Research Design 中央大學. 資訊管理系范錚強 mailto: [email protected] 2010.03 5.

Research Design

中央大學 . 資訊管理系范錚強

mailto: [email protected]

2010.03

5

中央資管：范錚強 2

Learning Objectives

Understand . . .

The basic stages of research design.

The major descriptors of research design.

The major types of research designs.

The relationships that exist between variables in research design and the steps for evaluating those relationships.

研究精神：排除「威脅」 (threats)

決定適當的研究設計


What Is Research Design?

BlueprintBlueprint

PlanPlan

GuideGuide

FrameworkFramework


What Tools Are Used in Designing Research?


Project Plan in Gantt chart format

What Tools Are Used in Designing Research?


Design in the Research Process


Descriptors of Research Design

Experimental Effects

Perceptual AwarenessPerceptual Awareness

Research EnvironmentResearch

Environment

Question Crystallization Data Collection

MethodData Collection

Method

Time DimensionTime Dimension

Topical Scope

Purpose of Study DescriptorsDescriptors


Degree of Question Crystallization

Exploratory Study

Loose structure

Expand understanding

Provide insight

Develop hypotheses


構念層次

探索：構念的形成

實質層次

因果、共變關係

推論：因果關係

y測量

誤差

x誤差

測量

X Y抽象化構念化

抽象化構念化


Degree of Question Crystallization

Exploratory Study

Loose structure

Expand understanding

Provide insight

Develop hypotheses

Formal Study

Precise procedures

Begins with hypotheses

Answers research questions


理論驗證

實質層次

構念層次

統計結論

X Y學說：因果關係

操作化

x誤差

操弄、測量

y測量

誤差

操作化

因果關係：實徵支持

因果、共變關係


Approaches for Exploratory Investigations

Participant observation

Film, photographs

Projective techniques

Psychological testing

Case studies

Ethnography 民俗誌Expert interviews

Document analysis

Proxemics and Kinesics 肢體語言學


Desired Outcomes of Exploratory Studies

Established range and scope of possible management decisions

Established range and scope of possible management decisions

Established major dimensions of research task

Established major dimensions of research task

Defined a set of subsidiary questions that can guide research design

Defined a set of subsidiary questions that can guide research design

尋找規則 Law 和初步檢視可能的原因尋找規則 Law 和初步檢視可能的原因


Desired Outcomes of Exploratory Studies (cont.)

Developed hypotheses about possible causes of management dilemma

Developed hypotheses about possible causes of management dilemma

Learned which hypotheses can be safely ignored

Learned which hypotheses can be safely ignored

Concluded additional research is not needed or not feasible

Concluded additional research is not needed or not feasible


Commonly Used Exploratory Techniques

Secondary Data Analysis

Secondary Data Analysis

Focus GroupsFocus Groups

Experience Surveys

Experience Surveys


Face-to-face interaction—one of the best ways to learn from participants.


Experience Surveys

What is being done?

What has been tried in the past with or without success?

How have things changed?

Who is involved in the decisions?

What problem areas can be seen?

Whom can we count on to assist or participate in the research?


Focus Groups

Group discussion

6-10 participants

Moderator-led

90 minutes-2 hours


Data Collection Method

Monitoring:觀察、資料蒐集

行為

Communication:詢問

態度、看法、瞭解程度


The Time Dimension

Cross-sectional

Longitudinal


The Topical Scope

Statistical Study

Breadth

Population inferences

Quantitative

Generalizable findings

Case Study

Depth

Detail

Qualitative

Multiple sources of information


The Research Environment

Field conditions

Lab conditions

Simulations


Purpose of the Study

Reporting Descriptive

Casual -Explanatory

Causal -Predictive


Descriptive Studies

When?When?

How much?How much? What?What?

Who?

Where?


Descriptive Studies

Descriptions of population characteristics

Descriptions of population characteristics

Estimates of frequency of characteristics

Estimates of frequency of characteristics

Discovery of associations among variables

Discovery of associations among variables


Experimental Effects

Experiment

Study involving the manipulation or control of one or more variables to determine the effect on another variable

Ex Post Facto Study

After-the-fact report on what happened to the measured variable


Ex Post Facto Design

Fishing Club Member Non-Fishing-Club Member

Age High Absentee Low Absentee High Absentee Low Absentee

Under 30 years 36 6 30 48

30 to 45 4 4 35 117

45 and over 0 0 5 115


Causation and Experimental Design

Random Assignment

Control/ Matching


Mills Method of Agreement


Mills Method of Difference


Causal Studies

AsymmetricalAsymmetrical

ReciprocalReciprocal

SymmetricalSymmetrical


Understanding Casual Relationships

Property

Response

Stimulus

Behavior

Disposition


Asymmetrical Casual Relationships

Stimulus-Response

Disposition-Behavior

Property-Behavior

Property-Disposition


Exhibit 6-6 Types of Asymmetrical Causal Relationships

Relationship Type Nature of Relationship Examples

Stimulus-response An event or change results in a response from some object.

A change in work rules leads to a higher level of worker output.

A change in government economic policy restricts corporate financial decisions.

A price increase results in fewer unit sales.

Property-disposition An existing property causes a disposition.

Age and attitudes about saving.

Gender attitudes toward social issues.

Social class and opinions about taxation.

Disposition-behavior A disposition causes a specific behavior.

Opinions about a brand and its purchase.

Job satisfaction and work output.

Moral values and tax cheating.

Property-behavior An existing property causes a specific behavior.

Stage of the family life cycle and purchases of furniture.

Social class and family savings patterns.

Age and sports participation.


Covariation between A and B

Covariation between A and B

Evidence of Causality

Time order of eventsTime order of events

No other possible causes of B

No other possible causes of B


Participants’ Perceptional Awareness

No deviation perceived

Deviations perceived as unrelated

Deviations perceived as researcher-induced


研究中的效度 Validity理念

X Y

x y

構念層次

操作層次

構念效度

外部效度

內部效度

統計結論效度

操作化

共變關係

因果關係

測量

誤差

替代效果

構念效度操作化

誤差

操弄、測量


統計結論效度 Statistical Conclusion Validity

Q: 研究中的因變數和自變數是否相關？ ( 共變 co-variation)

研究設計的敏感度是否足夠顯示資料間的共變若敏感度構，是否有足夠的証據支持「因」和「果」之間有共變？如果有充分証據顯示其間的共變，其強度為何


對統計結論效度的威脅

分析缺乏統計力樣本大小、信心水準的影響

違背統計測試的假設母體分布、均質性、自變數之間的獨立性

在資料中找尋「規則」多重比對、資料的特例衡量方法的信度實驗操弄的信度實驗情境中的隨機偏誤其他外在的、未被控制的影響因素回答問卷者的系統性誤差


內部效度 Internal Validity

Q: 若 A 和 B 共變，其間有何因果關係？A->B

B->A A->C->B CB

A

CB

A

CB

A

CB

A+

+

-

+

+ +

- -

-

替代的因果關係

A??B

第三變項的干擾

內部效度的精神在於排除第三變項對 A-B關係的替代性解釋


對內部效度的最主要威脅

發生歷史事件樣本成熟

受測樣本在前測和後測之間的成長，例如，熟悉測試工具測量工具改變統計迴歸

例如：將樣本依前測得分分組，高分組退步，低分組進步選擇偏誤樣本流失因果關係的混淆

在相關性研究中，經常發生


構念效度 Construct Validity

構念的操作化是否良好操作化：操弄和測量必須確保

自變數的確反映了相關的構念自變數不會隨著相關、但不同的變數做改變依變數應該反映了相關的構念依變數不應該受無關變數的影響針對同一個構念的不同衡量結果應該收斂針對相關但不同構念的衡量結果應該發散


對構念效度的威脅

操作化前對構念搞不清楚構念的定義、操作化定義、它確切的意義

單一操作化的偏誤實驗中，需要多項操弄水準、劑量

單一方法的偏誤需要測量多個「外顯」的變數

樣本對研究假說的猜測


對構念效度的威脅 2

樣本對測量感到緊張樣本對研究有特殊期望構念混淆、模糊，構念的程度差異不同操弄之間的相互影響操弄和測量之間的相互影響


信度 Reliability

測量工具的穩定度、可靠度重測信度、折半信度、複本信度

測量工具的內部一致性項目間的信度 (e.g. Cronbach )評分員間的信度


外部效度 External Validity

Q: 研究結果能否推論到整個目標母體？母體—我們在說哪一個？

目標母體針對目標母體所作的正式描述在實徵研究中，實際達成的樣本所對應的母體

另外一個和外部效度相關但不同的觀念：可類化性 Generalizability

研究結果可推廣到其他母體的程度


目標母體

外部效度 External Validity

正式描述

規劃樣本

實際達成的母體

實際達成的樣本


對外部效度的威脅

研究情境的影響在某企業中進行研究

選擇和操弄間的相互影響自我選擇可能會排除某一類的樣本例如：新藥的測試，自願者求生意願較強

研究情境和操弄間的相互影響歷史事件和操弄間的相互影響

過程長的研究


透過抽樣增進外部效度

全面隨機抽樣求取代表性、統計力強經常昂貴、實驗室實驗下不可行

分層隨機抽樣刻意求取樣本的異質性每一個母體中的子群體都被納入

選取典型樣本統計力弱、在學術研究中不利每一個母體中的子群體都被納入


透過重複研究增進外部效度

不同的重複可能、各有優劣同時重複、連續重複獨立研究人員、相同研究人員真實重複、假設重複（大型研究中的不同部份）

比較好的重複研究多個小型的研究多個情境多個研究者


研究效度間的取捨

學術性研究內部效度構念效度統計結論效度外部效度

實務性研究、應用研究內部效度外部效度依變數的構念效度統計結論效度自變數的構念效度

在進行研究設計時，研究者必須清醒的對各種效度的考量，做全盤的取捨

例如：在研究管理者決策訂定的研究時，應該用學生為樣本（高可行性、高內部效度、低外部效度）；還是在真實情境用真實的經理人員（低可行性、低內部效度、高外部效度）


研究方法的選擇

強方法 Strong methods能明確地呈現內部校度實驗室研究

弱方法 Weak methodsEx post facto, 自然觀察，訪談…

Research Design 中央大學. 資訊管理系范錚強 mailto: [email protected] 2010.03 5.

Documents

Transcript of Research Design 中央大學. 資訊管理系范錚強 mailto: [email protected] 2010.03 5.

Research Design 中央大學. 資訊管理系 范錚強 mailto: [email protected] 2010.03 5.

Documents

Transcript of Research Design 中央大學. 資訊管理系 范錚強 mailto: [email protected] 2010.03 5.

Research Design 中央大學. 資訊管理系范錚強 mailto: [email protected] 2010.03 5.

Transcript of Research Design 中央大學. 資訊管理系范錚強 mailto: [email protected] 2010.03 5.