은 얼마나 있었나요?① ② ③ ④ ⑤
9)지난 한 달 동안 생활 속에서 짜증나는 일들을 얼마나
컨트롤 할 수 있었나요?① ② ③ ④ ⑤
10)지난 한 달 동안 매사를 잘 컨트롤하고 있다고 느낀 적
이 얼마나 있었나요?① ② ③ ④ ⑤
11)지난 한 달 동안 당신이 통제할 수 없는 범위에서 발생
한 일 때문에 화가난 적이 얼마나 있었나요?① ② ③ ④ ⑤
12)지난 한 달 동안 끝마쳐야 할 일들을 생각한 적이 얼마
나 있었나요?① ② ③ ④ ⑤
13)지난 한 달 동안 시간을 보내는 방식을 컨트롤 할 수
있었던 적이 얼마나 있었나요?① ② ③ ④ ⑤
14)지난 한 달 동안 어려운 일이 너무 많이 쌓여서 극복할
수 없다고 느낀 적이 얼마나 있었나요?① ② ③ ④ ⑤
- 43 -
Kor-Ver.
아래는 지금 당신이 느끼는 현재의 정서(기분)을 알아보기 위한 것입니다. 한 문장
도 빠짐없이 √ 표 해주시길 바랍니다.
내 용전혀 그렇지없다
그렇지 않다
그렇다매우 그렇다
1) 나는 평온하다. ① ② ③ ④
2) 나는 안전하다 ① ② ③ ④
3) 나는 긴장되어 있다. ① ② ③ ④
4) 나는 자주 후회한다. ① ② ③ ④
5) 나는 편안함을 느낀다. ① ② ③ ④
6) 나는 언짢다. ① ② ③ ④
7) 나는 닥쳐올지 모르는 불행을 걱정하고 있다. ① ② ③ ④
8) 나는 쉬고 있는 느낌이다. ① ② ③ ④
9) 나는 불안하다. ① ② ③ ④
10) 나는 포근한 느낌이 든다. ① ② ③ ④
11) 나는 자신감이 없다. ① ② ③ ④
12) 나는 초조하다. ① ② ③ ④
13) 나는 안절 부절 하다. ① ② ③ ④
14) 나는 아직 긴장되어 있다. ① ② ③ ④
15) 나는 느긋한 기분이다. ① ② ③ ④
16) 나는 만족스럽다. ① ② ③ ④
17) 나는 걱정이 많다. ① ② ③ ④
18) 나는 심하게 흥분되어 몸이 떨릴 지경이다. ① ② ③ ④
19) 나는 즐겁다. ① ② ③ ④
20) 나는 유쾌하다. ① ② ③④
- 44 -
Kor-Ver.
아래는 당신이 평상시에 느끼는 현재의 정서(기분)를 알아보기 위한 것입니다. 한
문장도 빠짐없이 √ 표 해주시길 바랍니다.
내 용전혀 그렇지없다
그렇지 않다
그렇다매우 그렇다
1) 나는 유쾌하다. ① ② ③ ④
2) 나는 쉽게 피곤을 느낀다. ① ② ③ ④
3) 나는 쉽게 울고 싶은 기분이다. ① ② ③ ④
4) 나는 남들처럼 행복했으면 좋겠다. ① ② ③ ④
5) 나는 결정이 더디어서 매사에 손해를 본다. ① ② ③ ④
6) 나는 느긋하다. ① ② ③ ④
7) 나는 평온하고 침착하다. ① ② ③ ④
8) 나는 어려움이 많아서 감당해 내지 못할 것 같다. ① ② ③ ④
9) 나는 대수롭지 않은 일에 너무 걱정하는 편이다. ① ② ③ ④
10) 나는 행복하다. ① ② ③ ④
11) 나는 매사를 어렵게 생각하는 편이다. ① ② ③ ④
12) 나는 자신감이 부족하다. ① ② ③ ④
13) 나는 안전하다. ① ② ③ ④
14) 나는 위기나 어려움을 피하려고 애쓴다. ① ② ③ ④
15) 나는 우울하다. ① ② ③ ④
16) 나는 만족스럽다. ① ② ③ ④
17) 나는 사소한 생각으로 마음을 쓰고 괴로워한다. ① ② ③ ④
18) 나는 한번 낙담하면 헤어 나오기 힘들다. ① ② ③ ④
19) 나는 쉽게 동요하지 않는다. ① ② ③ ④
20) 나는 당연한 문제들로 긴장되고 짜증스럽다. ① ② ③ ④
- 45 -
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I attribute all my achievements in life to Late: Anita Devi(my mother)
for the moral, intellectual and physical education I received from her. To
Mr. Naresh Pal Singh(my father) who always provides me needed
guidance and support. Thanks to Natalie Jean McLean(my loving wife)
who has been giving me an enormous amount of insight in all the
circumstances. Poonam Shokeen has been a mentor and an adorable sister.
Over the past five years in Korea, I have received support and
encouragement from a great number of individuals. I would like to thank
my professors team: Dr. Kim Yong-Kyu, Dr. Ko Seong-Kyeong, and Dr.
Lee Jong-Sam for their support over past two years as I moved from an
idea to a completed study. Finally, thanks to Kim Myung-Mi for giving
me a push to get started.