FIL991

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Using Machinery

These resources were produced with the financial support of ELWa

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Tractor operation and maintenanceTractors, along with their variant the rough terrain fork lift, are the major source of power on farms. This unit is concerned with the major systems of the tractor, procedures for driving it from rest, operating it with a range of mounted and trailed attachments, moving physical resources around the workarea and maintaining it.

Outcomes

There are five outcomes to this unit. By the end of the unit you will be able to

1. identify the major systems and key components of the tractor 2. start up, drive and stop the tractor 3. operate a tractor with a range of mounted and trailed attachments

4. load, transport and unload physical sources securely and safely5. carry out routine and non-routine maintenance

Assessment

The outcomes for this unit will be assessed using evidence from

1. Practical activities – These are listed for each outcome. Theassessment will be by means of a set assignment for the unit.

2. Written test – The underpinning knowledge requirements are listed

for each outcome. These will be assessed by a multiple-choicequestion paper based on the test specification.

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Table of Contents

Tractor operation and maintenance .................................................................1Outcomes.....................................................................................................2

Assessment ..............................................................................................2

Chapter 1 - Identify the major systems and key components of the tractor .....5The cycle of operation of the compression ignition engine...........................5

The Four Stroke Cycle..............................................................................5How to ensure the smooth running of the engine and produce maximumpower. ..........................................................................................................7

Correct gear selection...............................................................................7Correct fuel settings..................................................................................8Temperature control .................................................................................8Tyre wear..................................................................................................8

The major systems on the tractor and their key components. ......................9The Fuel System.......................................................................................9

Air cleaners...............................................................................................9Turbochargers ........................................................................................12The fuel injection pump...........................................................................15The fuel Injector ......................................................................................15The Governor..........................................................................................16

The Cooling System ...................................................................................17 Air Cooling ..............................................................................................17Water cooling..........................................................................................18Water Circulation ....................................................................................19The Impeller............................................................................................20The Thermostat ......................................................................................20

The Lubrication System..............................................................................20Oil Filters.................................................................................................22

Electrical and starting .................................................................................24The alternator .........................................................................................24The Dynamo ...........................................................................................25The Starter Motor....................................................................................25How the starter turns the engine.............................................................25Electrical switches ..................................................................................26

The Transmission System..........................................................................26The clutch ...............................................................................................27

The Gearbox...........................................................................................27The Differential .......................................................................................28Final Gear reduction ...............................................................................29

The Hydraulic System. ...............................................................................30The Three-point Linkage.........................................................................31 Auxiliary Hydraulic Tappings...................................................................32

Wheels, tyres and brakes...........................................................................33Wheels and tyres....................................................................................33

The Power Take-off Shaft ..........................................................................38The Live P.T.O........................................................................................39External Controls ....................................................................................40

BIBLIOGRAPHY.........................................................................................40Chapter 2 - Start up, drive and stop the tractor .............................................41

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Pre-start checks .........................................................................................41Personal pre-start checks .......................................................................41Tractor pre-start checks..........................................................................41

The instrument panel..................................................................................41Tractor driving and common hazards .........................................................44

BIBLIOGRAPHY.........................................................................................46Chapter 3 - Operate a tractor with a range of mounted and trailed attachments.......................................................................................................................47

Attaching trailed and mounted equipment and machines........................... 47Drawbar and pick-up hitch ......................................................................47

Warning signals and indicators...................................................................51Tractor driving with attachments.................................................................52BIBLIOGRAPHY.........................................................................................60

Chapter 4 - Load, transport and unloading materials securely and safely .....61Operate mechanical lifting equipment to conform with the relevant legalrestrictions: e.g. maximum weight ..............................................................61

Transporting resources safely.................................................................62Stacking and storing...................................................................................65

Safe stacking of traditional bales ............................................................65Safe stacking of big bales.......................................................................65Fertilisers ................................................................................................66Sawdust..................................................................................................66

Transporting material .................................................................................68Monitoring loads .........................................................................................68BIBLIOGRAPHY.........................................................................................69

Chapter 5 - Carry out routine and non routine maintenance .......................... 70Typical Service Schedule ...........................................................................70

10 hours(or daily)....................................................................................7050 hours (or weekly) ...............................................................................71300 hours................................................................................................71600 hours................................................................................................71

Preparing the tractor and work area for maintenance ................................72Dealing with hazardous chemicals and substances: e.g. storage anddisposal in accordance with COSHH regulations ....................................... 72Maintenance tasks and the correct procedures for carrying out routine andnon routine maintenance............................................................................73Personal protective equipment (PPE) ........................................................74

Storing tools and materials after use ..........................................................75BIBLIOGRAPHY.........................................................................................76Chapter 6 - Health and Safety General..........................................................77

Safe working practice .................................................................................77Using tractors with attachments in and around the work area....................77The action to take in the event of. ..............................................................77Manufacturers instructions .........................................................................78Health and safety – Specific.......................................................................78

Farm safety policy...................................................................................79Risk assessment.....................................................................................79PUWER ..................................................................................................80

Codes of practice....................................................................................80BIBLIOGRAPHY.........................................................................................81

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Chapter 1 - Identify the major systems and keycomponents of the tractor

The cycle of operation of the compression ignition engine.

The internal combustion engine is a form of heat engine and the name “heatengine” is given because heat energy produced by the burning of fuel withinthe engine is changed into mechanical energy. Different types of fuel are usedin different types of engines , most tractor engines use diesel and are calledcompression ignition engines(C.I. engines). The engine is made very muchthe same as the petrol or vaporizing oil engine, but because higher pressureand thrusts take place within the engine itself, it is made stronger. The basicparts are very much the same as in the other types of engines, the method of operation is slightly different. Instead of fuel/air mixture being taken into the

cylinder, air alone enters and this is compressed to such an extent that itbecomes very hot. It becomes so hot in fact that it will set fire to fuel injectedinto it hence the name compression ignition engine.

The series of events is usually known as the operating cycle and most tractor engines operate on what is known as the four-stroke cycle .

The Four Stroke Cycle

1. The Induction Stroke. The piston moves down, inlet valve open,exhaust valve closed. The downward movement of the piston

creates a partial vacuum in the cylinder and air only ruches inthrough the inlet valve passage. At the bottom at the stroke the inletvalve closes trapping the air within the cylinder.

2. The Compression Stroke. The piston moves up, the inlet valve isclosed, the exhaust valve is closed. The upward movement of thepiston compresses the air to very high temperature, about 1000°F.This temperature is reached because the volume within the cylinder is reduced to approximately 16 times its original volume.

3. The Power Stroke. When the piston is at the top of the compressionstroke, a spray of fuel is injected into the cylinder. This fuel ignitesimmediately when it comes in contact with the hot air. The burningfuel/air mixture expands and thrusts the piston down the cylinder.

4. The Exhaust Stroke. The piston moves up the cylinder, the inletvalve is closed, the exhaust valve is open. The upward movementof the piston pushes the burnt gases out through the exhaust valvepassage ant to the atmosphere.

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How to ensure the smooth running of the engine and producemaximum power.

Why is it important to maximise power and efficient use of your tractor?

• Reduces energy consumption

• Saves fuel costs

• Reduces downtime

• Results in less waste

• Helps tractor and equipment to last longer

Several operating controls and adjustments are available to drivers of tractorsand the driver should understand the response characteristics of each controland the purpose of each adjustment. Driver safety and economic benefit will

result.

One key element for the efficient use of all tractors is that they are regularlymaintained according to the manufacturer’s instructions.

One other element is that all drivers need to be trained to operate the tractorsas per manufacturer’s recommendations. It is also essential to ensure that thetractors power is sufficient for the operations carried out.

Correct gear selection

When you use the tractor, correct gear selection to fit the task will have asignificant effect on the efficiency of the operation. In the modern tractor thereare many forward and reverse gears to select from. Most tractor field speedsare determined by the implement and not by the power ability of the tractor although considerable savings may be possible depending on how you arriveat the speed. Some implements require the tractor to maintain certain enginerevs in order to work as required. In order to maintain the revs, you may needto make gear shift adjustments to meet changes in ground conditions or changes in inclines.

Travelling on rough ground requires a reduction in travelling speed whilemaintaining tractor revs, this is achieved by moving down to a lower gear.When operating in areas of the fields where the ground conditions may bewetter, again adjustments will be needed to compensate for the loss of traction and possible decrease in engine revs.

When travelling up or down inclines, gear changes should be made beforestarting the operation. Changing down gears in either direction is necessary tomaintain control and engine revs .

When pulling up an incline, failure to select the appropriate gear, engine revswill fall which will affect the performance of the implement attached and

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therefore the efficiency of the task. Change down at the base of the incline inorder to maintain the power output of the tractor.

When travelling down an incline, in order to maintain control and revs, use thesame gear used to climb the incline. In this way you will maximise both

efficiency and power of the tractor.

In some field work the tractor may have changing demands from theattachment e.g. when side loading from a forage harvester. The load weightbeing pulled will change and this affects the performance of the tractor. Whenempty and on a flat field the tractor will find it easy to manage the load, as thetrailer is filling up gear selection will need to compensate for the increasedweight and changing ground conditions in order to maintain the performanceof the tractor safely.

Correct fuel settings.

In most tractors the fuel setting is set by the manufacturer and is usuallyadjusted by the dealer . Most tractors will have seals to ensure that theseadjustments are not done on farm. Tampering with the injectors, mayseriously affect your warranties.

Exhaust smoke is a good indicator of the operating condition of your engine.

Blue smoke from a CI engine implies combustion of lubricating oil that enters

the combustion chamber past the piston rings, past worn valve guides, or fromworn turbocharger shaft seals.

White smoke consists of unburned fuel mist and occurs with misfiring duringcranking and under low temperature operations.

Black smoke arises from incompletely burned carbon because of worninjectors or over-fuelling foe CI engines.

Light grey is a normal colour for most CI engines.

Temperature control

The operating temperature of an engine, as indicated by coolant temperature,can also affect power and efficiency. For most engines temperatures higher than 93°C will result in coolant loss and burning of oil. The thermostatmaintains a constant temperature automatically. The operator should monitor the temperature reading and take proper action if any variation is indicatedfrom the manufacturer’s recommendations.

Tyre wear

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Tyres deteriorate with use and exposure. Wheel slippage wears away the lugson drive tyres. Sidewalls can buckle and break from overloading and /or under inflation. Oil, oxygen, and sunlight cause rubber to craze, crack and weaken.

Fig 2 Tyres and Tracks (John Deere)

The major systems on the tractor and their key components.

The Fuel System

The diesel engine fuel system is made up of the following main parts:-

An air cleaner •

• A fuel lift pump

• Fuel filters

• Fuel injection pump

• Fuel injectors

Air cleaners

The air cleaner is necessary especially when you consider how filthy the air can get when carrying out certain field work e.g. cultivating. Should dust and

dirt enter the engine, very rapid wear may take place on valves, pistons andcylinders and all bearings. There could also be a rapid build up of carbon in

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the combustion chambers and on the valves. This carbon would glow red anupset the running of the engine.

d

here are two main types of air cleaners :-

he Oil-bath, three-stage air cleaner.ome tangentially and this sets the air

air passes rapidly down the stack pipe and dust in the air is

ough an oil-damp wire gauze, trapping any dirt

order to maintain this type of cleaner, you should clean out the dome

l,

o

ig 3 Oil bath air cleaner(Basic Farm Machinery)

T

TStage one - air enters the pre-cleaner dand dirt swirling, thus throwing heavy dirt particles out through the dust-ejection slots.Stage two – thedriven into the oil and trapped.Stage three – the air passes thr that may have escaped the oil bath, from here the air passes out through arubber hose into the inlet manifold and engine.

In

regularly, remove oil-bath bowl and clean out stack pipe. Drain the old oiclean out the bowl and refill to the level with new oil, wash out gauzes withparaffin and blow excess paraffin away with an air-line if possible, or allow tdrain thoroughly. Re-assemble the filter. Check the condition of the hose andconnections between the filter and engine to ensure the hose is not split or loose.

F

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Dry-element-type air filter – which contain a replaceable element made of

wax-paper material which must be changed when it becomes partly cloggedwith dirt. Some tractors have a visual check monitor fitted to the engineinduction system, this warns you that the filter is becoming clogged.

Pre-cleaners are designed to removes large particles before they reach thecleaner element.

Fig 4 Pre-cleaner (Farm Machinery)

A good guide to a partially blocked air cleaner is black smoke from theexhaust. This indicates that the engine is not receiving its full air supply. Abadly neglected air cleaner starves the engine of air which causes excess fuelconsumption, power loss and rapid engine wear.

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Fig 5 Dry air cleaner

Turbochargers

his is a type of blower, hot exhaust gases from the engine drive a fan which

ig 6 Turbo-charger (Farm Machinery)

Tin turn drives another fan which draws air from the air cleaner forcing more air into the cylinders. You can increase tractor power by 30%.

F

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The fuel lift pump is usually fitted to the fuel line of the diesel fuel system. Inthe case of the diesel engine the lift pump provides fuel at a constant pressure

to the injection pump. This pressure also helps to push fuel through the filter elements before it gets to the injection pump.

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Fig 7 Fuel Pump (Basic Farm Machinery)

The pump is operated by a cam on the engine camshaft so that it pumpscontinually as long as the engine is running. A filter gauze is fitted within the

pump and it serves as one point where dirt and moisture can be trapped.

One or more fuel filters are used to filter the fuel as it is pumped from the liftpump to the infection pump. These filters are most important to ensure thatno dirt finds its way to the injection pump or injectors. They take form of ametal container in which there is either a cloth, felt or paper filter element andthey are arranged so that the fuel

must pass through the element. Dirt in the fuel is trapped on the surface of theelement.

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Fig 8 Fuel Filters (Basic Farm Machinery)

Eventually these elements will become blocked with dirt so it is necessary toreplace them. The interval for replacing varies with the different type of element but it usually between 200-400 engine working hours.

The fuel injection pump

Two types of fuel injection pumps are in general use, a plunger type or adistributor type pump. In both cases engine speed is increased by operatingthe necessary acceleration control which causes the pump to feed more fuelto the engine. A plunger type pump used on a four-cylinder engine will bemade up of four pumping units and each will feed an injector which sprays fuelinto the cylinder, whilst the distributor pump makes use of a single pumpingand distributing rotor which feeds each injector in turn.

The fuel Injector

The purpose of the injector is to inject small quantities of fuel into the cylinder.This fuel must be broken into very fine spray which is achieved by forcing fuelthrough minute holes in the end of the injector.

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Fig 9 General Layout of the Fuel System (Basic farm Machinery)

The Governor

There are two main types of governor which prevent engine damage due toover-revving and also help maintain close speed control for any particular machine the engine may be driving.

• Mechanical governor which gives a very quick response to any loadchanges therefore maintaining reasonable constant revs of the engine.

•

Pneumatic governor which have been fitted in inline injector pumps buttend to respond slower causing considerable drop or gain in enginerevs before correcting and settling.

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Fig 10 Governor (Basic Farm Machinery)

The Cooling System

The heat produced on the power stroke of a diesel engine can be as high as1600’C and this is greater than the melting point of the engine parts that comein contact with the heat, thus it is essential to have an efficient cooling system.

Assuming the heat value of the fuel used to be 100% then probably 30% isused to produce power, 40% is passed to the atmosphere via the exhaust and

30% is dissipated by the cooling system. Some heat is also removed by the oilemployed by the lubrication system.

It is very important that the engine does not over heat or “boil the water”, but itis equally important that the engine does not run too cool or the fuel will notvaporize properly, again causing damage and rapid wear.

Air Cooling

This method is used mainly for small single cylinder engines, such as thosefitted to horticultural machines, or which may be found around the farm drivingsuch things as elevators.

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Cooling in this case is done by directing a blast of air around the cylinder andcylinder head, both of which are finned. This finning provides a large surfaceareas through which the h

eat can spread and from which heat is taken away

wer and directed over the cylinder to cool it. Figure 14

The majority of tractor engines are water cooled. This is a more effectiveling for a multi-cylinder engine.

he engine cylinders are completely surrounded by a water jacket which also

r. From another outlet at

an

by the cooling air.The blast of air is created by fitting a blower fan on the engine flywheel and

this is encased in a cowling which extends over and around the cylinder. Air isdrawn in by the bloshows a typical air cooling arrangement.Overheating of this type of engine will take place if the spaces between thefins are allowed to become choked with dirt.

Fig 11 Air cooling (Farm Machinery)

Water cooling

method than air cooTextends into the cylinder head, and from the cylinder head an outlet isconnected by a rubber hose to the top of the radiatothe bottom of the radiator, a hose connection is taken to the water jacketsurrounding the cylinder, this provides a path through which the water cflow

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The Impeller

Thermo-syphon circulation by itself is not satisfactory for the modern engine,

ent of the water is usually helped by an impeller. Thispeller is simply a metal disk with vanes around one of its faces. It is

lation

This used to help control the temperature of the water in the vicinity cylinders.n an engine is started up from cold or when it has to “idle”

un slowly) for a long time.

efficient working temperature is reached withinvement

e

ayical

moving parts on the tractor. When tractor em very smooth but in fact these surfaces will

ok rough if viewed though a microscope. When two surfaces rub together it

• Splash lubrication – is quite simple and provided that oil levels and oilation is achieved

by oil splash . A “dipper” is provided on the end of the big-end cap.When the engine is running the dipper dips into a narrow trough of oil

therefore movemimpositioned in the cooling system and driven by the fan shaft. As it rotates itdraws cooler water up from the bottom of the radiator, thus helping circu

The Thermostat

It is vary useful whe

(r The thermostat is a form of automatic valve fitted into the outlet pipeconnecting the cylinder head to the top of the radiator. It restricts the flow of water to the radiator until anthe cylinder block. The flow of water is either stopped, has limited moor unrestricted movement according to the temperature of the water. Becausof the volume of water within the cylinder block its much less than that withinthe whole cooling system, it means that rapid warming up from cold takesplace. The water in the block is circulated by the water pump while thethermostat is closed, a bypass is incorporated in the circuit to allow thisinternal circulation. On some engines the thermostat opens and closes this

bypass circuit. This internal prevents localised hot spots forming which mdamage parts of the engine castings. Figure 16 shows the layout of a typcooling system in a modern engine.

A suitable working temperature of an engine is about 90°C (194°F) and thisshould be maintained if possible

The Lubrication System

Designed to prevent damage toparts are manufactured they se

lothey produce heat(friction) and if the heat generated was high enough thenis possible that these surfaces could melt and weld together. The main aim of lubrication is to put a film of oil between the working surfaces of the metalparts to cool the effect of friction and therefore protect the surfaces.

Three methods of lubricating engines are commonly used :

changes are not neglected is quite reliable. Oil lubric

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which is positioned directly beneath it ,and throws or splashes oil over the engine tarts within the engine crankcase. (the big end, little end,crankshaft bearings, camshaft and timing gears, )Splash Lubrication (Basic Farm Machinery)Fig 13

•

sometimes a magnetic filter, oil ways to the various bearings and anoil-pressure gauge.

Force feed lubrication which feeds the oil to the parts. The parts thatmake up this system is a pump usually in the form of a gear pump, apump inlet oil strainer, a pressure relief-valve and external filter,

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pressurised lubrication systems are fitted with external replaceable elementfilters.

There are two main types of filters :

• Replaceable-element filter where the filter is housed inside a

removable casing. This casing is sealed at the top and bottom withrubber rings, and held in place by a central bolt.

• Replaceable-cartridge type where the whole unit is unscrewed fromthe engine and discarded and a new unit is fitted. It is screwed in placeby hand pressure sealed with a rubber ring.

Fig 15 Oil Filter (Basic Farm Machinery)

Engines are fitted with a crankcase breather which necessary to provide anoutlet for any build-up of pressure in the crankcase. Sometimes the oil filler hole is arranged to form a breather by fitting a filter mesh cove on it.

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Electrical and starting

All tractors have a battery. The battery is needed to operate the lights, electriccontrols and more importantly to start the engine. The battery stores electricalenergy in chemical form and when required the energy can be released. Thebattery consists of a number of cells, each cell having an approximateelectrical pressure of 2V. The battery is made up of POSITIVE (leadperoxide) and NEGATIVE (lead) plates. A cell has a number of similar plateswelded together. These are interlaced so the plates alternate negative,positive and so on. The whole assembly is contained in a battery case with avent cap on top to allow the battery to be checked for electrolyte level andpermit gases to escape. A heavy-duty battery has more positive and negativeplates than a light-duty battery.

Fig 16 Plates forming cell (Basic Farm Machinery)

The alternator

With modern machinery there is an increasing use of electric al equipmentwhich places heavy demands on the battery and charging circuit. Thealternator has the capacity to supply a higher current at low engine speeds.The alternator employs the same principle as a dynamo in that when amagnetic field is broken by a coil of wire, electricity is produced. The dynamodoes this by moving the conductor or coil through a stationary magnetic field,whereas the alternator has a moving magnetic field(rotating magnet) within astationary conductor .This produces a alternating current(a.c.) which ischanged to a direct current( d.c.) for use.

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The Dynamo

The function of the dynamo is to:

• Supply the electricity needed by the vehicle

• Keep the battery in a charged condition

The dynamo consists of a coil of wire , known as a the armature, which isrotated between magnetic poles. As the armature rotates, voltage isgenerated and this is carried to the commutator. Brushes rub against thecommutator and pass the electricity to the wires of the electrical circuit.

The Starter Motor

The principle of the starter motor is based on magnetism and is constructedvery much like a dynamo. It has field coils, armature and brushes, but itsmethod of operation is the reverse of that of the dynamo. The dynamo isdriven by the engine and it produces current which flows to the battery. Whenthe starter motor is operated continually and the engine does not fire, thebattery is very soon exhausted.

How the starter turns the engine

The starter motor is heavily constructed to enable it to carry the heavy current

required to give it good turning power, for it must have enough power to movethe engine

Fig 17 Starting the engine

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The clutch

The clutch is in the power train immediately after the engine flywheel. It is aconnection device between the engine and the rest of the system. Clutchesused on tractors may operate dry or run in oil(wet).The wet clutch is often

multiple plate; that is, it has more than one driving disk. Clutches may be heldin engagement by springs or by over centre linkage. Hydraulic clutches areheld in engagement by fluid pressure.

In the dry, single clutch, the clutch is attached to the engine flywheel so that itrotates with it. A friction plate is splined onto the clutch shaft. Splines areformed by cutting rectangular shaped grooves out along a portion of the shaft.If we have splines cut in the centre of the clutch plate, these can be mated onto the shaft so that it will slide along the shaft, yet rotate with it.

The end of the input shaft is fitted into a bearing in the centre of the flywheeland the plate is positioned between the face of the flywheel and a spring –loaded pressure plate. In order to transmit the drive from the engine flywheelto the clutch shaft which goes directly to the gearbox, it is only necessary toallow the clutch plate to be gripped between faces of the flywheel and thepressure plate. The heavy spring pressure is sufficient to do this and form asolid drive to the shaft. To release the pressure on the spring it is onlynecessary to press the clutch foot pedal which pushes forward the thrustbearing which in turn releases the pressure and grip between the pressureplate and the flywheel and the drive to the clutch shaft ceases.

Fig 18 Clutch (Basic Farm Machinery)

The Gearbox

The main purpose of the gearbox is to reduce the speed of the drive from theengine crankshaft before the drive is applied to rear wheels of the tractor. It

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will also change the speed ration as required. The gearbox provides means of allowing the tractor to be reversed and allows the drive to the wheels to bestopped without stopping the engine by means of the clutch.

The Differential

The drive from the engine comes in a straight line with the engine crankshaft,in order for the rear wheels of the tractor may be driven, it is now necessaryfor the drive to be taken at right angles to this line.

The gearbox output shaft extends a short distance outside the gearbox andhas fitted to its end a toothed gear known as a bevel pinion. This pinion is inmesh with another bevel gear known as the crown wheel. This achieves threethings

• Change direction of the drive

• Speed reduction

• Allows each drive wheel to rotate at a faster or slower rate than theother when turning corners

To allow this to happen, the unit known as the differential is used and isdirectly attached to the crown wheel. The disadvantage of the differential is,for example, a tractor is ploughing, one of its wheels is usually running on agreasy surface, this can result in that wheel skidding. To overcome this, thetractor is fitted with a differential lock which will make both wheels travel

together in a straight line.

Fig 19 Differential (Farm Machinery)

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Final Gear reduction

All gearboxes have some form of gear reduction as the drive leaves thedifferential unit before reaching the wheels. Two examples are:-

• Spur reduction. This is where the half-shafts coming from thedifferential unit are fitted with a small spur coupled to a large spur gear wheel which is directly on the end of the rear axle.

• Epicyclic reduction. This is where the drive from the differential entersan epicyclic gear pack and the drive is reduced to the wheel speed.

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Fig 20 Example of a transmission system.(Farm Machinery)

The Hydraulic System.

Its main use is in the operating of field machinery for either above or belowsurface implements. It can also provide power to operate remote rams or motors on harvesting, hedging or ditching machinery, etc.

In the tractor hydraulic system the pump supplying oil to the ram cylinder isusually a gear pump driven by the engine or some part of the transmissionsystem and pressures of up to 910 kg (2000Ib approx.) are provided.

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It is necessary in such systems to have control over the flow of oil so thatexcessive pressures are not built up, therefore safety valves are incorporatedas protection. The tractor driver operates the raising and lowering of animplement by the control lever fitted near his driving seat. Movement of thelever operates a valve which controls the flow of oil to the ram cylinder.

Diagram shows a basic tractor hydraulic system. The illustration shows theprinciples only, but the arrangement of ram cylinder, lift arms and linkagearms is typical. The intake of the oil to the pump is filtered , usually by bothgauze filter and magnetic filter. This is the most important because thesmallest particle of dirt or metal can cause considerable damage to theessential parts of the system. When changing the oils in the hydraulic system,absolute cleanliness should be aimed at

The Three-point Linkage

The three-point linkage shown consists of two lower links pivoted beneath thetractor’s back axle, and a top link pivoted at the top of the back axle housing.The lower links are attached to the back arms by lifting rods and right one of these is adjustable.

The Diagram also shows how lifting and lowering of the lower linkage arms isbrought about. Oil forced into the cylinder pushes back the ram which in turncauses the lift arms to move up. If the oil can be trapped in the cylinder, it willsupport a weight hung on the linkage arms, and lowering of the weight can bebrought about by allowing the oil to escape from the cylinder when required.

This is all achieved by having valves in the system which may be arranged tooperate automatically or by hand lever control. The ends of the linkage armsand top link are fitted on to an implement. These ball joints or pins are either category 2 which is 28mm (11/8 in.) diameter.

Fitting of the implement to the tractor entails reversing the tractor to theimplement with the lower link arms down, and stopping when the ends of thearms come in line with the attachment pins on the implement. The non-adjustable (left) arm is fitted first to the implement and then secured, then theother arm which can be adjusted if required to bring it in line for attachment.Finally, the top link is attached to tractor and implement.

With an implement attached to a tractor in this way, together form a singleworking unit. The implement is easily transported from one place to another and just as easily lifted in and out of work by the lift control lever which isconveniently placed for the operator to use. The method of operating in thefield varies according to the design of the hydraulic system.

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Fig 21 Simple hydraulic system (Basic Farm Machinery)

Auxiliary Hydraulic Tappings

The tractor’s hydraulic system also provides a useful source of hydraulicpower for the operation of implements or parts of implements remotely

connected to the tractor. Typical examples of the use of this power can befound on hydraulic tipping trailers, fore-end loaders, rear loaders, ditchingmachinery and driving hydraulic motors. Nearly all modern tractors areprovided with outlet points where flexible pipes can be fitted to convey oil fromthe hydraulic pump to an external ram and cylinder fitted to an implement. Oilpressure to fed the ram can then be used to raise or move parts of implements. For example, in the tipping trailer a flexible pipe is connectedbetween a self- sealing outlet union on the tractor, to a ram and cylinder beneath the trailer body. The trailer body can then be raised by operation of the hydraulic control lever. Lowering is brought about by moving the controlvalve so that the weight of the trailer body forces the oil out of the cylinder.

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Fig 21a Simple auxilliary system (Basic Farm Machinery)

Wheels, tyres and brakes

Wheels and tyres

ractor will be either two-wheel or four wheel drive. Both types will have larger

is

el

he tyre is very important as it will affect the traction of the tractor with the

tyre

Trear wheels which are the main drive wheels and smaller front wheels. Thereis also the option of using twin wheels which are usually clamped on to rear wheels where greater stability or increased tyre footprint are required. Therea need for increased stability if you are operating on inclines and for a larger footprint when operating on soft surfaces. Some people will put twin wheelson the front also. On two-wheel drive tractors the tyre treads of the front whetend to be ribbed following the circumference of the tyre. The four-wheel drivetractor will have the same tread on both sets of wheels.

Tground surface. On two-wheeled drive tractors, the rear wheels only aretraction wheels and the front wheels are for steering. On four-wheel drivetractors all four wheels are involved in improving the traction. The tractionwill penetrate the soil, prevent slip and slide and is designed with open treadsto allow self-cleaning.

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Fig 22 Standard Tyre construction (Tyres and Tracks – John Deere)

There are two types of tyre available

• Cross ply where the layers are formed 45 degrees to the bead

• Radial where the layers are at 90 degrees to the bead.

Tyres are also given a ply rating. When tyres are made they are built up of anumber of layers of fabric or canvas material on which is moulded the rubber tread. The ply-rating refers to the number of layers e.g. four ply/six ply. The

later being thicker and stronger and will support more weight. All tyres willhave maximum load capacity which means the load which the tyre cansupport safely. This information would be available from the manufacturer’stechnical data sheets.

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Fig 23 Tyre construction (Ian Harries)

When looking at the information on the tyre, what to the figures relateto?

Standard tyre – 13.6/12-38

13.6 relates to the width of the tyre

12 relates to the width of rim

38 relates to the diameter of the rim

Defects and problems with tyres

Before using the tractor you need to check the tyres for

• Wear • Bulges

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• Ballast ( if applicable)

• Pressure

• Tears

Brakes

The two main types of brakes are

• Drum brakes where two brake shoes are moved outwards by amechanism operated from the foot pedal. A brake drum is fixed to therotating member and this drum totally encloses the brake’s shoes. Thetractor wheel is also fitted to the rotating member so that when thetractor is moving, both drum and wheel are turning as one. When thebrake is depressed the partial rotation of the brake cam at the top of the back plate moves the brake shoes, which are pivoted at the bottom,outwards, so that they come into contact with the brake drum.

Fig 24 Drum Brakes (Farm Machinery)

• Disc brakes – the rotating brake disc is gripped on both sides by pads

ulic

h the

s

t

mounted in one or two fixed brake callipers. The callipers containpistons which are pressed against the rotating brake disc by hydraforce which is produced by depressing the brake foot pedal. Thehydraulic force built up in the master cylinder is transferred througbrake lines to the brake callipers to push the pistons from their initialposition on the pads and hence brake the discs. To ensure the pistonreturn to their initial position after braking, they are surrounded by aspecial rubber gland. This is deformed when the piston is pushed ouso that it snaps back to its original shape as soon as the brake isreleased, pulling the piston back with it.

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Fig 25 Disc Braking system (PROFI Tractor Repair Manual)

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The Power Take-off Shaft

The power take off shaft, usually called the p.t.o. , Provides us with a means

of driving machines. The power of the tractor engine is not only being used tomove the tractor and pull or carry the machine, but also used to operate themachine.The p.t.o shaft is an extension of the gearbox layshaft which is beingcontinuously driven . It is therefore necessary to provide a means whereby thep.t.o shaft can be disengaged independently of the engine and transmission.This is done simply by putting a clutch device in the p.t.o line and arranging itso it can be engaged and disengaged by a lever positioned within convenientreach of the tractor driver. Diagram shows an alternative arrangement wheretwo separate shafts are used.

The end of the p.t.o shaft protrudes outside the rear end of the tractor for adistance of about 10cm (4 in. approx). This end is splined so that a suitablecoupling, internally splined, can be slid on to it and locked in position to form asolid drive .

The type of coupling shaft used to transmit the power of the engine to themachine being driven has two universal joints, it is telescopic and alwaysrotates even when the machine is not in a straight line behind the tractor.

There are two sizes and types of p.t.o shafts.

The standard 6-spline 35mm (13/8in) operating at 540 rpm.The new 21-spline 35mm (13/8in) diameter operating at 540 rpm.Both of these shafts rotate in clockwise direction when viewed from the rear of the tractor.

Fig 26 PTO Shaft System (Basic Farm Machinery)

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Most tractors can be fitted with both of the above types of p.t.o shafts, or withinterchangeable shafts which automatically alter the output speed whenengaged and fitted.

The Live P.T.O.

The standard p.t.o. previously described will stop rotating if the tractor engineclutch is disengaged by depressing the clutch pedal. This is because theclutch disconnects the engine from the gearbox, which drives the p.t.o. shaft.Forward movement of the tractor will also be stopped.

If in some operations where power driven-implements are used thisarrangement can be a handicap, because it is often necessary to stop theforward movement of the tractor without stopping the p.t.o. shaft from drivingthe implement; for example, when baling hay it is often necessary to allow thepick-up to clear itself of hay before more is taken in. To overcome this the livep.t.o. was introduced.

One arrangement is to provide a large p.t.o shaft. A dual clutch is used and itincorporates two clutch discs, one of which transmits the drive from the engineto the transmission and the other transmits the drive to the p.t.o shaft. This isdone through the medium of hollow and solid drive shafts. The arrows shownon the diagram indicate the path of the drive to the p.t.o shaft.

Fig 27 PTO Live (Basic Farm Machinery)

The p.t.o clutch disc is splined on to the hollow drive shaft to which is fitted adrive gear. This gear is in mesh with another that is fitted to a solid shaft thatcan rotate within a hollow gearbox shaft. The end of the solid shaft is shownsplined and carries a sliding gear which can be meshed with the fixed gear onthe p.t.o shaft when the engagement lever is moved in the appropriatedirection. This means that as long as the p.t.o clutch disc is gripped betweenthe clutch pressure plates the drive will go through to the p.t.o shaft.

The mechanical arrangement of the dual clutch is such that it provides two-stage operation. When the clutch pedal is depressed through about half itslength of travel, the transmission clutch is released and it stops the forward

movement of the tractor. However, it is not until the pedal is fully depressedthat the p.t.o clutch is disengaged, and the p.t.o shaft will stop rotating. This

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gives us an effective means of stopping the tractor from moving forwardswhilst still allowing the power shaft to drive an implement.

The increased use of front-mounted, power driven implements has resulted inthe provision of a front power take off on some tractors.

Fig 28 Front Three-point linkage (Farm Machinery)

External Controls

Many modern tractors have three-point linkage controls on or near the rear mud guards. When operating these controls, ensure you stand in a position asindicated in the operator’s manual.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Basic Farm Machinery ( J. M .Shippen. C.R.Ellin. C.H.Clover )

Farm Machinery (Brian Bell)

Farm Machinery Maintenance (Peter Whiley)

Machinery Maintenance (John Deere)

PROFI Manual

Tyres and Tracks (John Deere)

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Chapter 2 - Start up, drive and stop the tractor

Pre-start checks

Personal pre-start checks

• Receive training before using any machinery

• Suitable Clothing- no loose clothing or jewellery which could get caughtup in moving parts, tie back long hair, use suitable footwear (safetyboots, clean with good grip)and PPE if required (Ear defenders/gloves)

• Be alert and not overtired

• Be familiar with the controls and capability of the tractor

Tractor pre-start checks

• Check fuel – either a visual check in older models or check the fuelgauge.

• Check oil – gear box/power steering/engine /rear axle

• Clutch and brake fluid

• Check water level and radiator is free from debris

• Check tyres for wear/pressure and defects

• Check lights especially brake, indicator and beacon• Check battery connections and electrolyte level

• Check fan belt for tension and wear

• Check all windows are clean

• Check mirrors are in the correct position and clean

• Remove any tools or any other obstructions from the cab floor

Ensure that all the fuel, fluid, water, oil and electrolyte levels are to the correctlevels. (operator’s manual)Ensure all the lights are working and clean.

Set tyres to correct pressures for the work plannedTighten or replace fan belt as necessary

The instrument panel

Different tractor makes and models have instruments and controls located indifferent places. The operator’s manual will identify and explain the controlsand gauges fitted.Instruments would be for

• Fuel

• Oil pressure

• Temperature/Coolant• Ammeter

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• Hour meter

Controls

• Hand brake

• Gear levers• Hand throttle

• Foot throttle

• Clutch

• Brakes

• Hydraulic levers

• Electric controls(lights etc)

• PTO Control

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Fig 1 Instrument Panel Indicators (Ian Harries)

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Tractor driving and common hazards

Gateways

There are three potential hazards to deal with when manoeuvring throughgateways

• Size of the gap

• Uneven ground (animal ruts/tractor ruts)

• Obstructed view (Gateway onto a road)

When approaching a gateway, ensure that the width of the tractor does notexceed the gateway width. Be aware of any attachments which may increasethe overall width .

Many gateways will have uneven ground, be muddy in wet conditions with rutspresent. Adjust the speed of the tractor, be aware of the change of groundconditions and change in levels. A change in level can affect the stability of the tractor.

Due to the nature of the tractor, when passing through a gateway especiallyonto the highway, you will not have a clear view of oncoming vehicles. Moveslowly out until you are confident that no traffic will be affected by your actions. Sound the horn to make people aware of your presence. If you aretravelling in and out of the gateway throughout the day, you should have

bollards and signs on the road informing other traffic.

Blind corners

When approaching any blind corner ,approach slowly, sound your horn andproceed slowly until you have negotiated the corner. There may be people,livestock or other vehicles around the corner.

Narrow access to buildings

Ensure your tractor is able to fit in the access safely – measure it. If you can fit

into the buildings you must travel slowly and be very aware of the widthconstraint. If the building is very narrow you will have to be sure you not toturn when exiting the building until you are clear of the access.

Slopes/Varying surfaces

When you need to drive on slopes, bear in mind the following:-

• The gradient. The steeper the slope, the greater the danger. A tractor may go up a 18 degree slope safely but not come down it. Slopes of less than 10 degrees can cause accidents.

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• The surface. Grass, heather, earth, loose stones, track, road, mud., allaffect how well a tractor can deal with the slope. A change invegetation may halve the grip

• Ground conditions. A slope which is safe during dry conditions maybecome unsafe if it is wet, waterlogged, frozen, thawing, etc

• Weather conditions. The change in weather also affects the safety of the slope especially if it is raining, misty or windy.

• Uneven ground. Steer clear of ruts, potholes, depressions, rockoutcrops and animal tracks.

• Major obstacles. Take care near gateways, ditches, banks and drains.

• Hidden obstacles. Look out for rabbit holes, mole hills, rocks, treestumps – which may be hidden in vegetation.

After you have finished using the tractor and attachments leave them in acondition ready for use. When leaving the tractor in a suitable condition for

future use you should

• SAFE STOP – make sure the handbrake is fully applied, make sure allthe controls and equipment are left safe, stop the engine, remove thekey

• Park up in designated area

• Clean off the tractor – wash down the exterior especially thewindscreen and other glass areas.(side/back windows and mirrors)

• Ensure all lights are clean(head lights, side and indicator lights and anyother working lights fitted )

• Ensure the cab floor is clear of dirt and tools.

• Check tyres for damage and pressure• Report any faults

• Fuel up ready for use – moisture can build up in the fuel tank as itcools.

• Check lubricants

• Check water

Loaders

• Clean off the loader

•

Loader left on correct stand on level ground• Check attachment pins for damage

• Check hydraulic pipes and connections for bulges or other damage

• Check loader attachments (buckets, grabs etc)

• Check hydraulic rams for signs of leaking seals

• Report any faults

• Grease parts

Trailed attachments

• Clean off the implement

• Park on level ground if possible

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• Engage hand brakes if fitted

• Put onto the jacks if fitted

• Put onto the correct shoe if fitted

• Ensure hydraulic pipes are disengaged with no pressure build up

• Check hydraulic pipes and connections for bulges, leaks or other

damage• Check hydraulic rams for signs of seal leaks

• Check tyres for wear, pressure or any damage

• Visual check of implement for damage(including pto shafts)

• Grease parts


Mounted implements

• Clean off the implement

• Put on correct stand• Check hydraulic pipes for damage

• Check hydraulic rams for damage

• Visual check for damage(including pto shaft)

• Grease parts


You must also check all the hitching arrangements i.e. pick-up hitch,drawbars, pins for all of the above.

BIBLIOGRAPHY


Tractor Action (HSE)

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Chapter 3 - Operate a tractor with a range of mountedand trailed attachments

Attaching trailed and mounted equipment and machines..

There are three main ways to attach equipment or machines to a tractor.

• Loader

• Drawbar/pick-up hitch

• Three point linkage

We are not going to deal with the loader in this section, however it is classedas an attachment. On many farms the loader stays on the tractor throughoutthe year, on other farms it may stay on over the winter months only. In manycases, the initial attaching may be done by the loader/tractor dealer. What isimportant is that before operating the tractor and loader, ensure that all thepins are safe and appropriate for the loader, and that the hydraulic oil pipesare secure with no leaks or bulges. Ensure that the bucket/grab or muck-forkis securely attached .

We are going to deal with the hitching to a trailer using the drawbar and pick-up hitch. We are also going to deal with mounted and pto driven equipment.Hitching and adjusting implements cause many nonfatal accidents which can

lay you up during a busy period. It is essential that care is taken during theseoperations.

Drawbar and pick-up hitch

It is very important that any towed equipment be attached to the drawbar.Never attach a rope or chain to the rear axle, seat or to one of the lower linksof a three-point hitch. There is grave danger of upsetting your tractor backwards or of damaging it mechanically. The higher the position you pull aload from the rear of a tractor, the more likely it is to flip the tractor over

backwards.

Observe the following points while hitching your tractor

• Make sure that the area is clear and no one is behind the tractor

• Back up slowly to the implement

• Stop and apply the hand brake

• Put the tractor in neutral

• Dismount and hitch up

If you have someone helping you in hitching an implement

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• Make sure your helper stands clear while you back up the tractor

• Never allow the helper to stand between the tractor and the implement

• Back up a little more than necessary and stop the tractor

• Put the tractor in a forward gear, then allow the helper behind it

• Inch the tractor forward while your helper drops in the draw pin

If the tractor is in a forward gear and your foot slips off the clutch, it can’t runover the person. You must also ensure that the draw pin is suitable andsecure.

Fig 1 Standard drawbar (Safe Tractor Operation and Daily Care)

Fig 2 Drawbar as three-point hitch (Safe Tractor Operation and Daily Care)

You can adjust the length of the drawbar:-

- Short for equipment with no pto connection- Long for equipment with pto equipment

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Fig 3 Short position (Safe Tractor Operation and Daily Care)

Fig 4 Extended position (Safe Tractor Operation and Daly Care)

Some pick up designs mean that you have to lean out of the rear of the cab tosee the position of the hitch. If this is the case it is much safer for you to haveanother person guiding you into position – if you lean too far out of the rear

you will lose control of the clutch and brake pedals as you over stretch.

With some other pick up designs, on lowering the pick up hitch the hitchmoves out so greatly improves your view of it. You have to ensure that whenyou lift the hitch to attach an implement, you compensate for its forwardmotion by either moving the tractor forward slowly as you lift up the hitch or reversing just beyond the eye of the implement so when you lift the hitch itmoves into the required position.

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Fig 5 Pick up hitch

Fig 6 Three point attachment and pto attachment (Farm Machinery)

• When attaching implements to the three point linkage ensure that thedrawbar will not interfere with the operation of the implement. It may benecessary to remove the drawbar.

• Manoeuvre the tractor following the same steps as above

• Back up tractor so the lower links are in position for connecting toimplement-hitch pins.

• Raise or lower the lower hitch with hydraulic control to height needed to

connect to implement hitch pin.• Line up the left side linkage first.

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When and how should the horn be used?

• When reversing

• When approaching a sharp/blind corner

• When going into or out of sheds/field gateways

• To warn others that you are approaching

Fig 7 Position of signals (Massey Ferguson)

Tractor driving with attachments

The safe use of the tractor has been discussed in the previous sections.

When carrying out tractor work the implements attached, these attachmentswill change how the tractor responds. In this section we will look in generalterms how implements attached as loaders, trailed and mounted implementsaffect the tractor and what you need to be aware of as tractor drivers. Thesechanges will affect the tractor and its

• Stability

• Turning circle

• Combination width and length

•

Visibility• Safe operating speed

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Stability can be affected in ways that can cause the tractor to overturn, thiscould be to the side or over backwards. It is possible to overturn a tractor easily without attachment by incorrect driving methods but attachments add

another hazard to the driver, some causes are listed below

• High speeds when turning

• Turning up a slope sharply

• Turning with the loader high in the air

• Turning with mounted implement without the use of stabilisers

• Turning sharply with trailed implements will cause a jack-knifing actionwhich in turn could cause the tractor to overturn

• Travelling at high speeds with a trailed implement may cause fishtailing

•

Braking heavily down a hill with a trailed implement could also cause jack-knifing affect

• Driving at high speeds over ruts or over obstacles (stones)

• Applying independent brakes unintentionally (ensure brake pedals arelocked)

The turning circle is affected with a loader as the tractor is now longer,similarly with a trailed implement and mounted combination. Allowances for this increase in overall length must be made when negotiating aroundbuildings, on the yard and turning through any field or farm entrance. With allthe above combination an exaggerated line may be necessary in order to

negotiate the turn/entrance.

In relation to the loader you need to sweep to accommodate the extra lengthat the front.

In relation to a trailed or mounted implement you need to sweep enough sothat the combination is straight enough while travelling through the entranceand also to maintain the direction out of the entrance so the implement doesnot catch the gate posts .

When travelling on the road the driver must be aware of the overall

dimensions of the combination especially the width. Many trailed and mountedimplements have different ways of reducing the operating width for transportation and it is essential that the driver is aware of this and moves theimplement in the transport mode before transportation.

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Fig 8 Example Machine adapted for transportation (Farm Machinery)

The visibility from the driving seat can be affected by the attachment. Whiletravelling with an empty loader may not affect the visibility, having a big baleon a spike on the loader will. Be aware of blind spots caused by differentloads. With many mounted implements the implement will cause a restrictionon visibility through the rear of the tractor e.g.grain or silage trailers, the driver may be completely unaware what is directly behind the combination. Correctpositioning of tractor side mirrors will greatly increase visibility to the sides of the implement.

Safe and efficient use of the implement in the field can only be achievedthrough proper use. There are however many different field conditions that willaffect the safe use of the combination. The method or position the implementis attached can affect the centre of gravity of the tractor and the traction (grip). A laden loader will move the weight off the rear wheels of the tractor, reducingthe traction of the rear wheels, this will also affect the braking ability. Tocounteract this you can either have ballast or weight on the rear wheels, or arear weight on the three - point linkage.

Using a trailed or mounted implement will put more weight on the rear of thetractor and will make the front of the tractor lighter, reducing traction andsteering ability. This is counteracted by using weight or ballast on the frontwheels or weights to the front of the tractor.

With all the above in place, the ground conditions, which can vary in differentfields e.g. wet patches, ditches, slopes and obstacles, will have a great affecton safe efficient operation of the combinations. When working in the field youshould travel at a speed slow enough for you to see and react to hazards inyour path. Always look ahead for bumps, rocks, stumps, and other obstructions that could tip one side of your tractor up past its tipping point.

Also watch out for holes, ruts, and depressions which could drop one side

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down, putting your tractor in an unstable position. The stability would beaffected much more on slopes.

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Fig 9 Driving on uneven ground

Driving on slopes, is one hazard which causes many serious tractor accidents

(overturns).Slopes are an important factor in 14% of all tractor accidents and34% of all fatal tractor accidents. Slopes are responsible for 75% of alloverturns of which 1in 4 are fatal. Slopes are not confined to hilly or mountainous regions. Accidents happen just as easily on or near ramps,ditches, banks, drains, potholes or any uneven ground. Accidents frequentlyhappen on slopes of less than 10 degrees.

The four main risks are:-

• Loss of control (which in turn can lead to)

• Runaway

• Jack-knifing• Overturn

Control loss occurs when wheels lose traction rendering the brakes andsteering ineffective. e.g. braking on wet grassy surface cause the wheels lockand the tractor skids; changing gear going up a slope causes a loss of power and momentum and create a back slide; going over uneven ground causesone or more wheels lose contact with the ground and power transmission islost through the spinning wheel.

Loss of control can lead to a runaway, where the vehicle starts to move downthe slope and you are unable to bring it back under control.

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Jack-knifing happens when a trailer or trailed implement pushes into thee the

d

verturns are the single most important cause of injuries and death on slopes.

• Sideways where you drive across a slope or try to turn down a slope

n overturn can happen very quickly; at 2 mph a tractor can rear up within 1

ig 10 Time taken to overturn (Teaching Driving on Slopes)

hen you need to drive on slopes, bear in mind the following:-

tractor and slews the tractor round. Severe braking when turning can havsame effect. A jack-knifing can happen with a gradient of as little as 5 or 6degrees. This risk is increased by poor ground conditions, heavy loading anpoor wheel grip.

OYou can overturn in three ways

• Forwards when using a heavy load on the loader with the loader up

• Backwards where the tractor is attached to rear-mounted spreadersand sprayers

Asecond which may not give you any time to prevent it .

F

W

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• The gradient. The steeper the slope, the greater the danger. A tractor may go up a 18 degree slope safely but not come down it. Slopes of less than 10 degrees can cause accidents.

• The surface. Grass, heather, earth, loose stones, track, road, mud., allaffect how well a tractor can deal with the slope. A change in

vegetation may halve the grip• Ground conditions. A slope which is safe during dry conditions may

become unsafe if it is wet, waterlogged, frozen, thawing, etc

• Weather conditions. The change in weather also affects the safety of the slope especially if it is raining, misty or windy.

• Uneven ground. Steer clear of ruts, potholes, depressions, rockoutcrops and animal tracks.

• Major obstacles. Take care near gateways, ditches, banks and drains.

• Hidden obstacles. Look out for rabbit holes, mole hills, rocks, treestumps – which may be hidden in vegetation.

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Fig 11 Safety Checks (Teaching Driving on Slopes)

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If you fail to complete a hill climb

• Don’t panic

• Brake the tractor to stop it rolling backwards

• Follow the safe stop procedure (engine off)

• Apply the parking brake or handbrake• Check whether you can reverse down safely

• Get out of the vehicle the uphill side

• Get help

If you lose control

• Don’t panic

• Steer in a straight line down the hill

• Don’t turn across the slope

• Don’t apply the brakes hard• Don’t jump out of the cab

• Hold on to the steering

BIBLIOGRAPHY


Safe Tractor Operation and Daily Care (AAVA)

Teaching Driving on Slopes (HSE)

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Chapter 4 - Load, transport and unloading materialssecurely and safely

Operate mechanical lifting equipment to conform with therelevant legal restrictions: e.g. maximum weight

Using mechanical aids

When using mechanical aids, a certain amount of physical effort is requiredbut is greatly reduced by using aids. Examples you would use would be sacktrolley, wheelbarrow, mobile gantry in the workshop and hydraulic hoist.

Fig 1 Examples from ACOP(HSE)

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Fig 2 Mechanical Aid

With all the above it is essential that the weight limits of these aids are notexceeded. With simple aids like trolley sacks and wheelbarrows you shouldensure you do not exceed your ability to move the load while maintainingcontrol of the aid. When using hoist, you will need to look into themanufacturers handbook to see what the maximum limit is and the safest andbest way to use the hoists. If you exceed the weight limit, you will endanger

yourself and risk damaging the hoist and the load.

If you need to use slings, ropes or shackles you must be sure that they aresuitable for the type and weight of the load.

Transporting resources safely

When transporting any resources during your work it is essential they aresecure for moving and protected from any damage by using

• Ropes

• Straps

• Netting

• Separation

To use ropes effectively to secure loads you need secure knots and use thetie eyes on the trailer. Where there are no eyes fitted on the trailer, ensurethat the ropes are tied to a robust part of the trailer. Ensure that there issufficient rope to secure that particular load. Ensure that the movement of theload during transportation is restricted in all directions, the ropes need to besecured in more than one direction i.e. from the front and the rear .

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When loading traditional bales on flat bed trailers, front and rear racks arefitted. These racks will secure the load up to their level. Stack the bales in amanner that locks each layer in place. When exceeding the height of theracks, ropes will need to be used to secure the bales in place. The distance of travel with the load may dictate how much the load will need securing. If the

load has to be transported by road, then you must secure the loadaccordingly. If you are travelling from a field adjacent to the farmstead thencorrect interlocking of the layers may be adequate. If the journey meanstravelling over very uneven ground, then the load has to absorb the instabilitycaused by the uneven surfaces.

When loading round bales, interlocking the bales on the trailer helps to securethe load. If travelling distance by road then secure the loads using ropesespecially at the front and rear. It is unlikely, due to the weight of the balesthat the rack height will be exceeded.

Using strapping to secure a load is a more secure method as it does notdepend on the ability to tie secure knots. Using strapping enables you tomaintain good tension to secure the load. The principle of strapping would bethe same as roping in that the front and rear of the load will need securing asthese are the most likely to become unsecured.

Fig 3 Straps (Ian Harries)

Ropes and straps are the most common means used on farms to secureloads, not only for transporting bales but also for securing pallets of feeds or sawdust, and also transporting machinery on trailers.

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Netting or sheeting down may be necessary for transporting materials where itmay fall or be blown out of the trailer e.g. transporting used silage wrap or silage sheet in a high sided corn trailer or silage trailer, a net or sheet over the top would ensure that no material is lost. Paletted bags of produce arewrapped in plastic to protect the materials from adverse weather and stop the

bags moving on the pallets, an adhesive between each layer of bags is usedto prevent movement on the pallet. The pallets will still need to be securedon the trailer.

Tarpaulins can be used to protect loads from adverse weather by securing itover the top of the material being transported in the same way as netting. Theuse of tarpaulin will prevent dust contamination of loads. Separation from thedriver should occur when transporting chemicals from a supplier to the farm.When transporting chemicals on the road then the chemicals should not be inthe same space as the driver. If using a pick-up then the chemicals should bein the back. If using a van then a barrier or container is needed to separate

the load area and the driver.

Loading and unloading areas should be :-

• Clear of other traffic, pedestrians and people not involved in loading or unloading

• Clear of overhead electric cables to prevent touching or allowingelectricity to jump to earth through machinery, loads or people

• Level. To maintain stability, trailers should be parked on firm levelground

•

Loads should be spread as evenly as possible, during both loading andunloading. Uneven loads can make the vehicle or trailer unstable

• Ensure the vehicle and trailer has its brakes applied and all stabilisersare used

• Vehicles and trailers must not be overloaded.

• Checks should be made before unloading to make sure loads have notmoved during transit and are likely to move or fall when restraints areremoved.

When loading or unloading resources, two things are important to maintain thestability of the load and safe manoeuvring of the load. These are

• Weight distribution

• Positioning

It is important to be are aware of the weight distribution of any load and thecentre of gravity of the load. This is as important for manual lifting or mechanical lifting. When lifting a load manually where you are unaware of thecentre of gravity, the adjustments that you make to balance the load cancause you injury. It is equally a problem if you are lifting a load with a loader. If the load is lifted incorrectly not taking the centre of gravity into consideration,the tractor and loader will become unstable, there will be more weight on oneside of the tractor, therefore putting pressure on the axle and in a serioussituation may result in a twist in the loader arms themselves. Many resources

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are delivered on pallets(feed/sawdust/liquid detergents) or in largebags(feeds/fertilizers) with straps on the bags.

When positioning a load on a trailer, the positioning is critical to maintain thestability and weight distribution of the load. If you place one bag of fertilizer on

a flat bed trailer, the best place is over the axle and in the centre of the bed.This will also help with braking of the load. If you are putting materials of different weight onto a trailer for transportation, put the heaviest over the axle.You should not place it on the front of the trailer as this will put weight onto thehitching point .

Stacking and storing

The most common resources that are stored on farms are

• Feed and bedding in the form of traditional or big bales

• Fertilisers – in 500 or 600kgs bags or palleted small bags

• Sawdust – palleted small bags

Safe stacking of traditional bales

When stacking traditional bales in the hay barn the principle of interlocking of the layers is essential to secure the stack. The base should be level, dry andfree from contamination by any waste product. The first layer should beplaced on its edge with the end towards the edge and you should start fromthe outside edge and work inwards, this ensures stability at the edges.

The second layer should be placed flat and at right angles the bottom layer tointerlock the layers. You should ensure that no layer protrudes beyond theedge of the previous layer. When moving bales manually ensure you do notoverstretch to get a bale and ensure that you are aware where everyone elseis to avoid throwing or dropping a bale on them. When you use elevators

ensure it is maintained, with guards in place and situated in a place thatminimises the risk of an accident.

If you have interlocked safely the stack will be secure.

Safe stacking of big bales

• Build stacks on firm, level ground away from fire hazards, overheadpower lines and dwellings and where high winds will dislodge bales.

• Bind the bales during stacking to prevent movement and collapse

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After use, ropes/straps and couplings should be

• Cleaned off

• Rolled up

• Checked for wear and damage

• Stored in the dry, off the ground• Couplings cleaned and checked for damage and wear

• Store in designated area

Transporting material

Transport used for this purpose on the farm would be a combination of atractor and a loader/mounted implement (transport box), loader or a trailer (flatbed/corn trailer/tipping trailer or silage trailer).

With all of the above there are key things to remember to ensure

• You have had training in the use of all the equipment

• The equipment can handle the load

• That all tyre pressures are at correct psi

• No tyre damage or wear

• Braking systems can cope with the increased weights

• The loads are secure fro transportation

• All attachments are suitable and secure

• Attachments are attached in the correct place

• You are aware of your route and any hazards(slopes, gateways,uneven ground)

• The work area is clear and safe(be aware of people, children andanimals)

• Travel at a safe speed allowing for the surfaces and the load

In relation to fork-lifts or telescopic handlers you should obtain recognised,assessed training. This would include the safe use and operation of ATV’sand trailers.

Monitoring loads

When transporting resources you should minimise damage by

• Using suitable equipment to transport the resources

• Secure the load safely(Straps may not cut into resources as bad asropes)

• Position the load to maximise stability

•

Protect the load by sheeting if necessary• Travel at a speed to reduce instability

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• Correct stacking of the load before transit

When transporting resources it is advisable to check the load during transit.You may do this while travelling by monitoring the load on the trailer for movement or checking your mirrors to ensure that no part of the load has

been lost. It is a good idea to pull into a lay-by and physically check the load.Check the ropes/straps, check the tyres and attachment (hitch pins/lynch pins/hydraulic pipes/brake connections and lights if fitted.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Safe Handling in Agriculture (HSE )

Manual Handling Regulations (HSE)

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• Check that lights and indicators are working

• Check water level in the radiator

50 hours (or weekly)

Carry out 10-hour maintenance tasks and

• Check oil levels in the gearbox and transmission and top up

• Lubricate the wheel bearings, clutch and brake linkages and thehydraulic linkage box

• Service the air-cleaner

• Service driving cab filters

• Check tyre pressures and adjust if necessary

• Check the battery and top up with distilled water if required. Make sure

the battery terminals are clean and tight• Check the wheel nuts and front axle bolts for tightness

• Top up level of fluid in the power-assisted steering

300 hours

Carry out 10 and 50 hour maintenance tasks and

• Drain the oil from the engine when it is hot. Renew filter element andre-fill the sump with fresh oil.

• Clean crankcase breather

• Check steering box oil level where applicable and top up

• Make sure the clutch pedal free play is correctly adjusted on tractorswith a mechanical clutch linkage

• Check brakes for adjustment

• Drain water collected in the diesel fuel filter trap

• Check fan belt tension

• Make sure the radiator core is clean externally. Remove chaff and dustwith an airline or hosepipe

( Turbo charged engines require more frequent oil change)

600 hours

In addition to all the tasks listed above

• Renew the diesel fuel filter element and bleed the system

• Arrange for the diesel injectors to be checked and replaced if necessary

• Change the oil in the transmission system.

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Non routine maintenance is required when a failure has occurred which maybe a result of a one-off event or poor maintenance.

Failure or poor performance of any of the tractor systems will highlight theneed for maintenance or repair of the components.

Preparing the tractor and work area for maintenance

When a tractor requires routine or non-routine maintenance, the preparationfor the work would be the same

• Clean off the tractor with a water pressure washer. You will need toensure that the washer has been tested and is safe to use. You shouldwear protective clothing - water-proof suit and footwear (steel-toecapped safety boots), a mask and safety glasses. The fine mistgenerated from the washer can be breathed in along with the materialbeing washed off. Particles of dirt can be blown into your eyes. Glovesshould also be worn to protect contaminants entering your bodythrough your skin – oils and greases.

• The tractor needs to be stable during maintenance. Make sure thehand brake is on and the wheels are chocked.

• Take the key out of the tractor.

• The work area should be clean and free from hazards such as oil spills.There should be a minimum of 2m available around the tractor for thework to be carried out safely.

• If any lubricants, oils or fuel need to be replaced or drained, you willneed to be aware of the hazards these bring to the workshop.

• Wear PPE, overalls, safety boots, latex gloves etc.

Dealing with hazardous chemicals and substances: e.g.storage and disposal in accordance with COSHH regulations

When using and dealing with any hazardous chemicals or substances thereare key issues you need to be aware of

• Information on the hazardous substances

• How they can affect you

• Are they flammable/irritant/toxic etc

You can get the information on any substance from the Safety Data Sheet for the substance. This will state the affects of the substance if contaminationtakes place, it will also highlight environmental considerations when dealingwith spills and disposal of waste.

In accordance to the COSHH regulations all flammable substances should be

stored in fire resistant lockable containers, preferably outside the workshoparea.

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Any chemicals should be stored in a lockable chemical store, the store shouldbe insulated to maintain temperature(some chemicals may respond totemperature changes). The store should be designed to prevent spills formescaping into the environment. The stores should be built with fire resistant

materials.

All substances should be stored in their original containers only. If youdecanter any into other containers these should be clearly labelled.

Any waste materials should be disposed of by a licensed contractor – emptycontainers, waste oils and greases.

Maintenance tasks and the correct procedures for carrying out routine and non routine maintenance

Task DescriptionDate

Tools Required Procedure Hazards and control

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Personal protective equipment (PPE)

Substances can pass into the body by four main ways

• Ingestion - swallowing

• Inhalation – through the nose or mouth

• Absorption – through the skin or in through open wounds

• Eye contact – directly or by wiping your eyes with contaminatedhand/glove

When working in the workshop you will come in contact with materials and

substances which can affect your health and safety. Many differentsubstances are used which can enter your body in different ways. A variety of personal protective equipment is required to minimise these risks. Your riskassessments should identify what is required.

• Steel toe-capped safety boots – these will protect your feet from fallingtools and materials, these should also have good grip to avoid slips andfalls

• Coveralls – should be supplied to protect your own clothes beingcontaminated by oils, detergents, thinners, paints and dusts. Youshould remove these when leaving the workshop and these should be

washed and returned to you cleaned.• Ear defenders – when a tractor is running within the workshop or

activities like grinding, will induce high noise levels.

• Respirators may be required when removing dust from machinery or working on dusty machines like combine harvesters or hay balers. Youmay be using substances that give off fumes which will also requirerespirators to be used, where ventilation is inadequate

• Gloves should be worn when handling substances like oil, petrol, dieselor greases and many other substances to ensure that the substancesdo not pass into your body through the skin. Specialist gloves arerequired for hot work like welding or soldering.

• Safety glasses should be worn to protect your eyes from dust particleswhen working on or under machines and when using grinders or drills. A welding face shield is always required to protect eyes from brightlight and sparks.

It is your employer’s responsibility to supply suitable PPE and train you to useit. It is your responsibility to use it correctly.

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Storing tools and materials after use

Always put materials and tools away after use. Never

• leave power tools plugged

• leave leads trailed along the floor or workbench

• leave hand tools on the floor of the workshop or tractor cab floor

• leave spills on the floor

All hand tools should be replaced in tool boxes, shelving or hanging on toolracks

Power tools should be checked for damage after use and replaced on the

work bench or shelving All materials (i.e.) parts, lubricants should be stored in designated storageareas.

Fig 1 Workshop layout.

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Fig 2 Shadow Board

Fig 3 Flammables store

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Vehicle Health Check Scheme : Code of Practice (NFU)

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Chapter 6 - Health and Safety General

Safe working practice

All activities should be carried out following safe working procedures whichfollow available codes of practice and relevant health and safety legislation.

If you decide to cut corners then this could result in an accident, damage tomachinery and equipment and potential prosecution and fines. It could alsoresult in disciplinary procedures which could result in loss of employment.

All codes of practice have identified good practice adopting safe workingprocedures which will minimise the risk of accidents or damage.

All Health and Safety legislation is designed to protect employers andemployees from the risk of work related ill health and injury.

sing tractors with attachments in and around the wor area.

ith regard to the use of tractors and attachment you must be aware of the

• You must be trained to use the tractor and implement

• Ensure that the combination is safe to use

• Wear suitable clothing and footwear

• All guarding must be in place

• Ensure work area is clear of hazards including animals and people

• When manoeuvring the combination (tractor and implement) you mustbe aware of the added space required to carry out manoeuvre.

• Must use the combination according to the manufacturer’s operatingmanual.

• Use correct warning signals.

• Safe stop.

• Use the unit in suitable, safe ground conditions suitable for the task

nts for changing ground conditions including roughterrain and slopes.

• When using a noisy combination assess the noise levels and wear ear defenders as necessary

• Take regular breaks when carrying out tedious field tasks (field rolling)

The action to take in the event of.

• Incidents –an event which has the potential to cause harm to yourself or others, or cause damage to materials or equipment, should be

U k

Wfollowing

• Make adjustme

• Never step across a rotating pto shaft

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reported to your supervisor and recorded on an incident form.near hits. It is essential

that incidents are reported to prevent reoccurrence of the event andtherefore prevent a potential accident

ents occur it is a legal requirement for thataccident to be reported and your employer to record the accident in a

that.

Firstders

an

r the equipment and when that maintenance is required. It will giveet s ility of that

equ m

Fai e ult in

•

• nt reduction of the working life of the equipment

He t

HASA Se, so fa ble, the health, safety and welfare at work of all

Section 2(2) details more specific requirements and, in particular note thatbly practicable, the provision and

aintenance of plant and safe systems of work.

In simp

Sometimes incidents are termed near misses or

• Accidents- when accid

designated Accident Book. Certain types of accidents will have to bereported to the HSE under RIDDOR. It is your employer’s duty to do

• First aid – your employer is required to ensure that there is adequatefirst aid provision for the type of work that is carried out on the farm.You should know who to contact if you are ill or injured, where the Aid box is kept – you may be sent to fetch it. If there are no First Aion the farm, you should know who to contact/telephone in

emergency and what the procedures are.

Manufacturers instructions

The manufacturers instructions are specific guide to the efficient, safeoperation of their equipment. The instructions will specify the maintenanceequired for

d ail of the controls, safe operating methods and the capabip ent.

lur to follow these instructions could res

• Failure of the equipment

• Damage to other equipment

Inefficient operation of the equipment

• Unsafe operation which could result in an accident

Significa

al h and safety – Specific

WA-

ction 2(1) of the HASAWA states it is “ the duty of every employer to ensurer as is reasonably practica

his employees”

employers must ensure, so far as is reasonam

le terms, employers must

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•

• ls/oils, safely

Maintain safe and healthy workplaces with welfare facilities

Emplo

• Take care of you’re their own health and safety at work

•

•

arm safety policy

licies and procedures relating to safety one farm. Within that is the requirement that you are trained to use the

details of your responsibilities within the farm safety policy.

ou have a responsibility to

• Behave in a manner not to endanger yourself or others by your work

• Seek advice from your supervisor

isk assessment

is your employer’s responsibility to ensure that suitable and sufficient risk

have to be recorded.

ou

r employer needs to explain

e assessment and inform you of the hazards, risk, and control measuresrisk to yourself and others.

Provide and maintain equipment and work systems which are safe andhealthy

Deal with substances, such as chemica

•

• Ensure that workplaces and work activities do not put visitors,members of the public and others at unnecessary risk

yees must

• Take care of the health and safety of others

Co-operate with their employers

Not misuse or interfere with anything provided for health and safetypurposes.

F

This is a general statement of the pothmachinery and able to use them safely. This means that you look after yourself and others around you, and follow any instructions laid down in thepolicy.

You will have

Y

activities

• Conform to safety procedures laid out in the policy

• Not to damage or misuse safety equipment

• Report any hazards to your supervisor

• Carry out activities you have been trained to do

R

Itassessments are carried out where there is a significant risk of injury or illhealth as a result of work activity. If there are more that 5 employees thesignificant findings

If your employer is in the process of producing the risk assessments, then yshould be involved in the process. If risk assessments have been produced,you need to be aware of the assessment and you

thyou need to follow to minimise the

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PUWE

In g your use

at w r

• Suitable for the intended use

se – brakes, lights and key

• Maintained in a safe condition

to use it

devices, e.g. protective devices,

• eating for operator

• Must not transport people unless fitted with a seat for that purpose• Drive shafts have guards

rts which could endanger you must have a guard

ing loads must be

• Used safely

• des slings, ropes and shackles

Code

Co s regulations which will give youractical examples of how you can conform to the regulations.

actice relating to machinery is called

ral

covers :-

R

eneral terms, PUWER requires that any equipment provided for

o k must be

• Safe for u

• Inspected to ensure it remains in a safe condition

• Used only by people who have been trained

• Accompanied by suitable safetymarkings, warnings.

Suitable s

• Any moving pa Another regulation relevant to us is Lifting Operations and Lifting EquipmentRegulations 1998 (LOLER)

In general, LOLER requires that any lifting equipment used at work for liftingor lower

• Strong and stable enough for particular use and marked to indicate

safe working loads

• Inspected regularly

This inclu

s of practice

de of practice are available for certainp

The main Code of Pr Vehicle Health Check Scheme : Code of Practice(November 2000)This relates to Agricultural motor vehicles, agricultural trailers and agricultutrailed appliances(including mounted machinery)

It

• Training including how to use the machinery, the risks and essentialprecautions

• Carrying out checks – daily including attachments.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

.gov.ukwww.HSE

FIL991

Documents

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