Negroponte Island

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Lordship of NegroponteNigropont

Client state*

12041470

The Latin Empire with its vassals and the Greeksuccessor states after the partition of the ByzantineEmpire, c. 1204. The borders are very uncertain.

Capital Chalkis (Negroponte)

Language(s)Venetian officially,Greekpopularly

Religion Roman Catholicofficially,
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Greek Orthodoxpopularly

Political structure Client stateHistorical era Middle Ages- Principality

established 1204- Ottoman Conquest 1470

* The duchy was nominally a vassal state of, in order,the Kingdom of Thessalonica, the Latin Empire(from 1209), the Principality of Achaea (from 1236),

but effectively, and from 1390 also de jure, underVenetiancontrol

The Lordship of Negroponte was a crusader state established on the island ofEuboea(Italian:Negroponte) after the partition of theByzantine Empire following the FourthCrusade. Partitioned into three baronies (terzieri) run by a few interrelated Lombard families,

the island soon fell under the influence of the Republic of Venice. From ca. 1390, the islandbecame a regularVenetian colony as the Kingdom of Negroponte (Regno di Negroponte).

Contents

1 Historyo 1.1 Establishmento 1.2 Succession disputeso 1.3 Byzantine interludeo 1.4 Later history

2 List of rulers of Negroponteo 2.1 Triarchy of Oreoso 2.2 Triarchy of Chalkiso 2.3 Triarchy of Karystos

3 References

4 Sources and bibliography

History

Establishment

According to the division of Byzantine territory (thePartitio terrarum imperii Romaniae),Euboea was awarded toBoniface of Montferrat, King of Thessalonica. Boniface in turn cededthe island as a fief to the Flemish noble Jacques d' Avesnes, who fortified Chalkis. After hisdeath in mid-1205 however, the island was ceded to three Veronese barons: Ravano dalleCarceri, Giberto dalle Carceri and Pecoraro da Mercanuovo. They divided the island intothree triarchies (terzieri, "thirds"): the northern, based at Oreos (Italian:terzero del Rio), thesouthern, ruled from Karystos (Italian: terzero di Caristo), and the central portion, ruled fromChalkis (Italian: terzero della Clissura). The city of Chalkis or Negroponte (citt de'

Lombardi, "city of the Lombards") however was not under the latter's control, but served asoverall capital of the island and joint residence of the Lombard rulers and their families. By
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1209 however, Ravano had established himself as sole master of Euboea, styling himself asdominus insulae Nigropontis.

Having allied himself with an unsuccessful Lombard rebellion against the Latin Emperor,Henry of Flanders, Ravano was eager to find a powerful protector. Thus, in March 1209, he

signed an alliance with Venice, which recognized Venetian overlordship and gave theVenetians significant commercial privileges. In May, however, in an act of politicalbalancing, Ravano also acknowledged his vassalage to the Latin Empire.

Succession disputes

However, already after the death of Ravano in 1216, his heirs disagreed over the succession,allowing the Venetianbailli to intervene as a mediator. He partitioned the three baronies intwo, creating thus six hexarchies (sestieri). The northern triarchy of Oreos was divided

between Ravano's nephews, Marino I and Rizzardo; the southern triarchy of Karystos wasdivided between his widow, Isabella, and his daughter, Bertha; and the central triarchy wasdivided between Giberto's heirs, Guglielmo I and Alberto. Provisions were also made that inthe case someone among thesestieri died, his inheritor would be the othersestiere of therespective triarchy, and not his children. In actual fact, mostsestieri were succeeded by their

brothers, sons or nephews, keeping the baronies within the tight circle of the originalLombard families.

In 1255 however, the death ofCarintana dalle Carceri, hexarch of Oreos and wife to WilliamII of Villehardouin, nominal overlord of Negroponte, led to the so-called "War of theEuboeote Succession", which involved Achaea and Venice. William claimed for himself hiswife's inheritance, while the Lombard barons were unwilling to concede it. On 14 June 1256,

Guglielmo of Verona and Narzotto dalle Carceri, the other two triarchs, repudiated theirallegiance to William and pledged themselves to Venice. William responded by capturingChalkis, which the Venetians retook in early 1258. The war ended in thebattle of Karydi inMay/June 1258, where William defeated the Duke of Athens, Guy I de la Roche, who hadallied himself with the rebellious triarchs. Finally, in August 1259, DogeReniero Zenonegotiated a peace, followed by a treaty in 1262, which recognized William's suzerainty overthe island, but not his possession of the triarchy of Oreoi.

Byzantine interlude

By that time, however, the Empire of Nicaea had established itself as the foremost power in

the area of the former Byzantine Empire, reconquering several territories from the Latins. Itssuccesses culminated in the recapture of Constantinople in 1261 and the reestablishment ofthe Byzantine Empire, whose energetic ruler, Michael VIII Palaeologus, sought to reconquerthe remaining Latin principalities in southern Greece. To this end, he accepted the services ofLicario, an Italian renegade, who had his base nearKarystos. Under Licario's command,Byzantine troops soon conquered most of Euboea, except Chalkis. After the departure ofLicario sometime after 1280 however, with Venetian aid, the island gradually returned toLatin control. By 1296, Bonifazio da Verona had completely expelled the Byzantines fromEuboea.

Later history
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In 1317 however, Karystos fell to the Catalan Don Alfonso Fadrique, vicar-general of theduchy of Athensand illegitimate son ofFrederick III of Sicily. In 1319, a peace treaty wassigned between Venice and Don Alfonso, whereby he retained Karystos, which the Venetiansacquired in 1365. When the last triarchs, Niccolo III dalle Carceri and Giorgio III Ghisi, diedin 1383 and 1390 respectively, they left their territories to Venice, which thus established

complete predominance over the island. Nevertheless, the triarchic system was maintained,with Venetian families appointed to the positions ofterzieri, while the Venetianpodestresided at Chalkis. Venice's rule lasted until 1470, when, during the OttomanVenetian Warof 14631479, SultanMehmed II campaigned against Chalkis. With the fall of the city on 12July, the whole island came underOttomancontrol.

List of rulers of Negroponte

Note: The sequence of rulers during the 13th century, as well as the familial relations between them, are not veryclear, as information about Euboea's internal history is scarce to non-existent, especially for the period 12161255.[1] According to the rules of succession laid down on the island's division into thirds and sixths in 1216, on

the death of a hexarch, he was succeeded in his domain by his fellow hexarch within their third, and not by theformer's heirs.[2] The following outline for the 13th century relies on the reconstruction byJ.B. Bury.[3]

Jacques d'Avesnes (12041205)

Triarchy of Oreos

Percoraro de Percorari da Mercannuovo (12051209)

dalle Carceri family

Ravano dalle Carceri (12091216)

Rizzardo dalle Carceri (12161220)Marino I delle Carceri (1216 before 1255

Carintana dalle Carceri (? 1255) Narzotto dalle Carceri (before 1255 after 1

Grapella dalle Carceri (1255 after 1262)Marino II (Merinetto) dalle Carceri (before 1270

under the regency of his mother Felisa da Ve

Grapozzo dalle Carceri (before 1270 ?)Alice dalle Carceri (? 1296)

with her husband Giorgio I Ghisi (? 1311

Byzantine rule (12751280s)

Ghisi family

Pietro dalle Carceri (about 1315) Bartolomeo II Ghisi (13111341)

Giorgio II Ghisi (13411358)

Bartolomeo III Ghisi (13581384)
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Giorgio III Ghisi (13841390)

dAulnay/de No family (under Venice) (13851470)

Januli I de No (13851394)

Nicolo de No (1394 before 1426)

Januli II de No (before 14261434)

Gioffredo de No (14341446)

Januli III de No (14461470)

Ottoman conquest (1470)

Triarchy of Chalkis

dalle Carceri/da Verona family

Giberto I da Verona(12051208)


Guglielmo I da Verona (1217 ca. 1263)Alberto da Verona (1217 before 1230)

Guglielmo II da Verona (ca. 12631273/1275)

Giberto II da Verona (12751279)

Maria Navigajoso (12791328)Beatrice da Verona (1279 after 1310)

and her husband John de Noyers (1303132

Pietro dalle Carceri(13281340)

Giovanni dalle Carceri(13401358)

Nicollo dalle Carceri (13581383)

Sommarippa family (under Venice)

Maria II Sanudo(1383 ?), with her husband Gaspare Sommaripa (1383?)

Crusino I Sommaripa (14301462)

Domenico Sommarippa (14621466)
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Giovanni Sommarippa (14661468)

Crusino II Sommarippa (14681470)


Triarchy of Karystos

dalle Carceri family


Isabella dalle Carceri (1216 ?) Berta dalle Carceri (1216 ?)

Grapella dalle Carceri (? after 1262) Narzotto dalle Carceri (before 1255 before 127

Gaetano da VeronaMarino II (Merinetto) dalle Carceri (before 12701

under the regency of his mother Felisa da Vero

Byzantine rule (12761296)

Licario (1276 ?)

dalle Carceri/da Verona family

Maria da Verona

with her husband Andrea Cornaro

Alice dalle Carceri

with her husband Giorgio I Ghisi

Pietro dalle Carceri Bartolomeo II Ghisi

Catalan rule

Marulla da Verona (13171338)with her husband Alfonso Fadrique (13171338)

Boniface Fadrique (13381365)

Direct Venetian rule (13651386)

Giustiniani family (under Venice)

Michele Giustiniani (13861402)Andrea Giustiniani (1386

?) Giovanni Giustiniani (1386

Antonio Giustiniani (? 1406)

Zorzi family (under Venice)

Nicol Zorzi (14061436)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravano_dalle_Carcerihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licariohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marulla_da_Verona&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_Fadriquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Boniface_Fadrique&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giustinianihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zorzihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravano_dalle_Carcerihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licariohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marulla_da_Verona&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_Fadriquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Boniface_Fadrique&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giustinianihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zorzi


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Jacopo Zorzi (14361447)

Antonio Zorzi (14471470)


References

1. ^ Bury (1886), pp. 321ff.2. ^ Bury (1886), pp. 3193213. ^ Bury (1886), p. 348

Sources and bibliography

Bury, John Bagnell (1886). "The Lombards and Venetians in Euboia (12051303)".The Journal of Hellenic Studies7: 309352.



Cawley, Charles,Latin lordships in Greece: Euboea, Foundation for MedievalGenealogy, retrieved August 2012,[better source needed]

Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994), The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey fromthe Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest, University of Michigan Press,ISBN978-0-472-08260-5

Koder, Johannes (1973) (in German),Negroponte: Untersuchungen zur Topographieund Siedlungsgeschichte der Insel Euboia whrend der Zeit der Venezianerherrschaft,Vienna: Verlag der sterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, ISBN3-7001-0020-5

Miller, William (1908), The Latins in the Levant, a History of Frankish Greece(12041566), New York: E.P. Dutton and Company

Nicol, Donald MacGillivray (1993),The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 12611453,Cambridge University Press, ISBN978-0-521-43991-6

Setton, Kenneth M. (1976), The Papacy and the Levant, 12041571: Volume I, TheThirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries, DIANE Publishing,

ISBN[[Special:BookSources/978-0-87169-114-0|978-0-87169-114-0]]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_Fadrique

Alfonso FadriqueFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to:navigation, search
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lordship_of_Negroponte#cite_ref-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lordship_of_Negroponte#cite_ref-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lordship_of_Negroponte#cite_ref-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._B._Buryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Journal_of_Hellenic_Studieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._B._Buryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Journal_of_Hellenic_Studieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._B._Buryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Journal_of_Hellenic_Studieshttp://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/LATIN%20LORDSHIPS%20IN%20GREECE.htm#_Toc127589308http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/Intro.htmhttp://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/Intro.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRShttp://books.google.com/books?id=Hh0Bu8C66TsChttp://books.google.com/books?id=Hh0Bu8C66TsChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-08260-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7001-0020-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7001-0020-5http://books.google.com/books?id=y2d6OHLqwEsChttp://books.google.com/books?id=y2d6OHLqwEsChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43991-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43991-6http://books.google.com/books?id=i4OPORrVeXQChttp://books.google.com/books?id=i4OPORrVeXQChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_Fadriquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_Fadrique#mw-headhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_Fadrique#mw-headhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_Fadrique#p-searchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lordship_of_Negroponte#cite_ref-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lordship_of_Negroponte#cite_ref-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lordship_of_Negroponte#cite_ref-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._B._Buryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Journal_of_Hellenic_Studieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._B._Buryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Journal_of_Hellenic_Studieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._B._Buryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Journal_of_Hellenic_Studieshttp://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/LATIN%20LORDSHIPS%20IN%20GREECE.htm#_Toc127589308http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/Intro.htmhttp://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/Intro.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRShttp://books.google.com/books?id=Hh0Bu8C66TsChttp://books.google.com/books?id=Hh0Bu8C66TsChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-08260-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7001-0020-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7001-0020-5http://books.google.com/books?id=y2d6OHLqwEsChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43991-6http://books.google.com/books?id=i4OPORrVeXQChttp://books.google.com/books?id=i4OPORrVeXQChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_Fadriquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_Fadrique#mw-headhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_Fadrique#p-search


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Duchy of Neopatria

13191390

Coat of Arms of the Duchy of Neopatras

Capital Neai Patrai

Language(s) Catalan (official),Greekpopularly

Religion

Roman Catholicofficially,Greek Orthodox

popularlyGovernment DuchyHistorical era Middle Ages- Principality

established1319

- Conquered by theRepublic of Florence 1390

The Duchy of Neopatria orNeopatras (Catalan:Ducat de Neoptria, Greek: ) was one of theCrusader States set up in Greeceafter the conquest of the ByzantineEmpireduring the Fourth Crusade. It was situated in Central Greece, centered around the cityof Neai Patrai (modern Ypati) in the Spercheios valley, west ofLamia.

In 1318-1319 theAlmogavars of the Catalan Company, after having conquered most of theDuchy of Athens, expanded into the territories of theDespotate of Epirus in southernThessaly, underAlfonso Frederick, the infante of the Kingdom of Sicily. The new territories

were created a duchy and united with the Duchy of Athens. The Duchy was divided into thecaptainciesofSiderokastron, Neopatria, and Salona (modern Amfissa).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Florencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ypatihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalan_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholicismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Orthodoxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Florencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalan_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusader_Statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusader_Statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Crusadehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ypatihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spercheioshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamia_(city)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavarshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavarshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalan_Companyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Athenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thessalyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_Frederickhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infantehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicilyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captain_(land_and_air)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captain_(land_and_air)http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siderokastron&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amfissahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ducado_neopatria.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Duchy_of_Neopatras.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Florencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Florencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ypatihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalan_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholicismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Orthodoxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Florencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalan_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusader_Statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Crusadehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ypatihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spercheioshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamia_(city)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavarshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalan_Companyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Athenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thessalyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_Frederickhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infantehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicilyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captain_(land_and_air)http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siderokastron&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amfissa


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Part of the Duchy's possessions in Thessaly was conquered by the Serbs ofStefan Dusan in1337. In 1377, the title of Duke of Neopatria was assumed by Peter IV of Aragon. It was

preserved among the subsidiary titles of his successors, and is still included in the full title oftheSpanish monarchs.

The attacks of theByzantine Empire progressively diminished the territory of the duchy untilwhat was left of it fell completely into the hands of the Republic of Florence in 1390.

Eccelesiastically, Neopatria largely corresponded to the Archdiocese of Neopatras(L'Arquebisbat de la ptria) which had one suffragan: Zeitounion. Among the Catalanarchbishops was Ferrer d'Abella, who tried to have himself transferred to a west Europeansee.

Sources

Setton, Kenneth M. Catalan Domination of Athens 13111380. Revised edition.London: Variorum, 1975.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars

Almogavars

Almogavar-style troops during the conquest of Mallorca.

Almogavars is the name of a class of soldier mostly from theCrown of Aragon and otherIberian kingdoms during the 13th and 14th centuries.[1] Almogavars were lightly clad, quick-moving frontiersmen and foot-soldiers. They were well known during the Christian

Reconquista(reconquest) of the Iberian Peninsula. Aragonese crown troops were commandedmainly by Christian officers, or infanzones (low noblemen without money). They hailed fromCatalonia, Aragon, and later Valencia. At first these troops were formed by farmers andshepherds originating from the countryside, woods and frontier mountain areas. Later, theywere much employed as mercenaries inItaly,Latin Greece and the Levant.[1]

Contents
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1 Historyo 1.1 Ethnic development

1.1.1 Origins and early history, 7th through 9th centuries 1.1.2 10th and 11th Centuries 1.1.3 12th, 13th and early 14th Centuries

1.1.3.1 War in Sicily and crusade against the Crown of Aragon 1.1.3.2 The Catalan Company 1.1.3.3 The Aragonese Duchy of Athens

1.1.4 Late Period 2 Cultural and linguistic legacy

o 2.1 Etymologyo 2.2 Negative connotation of Almogavarso 2.3 The battle cry of the Almogavars in Catalan

3 See also 4 References

5 Further reading

History

Kingdom of Pamplona and Banu Qasi c. 925

Iberian peninsula in 1031.

Almogavar history begins with early invasions of Iberia by Muslim peoples and battles withnorthern and western foes. These troops of different faiths were joining to the service of the

Christian kingdoms as they once had been under the command of the Muslim kingdoms. The
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hinterland ofEbro Valley oscillated between two powerful states, Moors ofal Andalus andFranks, ofthe Carolingian Empire, looking to expand the Marca Hispanica.

Ethnic development

Very early on,[clarification needed] Iberian society was composed of Muslims who were at firstethnicallyNear East Muslims. Large percentages were also Arabic, Berber, Iberian nativeconverts (muwallads), native Christians, and a Jewish minority. The Jewish minorityrepresentated about 5% of the population.[clarification needed] The ethnically Arab were at the top ofthe social hierarchy; Muslims in general had a highersocial standing. Christians and Jewswere considered dhimmis and had to pay a specific tax called ajizya. They still enjoyed the

possibility of social mobility. Conversion to Islam translated into a higher rate of socialmobility for Christians and Jews alike. Half of the Christians in Al-Andalus are reported tohave converted to Islam by the 10th century, with more than 80% by the 11th century. EvenChristians that did not accept Islam as their religion, became increasingly Arabized in termsof culture. These Christians became known as Mozarabs or mustaribs, a word meaning

"Arabized." However, after the conquest of the Islamic kingdoms by the northern Christiankingdoms, the population again gradually become Christian for the same reasons.

Socioeconomically, Almogavars generally came from peasant or shepherd people. Most wereof Muslim descent and custom but not all were. In their war cries they shouted "Awakesword, kill, kill, Saint George, Aragon..."[2] as stated by chroniclerRamon Muntaner. Later,[clarification needed] the ranks of the Almogavars were restocked with persons from widely diverse

backgrounds, including Christians. These included soldiers from the following kingdoms andlocales:[citation needed]

Kingdom of Navarre (Vascones) Kingdom of Pamplona Gascony Kingdom of Aragon Val d'Aran.

The Almogavars also included other vascon or vasconized people of Ebro Valley;

Franks Urgellese Ampurianense Gironese Toulousian Rosellonese Barcelonian Pallaresian

And Iberian or European people;

Valencian Mallorcans Galician Castilian Sicilian
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Sardinian Calabrese Occitan Greek Turkish

Their ranks even included Germans, who joined the troops of the king of Aragon during theexpedition by the Byzantine Empire.[3][4][5]

Origins and early history, 7th through 9th centuries

See also earlyAl-Andalus history In 711, Tariq ibn Ziyad, under the orders of the UmayyadCaliphAl-Walid I, led a large army from the north coast ofMorocco on April 29 711. Thearmiesof Tariq, composed of recent converts to Islam,[6] landed at Gibraltar. The Muslimarmies swept through Hispania. Bandits known asAl-Mogauarwere located in the territoriesof the Al Andalus towards the 10th century.

The first historical reference appears in the Arabic chronicle muluk Akhbar Al-Andalus,history of the kings of Andalus, written between 887 and 955 by Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Razi, known among the Arabs with the nickname Al-Tariji (the Chronicler) and betweenChristians as theMoor Rasis. In his chronicle, the historian ofQurtuba describes the areas ofAl-Andalus, and the Ebro valley. Al Tariji identifies for first time in history the existence oftroops called almogavars in the city Saraqusta, the Islamic Zaragoza.[3]

When Charlemagne destroyed the walls ofPamplona after a failed attempt to conquest theMuslim Saraqusta, the Vascons Leaders, allies and relatives ofBanu Qasi, a muladi family of

Muslim leaders, annihilated the rearguard of Franks in the Battle of Roncevaux Pass throughan ambush of a coaliated vascon and Muslim force.

igo Arista of Pamplona was stepbrother ofMusa ibn Musa ibn Qasi, by mother. In 799, pro-Frankish assassins, murdered Mutarrif ibn Musa, governor of Pamplona, perhaps the brotherof Musa ibn Musa ibn Qasi and of igo himself.

Also in 799, northern Basques, organized in the Duchy of Vasconia, collaborated with Franksduring campaigns such as the capture ofBarcelona.

In 806, Pamplona, still under Cordovan rule, was attacked next by the Franks. The

Pamplonese led by a Velasko pledged allegiance to Charlemagne again, but his tenure onpower proved feeble. At about 814, an anti-Frankish faction led by Enecco, allied of the BanuQasi, seems to have taken over again. A Frankish army was sent to quash the revolt, to littleeffect. Furthermore, on their way north through Roncevaux an ambush attempt took place thatended in stalemate, due to the greater precautions taken by the Franks, i.e. Basque women andchildren taken as hostages.

After the death of Charlemagne in 814, uprisings started anew. The revolt in Pamplonacrossed the Pyrenees north and in 816 Louis the Pious deposed the Basque Duke Seguin ofBordeaux. Failure to suppress the rebellion started a widespread revolt, led by GartziaSemeno (who according to late traditions was a near-kinsman ofEneko Aritza, was the first

monarch of Pamplona, and was newly appointed duke Lupus Centullo (c. 820).) Meanwhile,in Aragon the pro-Frankish Count Aznar Galindo was overthrown by Eneccos allied Count
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Gartzia Maloith. Aznar Galindo in turn sought refuge in Frankish-held territory. Louis thePious then received the submission of rebel Vascon lords in Dax, but things were far fromsettled.[citation needed]

Historian Ibn Hayyan reported that in 816, Abd al-Karim ibn Abd al-Wahid ibn Mugit

launched a military campaign against the pro-Frankish "Enemy of God", "Velasco theGascon" (Arabic: ,Balak al-alaq), Sahib of Pamplona (Arabic: ).These armies were reported to have united Christian and pagan factions. A three-day battlewas fought in which the pro-Crdoba faction routed their enemies and killed Velasco, alongwith Garca Lpez, kinsman ofAlfonso II of Asturias, Sancho "warrior/knight of Pamplona",and pagan warrior "altn". This defeat of the pro-Frankish force appears to have allowed theanti-Franks igo to come to power.

In 820, igo is said to have intervened in the County of Aragon, ejecting a Frankish vassal,count Aznar I Galndez, in favor ofGarca elMalo (the Bad), who would become igo's son-in-law. In 824, the Frankish counts Aeblus and Aznar Snchez made an expedition against

Pamplona, but were defeated in the third Battle of Roncesvalles.

In 824, the third Battle of Roncevaux ensued. Counts Eblo and Aznar Galindo (also identifiedas Aznar Snchez and the latter appointed Duke of Gascony) were captured by the jointPamplonese and Banu Qasi forces, strengthening the independence of Kingdom of Pamplona.

The type of soldiers in these on-going battles consisted of small groups trained in assault bysurprise. Christian Aragonese Crown soldiers will adapt these tactics and come to be known

by the name of almogavars.

10th and 11th CenturiesThe Banu Hud ofTaifa of Saraqusta resisted the Almoravid dynasty. They ruled until theywere eventually defeated by the Almoravids in May 1110. The last sultan of the Banu Hud,Abd-al-Malik, andImad ad-Dawla of Saraqusta, was forced to abandon the capital. Abd-al-Malik allied himself with the Christian Aragonese underAlfonso I of Aragon. From the time,the Muslims of Saraqusta became military regulars within the Aragonese forces.

In the Taifa of Zaragoza Christian infanzon exiled of Castilla El Cid with his supporters(Mesnada) offer their service to Yusuf al-Mu'taman ibn Hud. He accepted the command ofTaifa of Zaragoza and swore their allegiance to the Moorish Muslim king of the northeast Al-

Andalus city ofZaragoza, Yusuf al-Mu'taman ibn Hud. They served both this Moorish kingand his successor, Al-Mustain II. Given the title ofAl Sidi (El Cid, The Master), he served asa leading figure in a Moorish force consisting of Muladis, Berbers, Arabs and Malians.

O'Callaghan writes:

That kingdom was divided between al-Mutamin (10811085) who ruled Zaragoza proper, andhis brother al-Mundhir, who ruled Lrida and Tortosa. El Cid entered al-Mutamin's serviceand successfully defended Zaragoza against the assaults of al-Mundhir, Sancho I of Aragn,and Ramn Berenguer II, whom he held captive briefly in 1082. In 1084, El Cid and theMoorish armies defeated Sancho of Aragon at the Battle of Morella near Tortosa. He was then

troubled by the fierce conflicts between the Muladis ofBadajoz and the Arabs ofSeville.
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Roger was also infamous for the ruthless sackings and the devastation of his actions, oftendriven only by greed and personal advantage. On the other side, his reputation alone possiblycaused some enemies to lose heart during a battle.

The Catalan Company

In 1302, thePeace of Caltabellotta ended the war in southern Italy. The Almogavars, underthe leadership ofRoger de Flor("Roger Blum", a formerKnight Templar), formed theCatalan Companyin the service of the emperor of the East, Andronicus II Palaeologus. Thiscompany was organized to fight against theTurks. Both kings of Aragon and Sicily agreedwith this strategy as a viable alternative to having the Almogavar standing army unemployedin their realms.

The Almogavar campaign inAsia Minortook place in 1303 and 1304. It began with a seriesof military victories, but also saw widespread looting of Byzantine civilians. When theAlmogavars insisted in receiving the agreed payment, the Byzantine Emperor refused.

Thereafter the Almogavars turned to violence, making their presence intolerable to theByzantine population.

In 1305, Roger de Flor and his lieutenants were assassinated by orders of the Emperor whilemeeting to discuss terms on their compensation. This assassination was presumably on theinstigation of Genoese merchants, who were conspiring to keep their own position ofinfluence and power. This betrayal resulted in the Almogavars ravaging the neighborhood ofConstantinople.

The Aragonese Duchy of Athens

Subsequently the Almogavars marched against the Duchy of Athens, under the rule of theFrenchHouse of Brienne. In March 1310, Duke Walter V of Brienne and all his knights weredefeated and slain by the Almogavars at the Battle of the Cephissus, orOrchomenus inBoeotia. They then divided the wives and possessions of the Frenchmen by lot, andsummoned a prince of thehouse of Aragon to rule over them.

The culminating achievement of the Almogavars was the foundation of Aragonese rule overthe duchy of Athens. Although the duchy eventually fell to the Ottoman Empire, even todaythe King of Spain still holds the title of 'Duke of Athens andNeopatria'.

Late PeriodAs time passed, Muslim Almogavars became less numerous. In 1502, violating the 1492

peace treatyFerdinand II of Aragon forced all Muslims in Castile and Aragon to convert toCatholicism or be expelled. Nevertheless, King Ferdinand, ruler of the Kingdom of Aragon,continued to tolerate the large Muslim population living in his territory. Since the Crown ofAragon was independent of Castile, their policies towards Muslims were more tolerant.Historians have suggested that the Crown of Aragon was inclined to tolerate Islam in its realm

because the landed nobility there depended on the cheap, plentiful labor of Muslim vassals.[9]However, the landed elite's exploitation of Aragon's Muslims also exacerbated classresentments. These Aragonese troops were subjected mainly by Christian nobility.
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In the 1520s, Valencian guilds rebelled against the local nobility in the Revolt of theBrotherhoods. The rebels "saw that the simplest way to destroy the power of the nobles in thecountryside would be to free their vassals, and this they did by baptizing them." [10] TheInquisition and monarchy decided to prohibit the forcibly baptized Muslims of Valencia fromreturning to Islam. In 1609, nominally converted Christian Moriscos were thereafter expelled.

Cultural and linguistic legacy

This section needs additional citations for verification. (December 2011)

Etymology

Like most Iberian words beginning with the prefix "al-", it is derived from the Arabiclanguage, fromArabic: al-maghwr, "scout"[1]

Al-Mogawer , means "beside" or "neighbor". Other sources claim that the wordAlmogavar may come from the Arabic "al-muqafir," a "raider" or "devastator". Some sourcesclaim that the catalan word "Almogver"is based on the name al-mughawwar, meaning elsque provoquen algarades ("the ones wreaking havoc") given to them by the Saracens. Whenthey made brief incursions, lasting one or two days, of about twelve men into Muslim-controlled territory. The name and also the presence of these Muslim mercenary troops isearlier, in other Iberian kingdoms.

The Almogavars were led by the "Adal", from Arabic ad-dalla, "guide". The captain of alarge squadron was known in Catalan as "Almogaten", from Arabic al-muqaddam, "captain".[11]

Negative connotation of Almogavars

This section does not cite any references or sources. (August 2012)

Almogavars were also known as "catalans" in Byzantine Empire territories. The presence ofthe company left its mark on the folkloreand the popular legend of the different regionswhere they spent, including as far as the Balkans and Greece. Devastation caused by

Almogavars troops has created a negative connotation in some locales.

In the region ofThrace, a popular saying included: may the revenge of the Catalans fall onyou. In Bulgaria, the expressions "Catalan" and "Son of Catalan" mean "wicked man, soulless,torturer". This negative connotation reached beyond the boundaries of folklore to influence

poets such as Ivan M. Vazov in the poemPirates, first published in 1915. Vazov includes theCatalans with the Turks as the greatest oppressors of the Bulgarian nation. In the region ofParnassus, the following saying is popularised: "I will flee from the Turks to fall into thehands of the Catalans".

Currently, in Albaniathe word "Catalan" means "ugly and wicked man." Likewise, "Catalan"

or "Katallani" is designated in Albanian folklore as a monster with one eye, reminiscent inmany ways the Cyclops Polyphemus. This cyclops is represented by a wild blacksmith who
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feeds on human flesh. He also has no knees, so he can not bend, and long legs like masts of aship. He faces a young hero named Dedaliya. This tradition, in various versions, is usuallycalled by the title ofDaedalus dhe Katallani, Daedalus and Catalan.

The battle cry of the Almogavars in Catalan

Main article:Awake iron!Aur! Aur!Desperta ferro!Deus aia!...Veyentnos sols venir, los pobles ja flamejen:veyentnos sols passar, son bech los corbs netejen.

La guerra y lo saqueig, no hi ha mellors plahers.Avant, almugavers! Que avisin als fossers!La veu del somatent nos crida ja a la guerra.Fadigues, plujes, neus, calors resistirem,

y si'ns abat la sn, pendrra per llit la terra,y si'ns rendeix la fam carn crua menjarem!Desperta ferro! Avant! Depressa com lo llampcaym sobre son camp!

Almugavers, avant! Anem all a fer carn!Les feres tenen fam![12]

Meaning: Listen! listen! Wake up, O iron! Help us God!...Just seeing us coming the villagesare already ablaze. Just seeing us passing the crows are wiping their beaks. War and plunder,there are no greater pleasures. Forward Almogavars! Let them call the gravediggers! The

voice of the somatent

[13]

is calling us to war. Weariness, rains, snow and heat we shall endure.And if sleep overtakes us, we will use the earth as our bed. And if we get hungry, we shall eatraw meat. Wake up, O iron! Forward! Fast as the lightning let us fall over their camp!Forward Almogavars! Let us go there to make flesh, the wild beasts are hungry!

See also

Catalan Company Byzantine Empire Kingdom of Aragon

References

1. ^abc Joseph F. O'Callaghan (2004).Reconquest and crusade in medievalSpain. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 94. ISBN978-0-8122-1889-3.

2. ^ "Los almogvares(Spanish)".3. ^abBolea 2010, pag. 14

Adems, y corrigiendo trabajos literarios aparecidos en los ltimos aos, se deberecordar que estos mercenarios hablaban y se comunicaban exclusivamente enaragons y en cataln medieval. De ninguna manera lo hicieron en castellano, lengua

en ese tiempo extraa para ellos [...] y as lo atestiguan documentos como lostransmitidos porJohan Ferrndez de Heredia o la corte de Pedro IV [de Aragn]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awake_iron!http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awake_iron!http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desperta_ferrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalan_Companyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-O.27Callaghan2004_0-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-O.27Callaghan2004_0-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-O.27Callaghan2004_0-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-O.27Callaghan2004_0-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-O.27Callaghan2004_0-2http://books.google.com/books?id=4gVIt5u0U5wC&pg=PA94http://books.google.com/books?id=4gVIt5u0U5wC&pg=PA94http://books.google.com/books?id=4gVIt5u0U5wC&pg=PA94http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1889-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1889-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-1http://chistila.blogspot.com/2010/02/los-almogavares.htmlhttp://chistila.blogspot.com/2010/02/los-almogavares.htmlhttp://chistila.blogspot.com/2010/02/los-almogavares.htmlhttp://chistila.blogspot.com/2010/02/los-almogavares.htmlhttp://chistila.blogspot.com/2010/02/los-almogavares.htmlhttp://chistila.blogspot.com/2010/02/los-almogavares.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-BOLEA-2010_2-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-BOLEA-2010_2-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-BOLEA-2010_2-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#BOLEA-2010http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#BOLEA-2010http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragon%C3%A9shttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Idioma_catal%C3%A1n&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castellanohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Johan_Ferr%C3%A1ndez_de_Heredia&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pedro_IV_de_Aragon&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awake_iron!http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desperta_ferrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalan_Companyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-O.27Callaghan2004_0-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-O.27Callaghan2004_0-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-O.27Callaghan2004_0-2http://books.google.com/books?id=4gVIt5u0U5wC&pg=PA94http://books.google.com/books?id=4gVIt5u0U5wC&pg=PA94http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1889-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-1http://chistila.blogspot.com/2010/02/los-almogavares.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-BOLEA-2010_2-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-BOLEA-2010_2-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#BOLEA-2010http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragon%C3%A9shttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Idioma_catal%C3%A1n&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castellanohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Johan_Ferr%C3%A1ndez_de_Heredia&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pedro_IV_de_Aragon&action=edit&redlink=1


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loc. cit. Chus L. Bolea

4. ^ Rufino Blanco-Fombona y,Motivos y letras de Espaa. II. La epopeyabizantina de los almogvares, en Rafael Ramn Castellanos (ed.),Ensayos histricos,Caracas, Biblioteca Ayacucho, 1981, pg. 333. ISBN 978-84-660-0003-1.

5. ^ Jos Hinojosa Montalvo,Jaime II y el esplendor de la Corona de Aragn,San Sebastin, Nerea, 2006, pg. 232. ISBN 978-84-89569-99-7.6. ^ Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, The preaching of Islam: a history of the

propagation of the Muslim faith, originally published in 1912, ISBN 1-143-05978-6ISBN 978-1143059780(Nabu Press, 2010) pg. 259.

7. ^ History of the Mallorca Region (in Spanish)8. ^ Historia y Vida n. 4329. ^ Henry Kamen, Spanish Inquisition (New Haven: Yale University Press,

1997, p. 216 ISBN 978-0-300-07880-0) andYale University Press Review of Kamenbook

10. ^ Kamen, Spanish Inquisition, p. 216.

11. ^ Ferran Soldevila: "Els Almogvers"12. ^ "Los pirineus : obra dramtica en un prolech y tres actes" - Victor Balaguer13. ^ An ancient Catalan paramilitary organization

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muladi

MuladiFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to:navigation, search

TheMuladi(Spanish: mulad[mula i] ,pl.mulades; Portuguese: muladi[muli],pl.muladis; Catalan: muladita[mu it] ormulad[mu i] ,pl.muladites ormulads; Arabic:

trans.mwallad,pl.mwalladn ormwalladn) were Muslimsof ethnicIberiandescent or of mixed Arab, Berberand European origin, who lived inAl-Andalus during theMiddle Ages. They were also called "Musalima"(Islamized).

Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Famous Muladi 4 See also 5 Footnotes

6 References

Etymology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-3http://books.google.es/books?id=yhbEL1KeezAC&pg=PA333#v=onepage&q=&f=falsehttp://books.google.es/books?id=yhbEL1KeezAC&pg=PA333#v=onepage&q=&f=falsehttp://books.google.es/books?id=yhbEL1KeezAC&pg=PA333#v=onepage&q=&f=falsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788466000031http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-4http://books.google.es/books?id=jbwoP1unhg0C&pg=PA232&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=falsehttp://books.google.es/books?id=jbwoP1unhg0C&pg=PA232&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=falsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788489569997http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1143059786http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781143059780http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781143059780http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-6http://historiaregnemallorca.blogspot.com/2009/04/cronicas-de-ramon-muntaner.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300078800http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300078800http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300078800http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300078800http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-ALMO_10-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-11http://www.archive.org/stream/lospirineusobrad00bala/lospirineusobrad00bala_djvu.txthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muladihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muladi#mw-headhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muladi#mw-headhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muladi#p-searchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Spanishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Spanishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Portuguese_and_Galicianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Portuguese_and_Galicianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Portuguese_and_Galicianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalan_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Catalanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Catalanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Catalanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Catalanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Catalanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Catalanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Catalanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Catalanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Catalanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Catalanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_transliterationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslimshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslimshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muladi#Etymologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muladi#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muladi#Famous_Muladihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muladi#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muladi#Footnoteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muladi#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-3http://books.google.es/books?id=yhbEL1KeezAC&pg=PA333#v=onepage&q=&f=falsehttp://books.google.es/books?id=yhbEL1KeezAC&pg=PA333#v=onepage&q=&f=falsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788466000031http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-4http://books.google.es/books?id=jbwoP1unhg0C&pg=PA232&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=falsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788489569997http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1143059786http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781143059780http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-6http://historiaregnemallorca.blogspot.com/2009/04/cronicas-de-ramon-muntaner.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300078800http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300078800http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300078800http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-ALMO_10-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-11http://www.archive.org/stream/lospirineusobrad00bala/lospirineusobrad00bala_djvu.txthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almogavars#cite_ref-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muladihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muladi#mw-headhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muladi#p-searchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Spanishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Portuguese_and_Galicianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalan_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Catalanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Catalanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_transliterationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslimshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muladi#Etymologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muladi#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muladi#Famous_Muladihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muladi#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muladi#Footnoteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muladi#References


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Aljamiado text in 16th century

The Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan words mulad, muladi ormuladita are derived fromArabic muwallad. The basic meaning ofmuwalladis a person of mixed ancestry, especially adescendant of anArab and a non-Arabparent, who grew up among Arabs and was educated

within the Islamic culture.

Muwalladis derived from the root word WaLaD ( direct Arabic transliteration: waw, lam,dal). Waladmeans, "descendant, offspring, scion; son; boy; young animal (male), young one(male)."Muwalladreferred to the offspring of Arab men and foreign, non-Arab women. Theterm muwalladin is used in Arabic up to this day to describe the children between Arabfathers and foreign mothers.[1]

According to Dozy,Muwalladmeans "anyone who, without being of Arab origin, is bornamong the Arabs and has been raised as an Arab".[2] The word, according to him, does notnecessarily imply Arab ancestry, either paternal or maternal.

According to the dictionnary of the Real Academia Espaola,Muladi means "ChristianSpaniard who, during the Arab domination in Spain, embraced Islam and lived among theMuslims." http://buscon.rae.es/draeI/SrvltConsulta?TIPO_BUS=3&LEMA=muladi

According to Bernards and Nawas, the plural form of the word seems to be restricted to al-Andalus, almost exclusively to the areas of Mrida, Granada, Seville and Jan.[3]

"Muladi" has been offered as one of the possible etymological origins of the still-currentSpanish and Portuguese termMulatto, denoting a person of white and black ancestry. In theBasquelanguage, the word mairuak(builders of semi-circularArches) referred to Muladimerchants and travelers who builtMosques in the rural regions ofIberia.

History
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aljamiadohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muladi#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muladi#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_Academia_Espa%C3%B1olahttp://buscon.rae.es/draeI/SrvltConsulta?TIPO_BUS=3&LEMA=muladihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muladi#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mulattohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mulattohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basque_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basque_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosqueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosqueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Civitas_Toletana,_AD_976.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aljamiado.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aljamiado.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aljamiadohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muladi#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muladi#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_Academia_Espa%C3%B1olahttp://buscon.rae.es/draeI/SrvltConsulta?TIPO_BUS=3&LEMA=muladihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muladi#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mulattohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basque_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosqueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberia


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Muladi art fromToledo in Al-Andalus depicting the Alczarin the year 976.AD

In Islamic historymuwalladun designates in a broader sense non-Arab neo-Muslims or thedescendants ofconverts. In the Muslim-ruled parts of the Iberian Peninsula, parts of theindigenous until-then Christian population (basically a mixture of thepre-Roman peoples ofthe Iberian Peninsula,ancient Romans, Visigoths andSuebi) converted toIslam in the 8th and9th centuries. In the 10th century a massive conversion of Christians took place, so thatmuladies comprised the majority of the population ofAl-Andalus by the century's end.However, the majority of Muwallads had embraced Islam early, but retained many pre-Islamic customs and characteristics.

Conversion to Islamwas encouraged by the Ummayad caliphs and Emirs of Crdoba but itwas not forced. Many Christians converted to Islam to avoid the Jizya tax which they weresubjected to asDhimmis.[4]Conversion to Islam also opened up new horizons to the nativeChristians, alleviated their social position, ensured better living conditions, and broadened

their scope for more technically skilled and advanced work.[5]

The Christians who embraced Islam becameMawali, or clients attached to an Arab tribe, andas such, were thoroughly Arabized, adopting the Arab dress code, customs, and language.[6]

The Muwallads were also calledMuslima (Islamized), and elches (ilj, plural: ulus), inreference to the society from which they sprang. They later were denominated Aljamiados

because of their non Arabic-tongue, the term having particular reference to the Persianlanguage.

Through the culturalArabization ofmuladies and their increasing inter-marriage with some

Berbersand Arabs present in Iberia, the distinctions between the different Muslim groupsbecame increasingly blurred in the 11th and 12th centuries. The populations mixed with suchrapidity that it was soon impossible to distinguish ethnically the elements of foreign originfrom the natives. Thus they merged into a more homogeneous group ofAndalusi Arabsgenerally also calledMoors.[6]

Poems in Aljamiado.

The Muwallads primarily spokeAndalusian Arabic, along with a wide variety ofIberianRomance languages.Andalusian Arabic was a mixture of Iberian languages and ClassicalAra

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