Development of a Regional Forest Management Information ...
Transcript of Development of a Regional Forest Management Information ...
Development of a Regional Forest Management Information System
Case study of Noo-shahr, Iran
Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde
der Fakultät für Forst- und Umweltwissenschaften der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität
Freiburg i.Brsg.
Vorgelegt von
Ali Mahdavi
Freiburg im Breisgau 2006
Dekan: Prof. Dr. Heinz Rennenberg
Referent: Prof. Dr. Dr. h. c. Dieter R. Pelz
Korreferent: Prof. Dr. Gerhard Oesten
Tag der Disputation: 02.02.2007
Table of contents i
Table of contents
Table of contents .........................................................................................................................i List of figures ............................................................................................................................iv List of tables ..............................................................................................................................vi Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................vii
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................1
1.1 The problem..........................................................................................................................1 1.2 Objectives of the study .........................................................................................................2
2. Information and information system in forestry...........................................................4
2.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................4 2.2 Information resource.............................................................................................................4
2.2.1 Subject coverage.................................................................................................4 2.2.2 Resource types....................................................................................................5
2.3 Introduction to information system in forestry.....................................................................5 2.3.1 Benefits resulting from use of the computerized system....................................6 2.3.2 The relation between information system and management system ..................7
2.4 Integrated forest management information system ..............................................................8 2.5 Forestry information system in developing countries ........................................................11
2.5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................11 2.5.2 Some key constraints forest information system in developing countries .......11
3. Forests and forestry information in Iran .....................................................................15
3.1 Introduction on Iran’s forests .............................................................................................15 3.2 History of forest policy in Iran ...........................................................................................16 3.3 The structure of the Forest, Range & Watershed Organization of Iran (FRWOI) .............17
3.3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................17 3.3.2 The main long-term goals of FRWOI...............................................................18 3.3.3 Departments of the FRWOI..............................................................................18
3.4 The status of different aspects of forestry information in the Iranian forestry sector ........23 3.4.1 Forest resource inventory .................................................................................23 3.4.2 Forest plantation statistics ................................................................................24 3.4.3 Statistics on forest harvesting and timber products ..........................................25 3.4.4 Revenue collected from the sale of forest products..........................................26 3.4.5 Statistics on timber trade ..................................................................................26 3.4.6 Statistics on forest or timber-based industry ....................................................26 3.4.7 Fire and other incidents ....................................................................................27 3.4.8 Number of families inhabiting the forests ........................................................27 3.4.9 Fire wood production and consumption ...........................................................27 3.4.10 Trees located outside of the forests ................................................................27 3.4.11 Non-timber forest products.............................................................................27 3.4.12 Statistics on forestry organisation and administration....................................28
3.5 Different agencies and organizations involved to collecting of forestry information........28 3.5.1 Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands (RIFR)......................................28 3.5.2 Department of the Environment (DoE) ............................................................28 3.5.3 Statistics and Information Organization (SIO).................................................29
Table of contents ii
3.6 Main constraints and key challenges in relation to forestry information and information systems in Iran ..........................................................................................................................29
3.6.1 Increasing demand vs. limited national capacity..............................................29 3.6.2 Lack of funding ................................................................................................30 3.6.3 Fragmentation and duplication of efforts, validation and dissemination problems ....................................................................................................................30 3.6.4 Irrelevant and unutilised information ...............................................................31 3.6.5 Institutional arrangements ................................................................................32
3.7 Information requirements of the FRWOI ...........................................................................32 3.7.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................32 3.7.2 Forestry information users................................................................................33
4. Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector .....................36
4.1 The fundamentals of information and information systems...............................................36 4.2 The types of information systems.......................................................................................39
4.2.1 Office automation systems (OAS)....................................................................42 4.2.2 Transaction processing systems (TPS) .............................................................43 4.2.3 Management information system (MIS)...........................................................43 4.2.4 Decision support systems (DSS) ......................................................................45 4.2.5 Executive support systems (ESS) .....................................................................46 4.2.6 Expert systems..................................................................................................46 4.2.7 Knowledge management systems (KMS) ........................................................47 4.2.8 Other information systems ...............................................................................48
4.3 Selecting different information system technologies in the forestry sector .......................48 4.3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................48 4.3.2 Existing forestry information system technologies for strategic planning and analysis ......................................................................................................................49 4.3.3 Existing forestry information system technologies for tactical (medium and short term) planning ..................................................................................................50 4.3.4 Existing technologies of forestry information systems for operational management and control............................................................................................52
4.4 Factors influencing information system development within the forestry sector ..............54 4.4.1 System characters and system environment .....................................................54 4.4.2 Aspects of system development .......................................................................58
5. The procedure for the development of a forest management information system...66
5.1 Information requirement analysis.......................................................................................66 5.2 System development processes ..........................................................................................71
5.2.1 Introduction to system development ................................................................71 5.2.2 Methods of system development ......................................................................71
5.3 Database design ..................................................................................................................76 5.3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................76 5.3.2 Overview of the database design methodology................................................77
5.3.2.1 Conceptual database design..................................................................79 5.3.2.2 Logical database design for the relational model .................................86 5.3.2.3 Physical design of the database system ................................................88 5.3.2.4 Design security mechanisms and organization of data privacy and data security .............................................................................................................93
Table of contents iii
6. The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran …………………………………………………………………………………………..95
6.1 General conditions of natural and human resources in the GNRO of Mazandaran province (Noo –shahr) .............................................................................................................................95 6.2 Problem definition and objectives ......................................................................................96 6.3 Procedures used for information requirement analysis and the results ............................101
6.3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................101 6.3.2 Results of the interviews, questionnaires and document analysis ..................103 6.3.3 Current status of information technology.......................................................106 6.3.4 Analysis of the current information flow of the forestry sector in Iran..........109
6.4 Prototype database............................................................................................................119 6.4.1 System modules..............................................................................................119 6.4.2 Survey system module....................................................................................121 6.4.3 Harvesting system module .............................................................................122 6.4.4 Plantation system module...............................................................................124 6.4.5 Violation cases system module.......................................................................131 6.4.6 Creating reports and making an enquiry.........................................................133 6.4.7 GIS and its application in forestry sector in Iran............................................135
7. Conclusion and recommendations ..............................................................................140
7.1 Conclusion........................................................................................................................140 7.1.1 System technology requirement and proposed data flow...............................142 7.1.2 Transferability of the system and procedure ..................................................144 7.1.3 Factors affecting implementation and operation sustainability of the system145
7.2 Recommendations ............................................................................................................147 7.2.1 Collecting useful information and construction of a metadata database ........147 7.2.3 Increase co-ordination and collaboration .......................................................149
Summary ...............................................................................................................................150
Zusammenfassung ................................................................................................................154
References..............................................................................................................................159
Appendix 1: Questionnaire ..................................................................................................163
Appendix 2: Data dictionary ...............................................................................................177
List of figures iv
List of figures
Figure 1. The relationship of information system to management system (adapted from Duerr, et al. 1979) ..........................................................................................................................8
Figure 2. Example of a general representation of an integrated forest information system (adapted from Rondeux 1991, Feghhi 1998)....................................................................10
Figure 3. The structure of Forest, Rangeland& Watershed Organization of Iran ....................22 Figure 4. Different elements of a system (kanter 1972) ...........................................................38 Figure 5. Organisational pyramid and types of information needed to manage organisation
(adapted from Kanter 1972) .............................................................................................41 Figure 6. Hierarchy of information systems (adapted from Thiel et al. 1999).........................42 Figure 7. Three components of management information systems (Garg 2002a) ...................43 Figure 8. The foundation of MIS (Garg 2002a) .......................................................................44 Figure 9. Conceptual scheme of a decision support system.....................................................45 Figure 10. Factors influencing system development in forestry sector....................................55 Figure 11. Typical management structure in Iranian forestry sector........................................64 Figure12. The proportion of information requirement, information supply and information
demand (adopted from Koreimann 1974, Feghhi 1998) ..................................................67 Figure 13. Three aspects of an information system (adapted from Solvberg and Kung 1993) 71 Figure 14. Development processes in waterfall model (Hawryszkiewycz 2001) ..................72 Figure 15. Two dimensions of the RUP (Kroll and Kruchten 2004) .......................................75 Figure 16. Process map for process comparison (Kroll and Kruchten 2004)...........................76 Figure 17. The stages of the database application lifecycle (Connolly and Begg 2001) .........78 Figure 18. Examples of different relationships types ...............................................................83 Figure 19. An example of entity – relationship (ER) diagram .................................................84 Figure20. The geographic area of the GNRO of Noo-shahr in northern Iran .........................96 Figure 21. Procedure to information requirement analysis ....................................................103 Figure 22. Workflow processes for provision of a forest management plan..........................110 Figure 23. Work flow process from the recording of crop trees to receipt of a felling licence
........................................................................................................................................112 Figure 24. FRWOI, three hierarchical levels of information exchange .................................113 Figure 25. System home page ................................................................................................121 Figure 26. Survey page1.........................................................................................................125 Figure 26. Survey page2.........................................................................................................125 Figure 27. Starting page for the forestry plans component of the system..............................126 Figure 28. Marked trees information page .............................................................................126 Figure 29. Felling licence information page...........................................................................127 Figure 30. Information on re-measurement of trees page ......................................................127 Figure 31. Timber assortment information page ....................................................................128 Figure 32. Extraction conditions of produced products information page .............................128 Figure 33. Starting page for plantation component ................................................................129 Figure 34. Plantation information page ..................................................................................129 Figure 35. Forest nursery information page ...........................................................................130 Figure 36. Forest parks information page...............................................................................130 Figure 37. Starting page for violation cases component ........................................................131 Figure 38. The page for violation cases of arrested TWP in control stations.........................132 Figure 39. The fire information page .....................................................................................132 Figure 40. An example of forestry plan commitments report ................................................133 Figure 41. An example of marking trees information report..................................................134 Figure 42. An example of felling licence information report.................................................134
v
Figure 43. An example of diagrammatic report produced by MS Access .............................135 Figure 44. Proposed organizational network system in information generation and use in
FRWOI ...........................................................................................................................143
List of tables vi
List of tables
Table 1. The area of different types of forest in Iran................................................................15 Table 2. Summary of the main components of the national forest inventories between 1958 -
1996 ..................................................................................................................................23 Table 3. The statistical information on plantation activities in northern Iran ..........................25 Table 4. Different terms of computer - based information systems (Susallek 1998)...............48 Table 5. Aspects of an integrated information system development........................................61 Table 6. Methods of information requirement investigation (Feghhi 1998) ............................68 Table 7. Data and information at the field level .....................................................................104 Table 8. Data and information at the general office ...............................................................105 Table 9. Data, information, reports in FRWOI level.............................................................105 Table 10. The relationship of data class, their generators and report frequency....................106 Table 11. Basic characteristics of hardware network in the GNRO and the FRWOI............108
Acknowledgements vii
Acknowledgements
First I wish to thank and express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to my supervisor, Prof. Dr. Dr. h. c. Dieter R. Pelz, director of the Department of Forest Biometry, for accepting me and inviting me to the department and introducing me this research topic, providing me working place, the necessary research facilities and other administrative supports. Without his inspiring advice, constant encouragement, endless patience and worthwhile criticisms the completion of this work would have been impossible.
My sincere and cordial thanks are to Dr. Guntram Ehrlenspiel1 for accepting to be as my co-supervisor and for his technical assistance and various valuable comments that I got from him during the development of the prototype of the database as well as for critically reviewing this manuscript.
I also thank my committee, Prof. Dr. Gerhard Oesten, director of the Institute of Forest Economy for taking up the role of co-referent.
I would like to thank Dr. Roberto Scoz, for his helps and cooperation and Frau Eva Meier the department’s secretary, for her cooperation and readiness to assist me in any way in her capacity is highly regarded.
Special thanks go to Esther Muschelknautz for organizing everything within the IPP programme. I would also like to thank my German language teacher Mrs Marion Kuss.
Equal thanks are to all my fellow doctoral students and my friends, some of them have left the department or the city after completing their study. Dr. Weeraphart (Boo) Khunrattanasiri, Lilian Andrea Soto Meza, Francis Bih, Efren Hernandez, Christian Kutzer, Aurel Heidelberg, Roberto Maldonado, Andrea Harausz, Dr. Till Neeff, Mark Schmidt and Dr. Marcus Lingenfelder.
I am indebted to all academic and administrative staff of the department of ‘Landesamt für Flurneuordnung und Landentwicklung’ who helped me directly or indirectly during my visiting at the department. Hereby I would like to express my special thanks to Mr Harald Arnold and Mr Kenan Dietz etc.
My special sincere thanks are also to Forest, Range Watershed Organization of Iran as well as General Natural Resource Office of Noo-shahr for their cooperation during my whole stay at the FRWO and GNRO. In this regard I would like to thank especially Mr. Nosrati2, Mr. Nazari, Mr. Rasaneh and the staff of the FRWOI and GNRO.
I fully acknowledge and express my gratitude to the Ministry of Science, Research and Technology of Iran for providing me a scholarship for my study from 2003 to 2007 as well as the DAAD for granting me a scholarship for two months.
My fellow Iranian students and friends in Freiburg and other cities of Germany were important to ease the burden of life in a foreign land. I am grateful to all of them.
1 Head of department of ‘information technology centre’, the state institute for environment (LUBW) in Baden-Württemberg, Karlsruhe, Germany 2 Head of ’forestry department ’ of FRWOI for northern forest of Iran
Acknowledgements viii
I am also thankful to my brothers, Saadi, Mehdi, Vali-o-Allah and Ahmad, for their encouragement and support in various forms including their care take service to our parents.
Last but the most my thanks go to my parents, Davoud Mahdavi and Kheironnesa Ghorbani, whose prayer and best wish are the source of encouragement in my study and from whom I have learned ever since my early childhood the basic philosophy of life, work, love and honesty.
Introduction 1
1. Introduction
1.1 The problem
In developing countries like IRAN the effort of the government are recognized to be an
indispensable force for development purposes. But in forestry, with its large and scattered
production units, the control or the influence exercised by the government is naturally weaker
compared to other sectors. This situation makes the role and nature of information and
communication difficult and complex and also substantiates its importance as a catalyst in the
process of the forestry development.
Despite the importance of information as a key ‘resource’ continues to grow, in most
instances, effective information management is far from straightforward, and there are many
obstacles in the forestry sector in Iran.
The Forest, Rangeland & Watershed Organization of Iran (FRWOI) takes action to provide
the forest management plan intended for conservation and rehabilitation of the north forest
every ten years. The plan is divided into ten annual plans as the actions of the organization. In
this direction, the organization selects different contractors to implement different annual
projects and the forest management plan at the end. These projects are divided into four areas
(Gorgan, Sari, Noo-shahr, Rasht) and are sent to the General Natural Resources Offices
(GNRO) in these areas for implementation. During the implementation of the projects
different documents and reports are extracted that are indicating the operation of the
organization, general offices, and contractors. These documents and reports have been
collected during long- times and amounted to 600 booklets up to now. The volume of data,
documents, and their variety are expanding as it is difficult to provide different reports or to
retrieve required information of them for decision makers, researchers and so on.
The major weakness of the existing paper- based systems is its inefficiency in retrieval,
analysis and communication of information, so nullifying the initial objective of collecting
data.
Information resides in multiple files and proprietary databases and multiple platforms which
are not well integrated or accessible. This is the legacy of many years of uncoordinated
development, and may have resulted in poor quality and inconsistent information.
Introduction 2
There is a huge volume of unstructured and frequently misplaced information, information is
created for different purposes by different people at different times, and based on different
definitions, resulting in many conflicts and inconsistencies.
Complex information exchanges exist across organizational boundaries, comprising a mixture
of electronic, paper-based and verbal communication.
Because of a long negligence and inadequate attention to forestry information and information
system, the forestry sector in Iran has faced many problems to provide management with
information that can provide the necessary input for gainful decision and policy making, for
planning, appraisal and evaluation of forestry project/programs and to monitor and manage
day to day activities as well. However, in a comparative sense, what is lacking in the forestry
sector is not forest information but its management (the capacity to systematically process,
store, retrieve, disseminate and document forest information) and the corresponding capacity
to use it efficiently.
Therefore, it is felt that there is an urgent need for the forestry sector in Iran to organize its
huge mass of information and dissemination activities under a unifying umbrella and work
out mechanisms of information exchange and information generation. Unless this is done,
information collection and utilization in the forestry sector will fail to support any specific
planning and management objectives.
To help address these problems, one of the best solutions can be the development of an
electronic database and information system.
1.2 Objectives of the study
The present study is intended to introduce a computer –based management information
system for the provincial general natural resource office of Noo-shahr in particular and
FRWOI in general. The central objective in the development of a computer –based
management information system for FRWOI is to pool together the ever-increasing difficult
and complex information management and processing works into one coherent system. The
system can be viewed from two aspects: (i) facilitating and improving the efficiency of
management functions of planning, monitoring and evaluation of the general offices through
providing critical information both on subject/functional and regional basis (ii) establishing
Introduction 3
the basic prerequisite for online communication and information exchange, and thereby
contributing to an efficient use of existing underused computers.
The study outlines the management information system requirements for middle and top level
users of the organization in general and the provincial general natural resource office in
particular. Specific methods for identifying and analyzing information needs of planners and
decision makers of forestry sector are discussed.
The main objectives of the study are:
Analysis of the present conditions of forest information flow in the forestry sector of
Mazandaran province in Iran and identification of the gaps in data transfer and
information
Analysis of information requirement
Design of a database model and forest management information system for managing of
information on a regional scale
Construction and testing of the database model
Information and information system in forestry 4
2. Information and information system in forestry
2.1 Introduction
Forestry information spans a broad and diverse spectrum. Forests are viewed alternately as
ecosystems, as sources of wood, and as social amenities. There are commercial perspectives
and policy issues, as well as scientific interests and technological considerations. Forest
managers require detailed information, whereas the general public needs simplified
information. Forestry information also spans many spatial, temporal and process scales. This
high degree of diversity means that different forest information is suitable for the respective
users (Päivinen et al 1998).
IUFRO in 1998 defines different forest information that is suitable to be included in a FIS, it
is described briefly below. They include both subject coverage and resource types.
2.2 Information resource
2.2.1 Subject coverage
• Silviculture
forest and ecosystem management
stand establishment and treatment
biomass for energy
• Physiology and Genetics
physiology of tree xylem, stem, canopy, and roots, the tree as a whole
breeding and genetic resources of conifers and hard woods
mathematical and biological genetics of tree and populations
• Forest operations and techniques
forest engineering (building, construction, machinery and operational methods
in all forestry practices)
work study, payment and labour productivity
• Inventory, Growth, Yield, Quantitative and Management Sciences
forest resources inventory (collection and analysis of resources data)
remote sensing
management sciences of forest enterprises
Information and information system in forestry 5
• Forest products
fundamental nature of wood and other forest products and their utilization
Production, characteristics, and use of non – wood forest products
• Social, Economic, Information and Policy Sciences
economics at regional, national, international levels
forest policy
forest history
research organization (philosophy, management , application of results )
• Forest health
environmental / pathogen interaction in forest decline
biology and control of forest trees and forest ecosystems
biological and applied aspects of tree diseases
• Forest environment
study of forest ecosystems
natural disasters (avalanche, torrent and erosion control )
biodiversity forest fire prevention and control use of fire as a cultural tool.
2.2.2 Resource types
Vegetation type data, Statistical data, Forest products trade flow data, Satellite mapping
data, Documents, such as articles and reports, and their abstracts, Legislation, Mailing
lists and newsgroups, Projects, Directories and so on.
2.3 Introduction to information system in forestry
According to Hitrec and Tomanic (1988) the development of information system in forestry
can be divided in to several phases.
The first phase is when the first computers appeared (1960s). At that time the foresters did not
have their own computers, but they admired the new possibilities of making, say, volume
tables.
The second phases came with computers becoming cheaper which used for bookkeeping in
forestry enterprises. Different machines supported by different computer programming had
their own roles in different approaches to bookkeeping and accountancy.
Information and information system in forestry 6
The third phase was marked by a small number of strong centres within the major forestry
units. The centres were founded and managed by self-made experts and have been named
‘centre for ADP (automatic data processing)’. Besides administration and accountancy, these
now stronger machines were used for organizing data bases (forest stock-taking, forest
management plans, basic assets) though only in terms of collecting, sorting, storing and
exchange of information.
The invention of microcomputers in the early eighties was another phase in the development
of information system in forestry. The computers became cheaper and available to everyone.
A diverse choice of software has been added to a large assortment of hardware.
In general the development of the forestry information system as well as the necessity of
using information systems to replace routine clerical work by computer –aided data
processing has been slow to start in forestry when compared to other activities and branches
of the economy; this is a common phenomenon in most countries. The reason for the lag is the
relatively low level of education in information science for forestry staff, and resistance to
innovation (Novak and Tomanic 1988).
2.3.1 Benefits resulting from use of the computerized system
According to Novak and Tomanic (1988) the management effects of using the information
system are commonly divided into measurable and non-measurable. Both effects can be
direct and indirect. Under the economic conditions it is understood that the measurable
sides of the information system's efficiency are those whose financial equivalent is
evident.
Measurable reduction of production and management costs, the reduction of total
administration and routine work is the first result of developing and applying the
information systems supported by computers. With routine office work, the use of a
computer enables an increase in productivity, together with lower administration costs.
Developing a computer-aided information system in forestry resulted in saving of space
and equipment in terms of reducing investment and the costs of maintaining unnecessary
space for staff, equipment, archives and storage.
Introducing the computer into management has eliminated conventional documentation.
Savings on paper are evident and considerable. They are partly connected with the
Information and information system in forestry 7
reduced demands on paper used for storing data and information. Secondly, there is the
elimination of copying and duplication costs of all kinds. The costs of filing and
circulating documents are as well reduced.
Data redundancy is also reduced by developing the computer-aided information system.
This is partly connected with the above mentioned benefits but also and most
significantly, the multiple input and processing of one and the same information in
different dimensions of time and space is avoided.
Computer data processing (by means of programs, systems analysis, processing) can, with
simple algorithms, generate various reports so that multiple savings of time and quality
increases can also be achieved.
Increase the degree of information availability, these effects cannot normally be expressed
immediately and simply through quantity so they are classified as un-measurable benefits,
which does not mean that they cannot be recognised or that they do not exist.
Assumption and planning of economic events by means of a computer becomes easier,
more accurate and faster because a faster reception of a great mount of information is
ensured.
Increased precision of information, every system is trying to eliminate errors at any of the
stages. At input, processing and output. Computer processing offers great opportunities
and additional benefits by way of permanent control of data input and processing.
According to Chandurkar and Sudeshna (2003) the benefits of the using of the computers
in information management can be abstracted as the following: Storage of the data, access
and retrieval, spatially referenced data, standardization and comparison, processing speed,
cost wise effectiveness.
2.3.2 The relation between information system and management system
Forest resource management requires decisions, which require models, which require
information. A system for providing the manager with information thus is essential to the
life of the organization. Within the management system the information system bridges
Information and information system in forestry 8
the gap between problem recognition and decision making. It comprises three subsystems:
information gathering, storage-retrieval, and prediction.
How does the information system relate to the management system as a whole? It is
shown in Fig 1.
Figure 1. The relationship of information system to management system (adapted from Duerr et al. 1979)
As shown a flow extends from problem (question) recognition through decision
implementation, review, and feedback. The information system implied the central section
of figure and is subdivided into three subsystems each containing one or two elements.
2.4 Integrated forest management information system
In normal daily usage ‘’integration’’ means combining parts into a whole. When applied to
systems this indicates at least that the system is not monolithic but is composed of parts or
modules.
An integrated Forest Management Information System (FMIS), as it is shown in Fig 2, can be
termed as a set of computer based systems and procedures implemented to help forest and
Problem system Searching for problems
Identifying the problems
Information system
Decision supporting system Producing Models
Inserting the predicted information Making a decision
Implementing the decision Evaluating the outcome
Information Gathering system
Gathering suitable information
Information storage -retrieval system
Storing the information Retrieval the information
Information prediction system
Identifying required predictions
Gathering the predictions
Management system
Information and information system in forestry 9
wildlife managers in their crucial job of decision making. FMIS, thus, aims at providing
information that supports improved organizational and forest management decision-making
capabilities throughout the organization engaged in forestry or related operations (Garg
2002b).
An integrated forest management information system may contain forest resource information
system, forestry manpower information system, financial information system and other sub-
systems. The main objectives of an integrated forest management information system are to
provide:
1) Information on the latest status of forest resources for any level of hierarchy, such
as the national as whole, a provincial forest division, watershed, district, compartment,
etc. to aid planning and decision making.
The primary objective of any FMIS is to provide information to the planners and
decision makers. For this purpose it is necessary that the system provide timely
information about the forest resources of the country and their distribution not only at
national, but other lower levels also such as region, state, etc., by certain parameters of
interest which may vary from time to time and context to context.
2) Comparative picture of the forest resources at different points of time to help
strategic, tactical and operational levels of planning, management and monitoring of
various developmental projects.
3) Basic data to the researchers to enable building suitable mathematical models to
improve forest management and administration by way of employing techniques like
simulation.
It is common knowledge that most of the time of researchers is spent in basic data
collection. A good FMIS provides an answer in saving time of the researcher so far as
the secondary data is concerned. The data base design of course has to be done
carefully taking into account the research needs pertaining to the forest resource data.
4) Linkage with related computerized databases in other specialised branches in the
country.
It is not only uneconomical but also ridiculous to expect the data base of any specific
information system to contain the totality of data related even remotely to the subject-
particularly such data which is external to the organization and already available on
computer compatible media in other databases. For example, the interaction between
some of the forestry variables and metrological variables and consequent need of data
Information and information system in forestry 10
on parameters like temperature, rainfall etc. in a forest resource database is too well
known to necessitate elaboration.
Information systems when designed by any organization not only attempt to cater for
the specific requirements of the particular organization but also to provide the requisite
related data to other organization.
Thus a forest management information system can be built in links to other related
database from the environmental information system, metrological information
system, soil information system etc. which are likely to be available from the
respective agencies.
Figure 2. Example of a general representation of an integrated forest management information system (adapted from Rondeux 1991, Feghhi 1998)
Information and information system in forestry 11
2.5 Forestry information system in developing countries
2.5.1 Introduction
The availability of forestry information in developing countries varies from country to
country and is highly correlated with a country's level of development.
Despite the increasing awareness of the importance of information in planning for
sustainable forestry development, most developing countries still do not have an adequate
system of statistics pertaining to the forestry sector. The current information are below the
requirements to support sustainable forest management and the available forestry data are
often out-of-date and incomplete in terms of (a) the range of commodities covered (b) the
range of variables or data sets covered, and (c) geographical coverage. Furthermore, even
when data are available they are often difficult to access and their reliability is often
questionable. The data is thus often ignored and not used in any meaningful way e.g. in
Iran useful information on forest resources may exist but it is not readily available to
national decision-makers or other people who they make strategic decisions regarding the
forestry sector (Ma Qiang 2000).
National forestry data come from many sources including censuses and surveys. As the
different institutions involved are not always aware of each other's activities, there is often
considerable duplication of effort and, in many cases conflicting data are reported for the
same items. Finally, even when data relating to the forestry sector are generally available,
it has seldom been recognised that the different data components often have different
coverage and time frames thus requiring special processing, tabulations, adjustments, etc.,
prior to their usage in an integrated manner or for the purpose of a particular study or
analysis (Ma Qiang 2000).
2.5.2 Some key constraints forest information system in developing countries
• The general problems
With respect to developing countries one must further consider the absence of trained
personnel. The software may have bugs and quirks, so that frequent consultations with
the supplier are called for. If this cannot be done than the operating personnel must
absorb the problems through additional knowledge and skills.
Information and information system in forestry 12
To use of computer- based information system a variety of support may be required to
create an effective system that meets the user needs. In some developing countries,
maybe this is not the case for Iran, lack of a support system for even the basic
hardware and software, with a lack of a hardware support as the most visible problem
(Roessel 1986).
• Lack of funds
Data collection, analysis, storage and dissemination are costly. In forestry, data
collection is particularly expensive. Forests stretch over large areas; many natural
forests are still located in areas that can be classified as remote or inaccessible and the
number of operators in the forests and the wood-processing industries in many
countries is staggering. Hence, it is not surprising that many forest inventories are as
old as 10 years (or more). Infrastructure for processing, storage and retrieval of data
such as geographic information systems (GIS) or global position systems (GPS) have
been hailed as breakthroughs for data collection and analysis, but they also come at a
high price (Durst and Enters 2002).
• Inadequate skills and capacities
The advent of information technology in forestry requires new skills that are not
always easy to acquire. In most countries, there are very few people who can manage
GIS effectively, and training is no guarantee for strengthening capacities. There is also
a lack of suitable trainers conversant in local languages and many forest agencies are
unable to provide financial resources for upgrading skills. At the field level, the
problem is compounded by low literacy levels in some countries and a lack of
understanding as to why data have to be collected and questionnaires have to be
completed (Durst and Enters 2002).
• Complexity of agencies involved in forestry statistics
Usually it is assumed that forestry departments are the collectors of all forestry-related
data and disseminators of information. In practically every country this is far from
correct and Iran serves as an example. The main agencies collecting statistical
information on forestry and timber trade are forest, rangeland& watershed
Information and information system in forestry 13
organization, Research institute of forest and rangeland, statistical and information
organization, Department of environment, Ministry of trade.
This multitude of actors can create high transaction costs and lead to the duplication of
efforts. There may be no established channel of communication between customs and
forestry departments regarding import of timber and export/import of value-added
products such as furniture, some actors are reluctant to share information and raw data
are protected as secrets. In the absence of mandatory data transfers, information kept
at one level or one department cannot be accessed easily unless it is specifically and
formally requested, a frequently frustrating process (Durst and Enters 2002).
• Weak understanding of the objectives of data collection
The primary objectives of data collection, analysis and dissemination are to facilitate
planning, management and the formulation of policies. Adequate, accurate, timely and
relevant information also serves to direct scarce resources to areas of need, thereby
minimizing risk and waste of resources. Data collection, their analysis, storage and
dissemination are costly. Hence only relevant data should be collected and processed,
with the detail and precision appropriate for decision making. Unfortunately, only few
people understand the need to prioritize.
Data are often collected for the sake of data collection, or because that is what the job
description specifies. Little time is spent on selecting the appropriate level of
precision, choice of data-collection method and updating intervals. Survey forms are
designed poorly and when they are returned, no one is assigned to code the data for
further processing. All efforts are diverted to particular sectors of forestry and as a
result other sectors, deemed less important, such as domestic timber markets, NTFPs
or trees outside forests, are neglected totally by the institutions responsible for
providing accurate and relevant information.
The types of statistics used in many governmental departments are mainly descriptive,
in table form, graphics or pictures. Essentially data remain data and are not translated
into information. There is a substantial disregard for the needs of decision makers,
planners and the general public, and as long as the translation of data into information
Information and information system in forestry 14
is neglected, decisions will remain poor and people will continue to be misinformed
(Durst and Enters 2002).
Forests and forestry information in Iran 15
3. Forests and forestry information in Iran
3.1 Introduction on Iran’s forests
Iran the land of four seasons, is located between 32 and 53 degrees latitudes and being under
different weather pressures, has various climates and phyto-geographical regions. Nearly 93%
of the area is located on the Iran plateau, hilly and mountainous territory with 1,200 meters
average altitude. Highest and lowest place is the mount Damavand, approximately 5,670
meters and Caspian Sea coasts about 27 meters below sea level respectively. Two chains of
mountains have caused a vast area in the center of Iran be arid. First, the Elborz Mountains
situated as a wide wall along the NW to NE of Iran, which have helped to existence of a
humid to semi-humid temperate zone in Caspian Sea southern coasts (600-2000 mm annual
precipitation). Elborz mountains has deprived central areas of rainy winds from Caspian Sea.
Second the Zagros mountains which as an open crescent prevents spreading the
Mediterranean climate to the whole country (Sabeti 1993).
The forests cover according to the national classification
The table below shows the forest cover for the most recently available reference year. Data
have been extracted from the latest available and most relevant reports. This information has
been reclassified into the FAO classification scheme (Mirsadeghi 1999).
Forest regions Forest density
Arasbaran forest (ha)
Caspian forest (ha)
Iran- Turani
(ha)
Khali-omani (ha)
Zagrosian forest (ha)
Total forest (ha)
Closed forest
37.50 1,905,000 0,00 40,000 505,000 2,487,50
Open forest
60.00 0,000 447,000 0,00 2,020,000 2,527,000
Shrubs 0.00 0,00 500,000 1,260,000 0,00 1,760,000
Forest fallow
52.50 0,00 1,948,000 1,100,000 2,525,000 5,625,000
Total 150000 1,905,000 2,895,000 2,400,000 5,050,000 12,400,000
Table 1. The area of different types of forest in Iran
Forests and forestry information in Iran 16
3.2 History of forest policy in Iran
The forestry planning process is still traditional in Iran. The FRWOI is one of the major sub-
sectors of the Ministry of Jahad - e – Keshavarzi (Iranian Ministry of Agriculture).
Forest policy in Iran has never been rigidly defined. Only within the past fifty years the
permanent modification of the forest sector and the formation of forest policy have taken on a
specific character. The sector has been primarily preoccupied with the northern forests
because of their importance to the economy. Before the land reform, the northern forestlands
belonged to ‘khans’ and other large estates including royal forests. In 1962, ownership of the
royal forests was transferred to the government and resulted in the nationalisation of forests
and rangelands. All of the forests were eventually consigned to government supervision
(Mohamadi fazel 2001).
Scientific management of forests started in Iran with the preparation of the first forest
management plan in 1959. At first, the strategy was to maximize production through the
development of forest resources harvesting. The development activities hardly considered the
rural people and little attention was given to the private sector (Mohamadi fazel et al. 2001).
According to a 1994 survey based on aerial photographs, north Iran was covered by 1,847,860
hectares of forests. In comparison to the 1967 inventory figures, the north forest of Iran lost
141,572 hectares or 7.1 percent of the cover within 27 years (Mohamadi fazel 2001).
The execution of industrial forest projects accompanied by traditional exploitation by the rural
community has widely destroyed the northern forests. Even enormous investments by the
forest industry during the past twenty years have not led to a general policy of forest
conservation because of the insufficient attention given to the specific socio-economic
problems of the rural population.
Only from the beginning of the nineties, was there a slight shift in the management planning
system. More consideration was given to social factors in addition to the ecological and
economical aspects. By establishing cooperatives the rural people could contribute to the
execution of forest management plans (Mohamadi fazel 2001).
In spite of these existing obstacles, the forest sector has prepared projects for nearly 1.3
million hectare of commercial forests. The projects include several technical aspects, such as
Forests and forestry information in Iran 17
forest inventory, silviculture, afforestation and the construction of roads and the transport of
wood. Along with the implementation of these projects, consideration has also been given to
the problem of destruction of the natural forests and the proactive execution of new plantation
projects. By 2002, the total amount of forest plantation projects involved nearly 328,000
hectares (Hedayati 2003).
Iran is relatively poor in terms of available forest area (7% of the total land). Thus it is
vulnerable to rapid destruction. One of the problems threatening Iranian forests is illegal
logging, over and above the logging permits issued by the general natural resources offices.
Rural people who reside with their livestock in the forests also threaten the biodiversity
assets. Since 1990 there have been relocation efforts but they have not been completed.
Another source of forest destruction comes from the large number of fires. From 1991 to
2001, a total forest area of 6141ha was affected by fire in northern forest (FRWOI, CPO
2004).
During the ‘Third Five Year Plan’ period, the main emphasis was set to expand forests. In
addition, the qualitative improvement of natural forests through selective logging and
artificial regeneration was also given priority. Major emphasis was placed on local people’s
participation, the relocation of rural forest people, and the movement of livestock from the
north forest. Private sector investment in the management and development of forests is a
cornerstone of government policy.
3.3 The structure of the Forest, Range & Watershed Organization of Iran (FRWOI)
3.3.1 Introduction
Management Information Systems (MIS) are built for specific use by an identified
organization. Hence, understanding the organization (i.e. it’s primary goals and objectives,
structure, dynamics, nature of work, scale of operation, culture, tradition, social settings,
concern of stakeholders, level of competition, value system, and finally the environment
under which the organization is operating) plays a key role in the successful
implementation of information systems. Such an understanding is necessary for
supplementing the technical soundness of the systems that are to be designed. Any MIS
that is well-designed from a technical point of view may fail if the dynamics of the
Forests and forestry information in Iran 18
organization for which it is planned are not properly understood. Thus, a clear
understanding of the organizational components of an information system is critical part
of education in the area of MIS (Garg 2002b).
All organizations are divided into many departments or sections, with each department
having an assigned functional responsibility. Division of an organization into departments
with specified functions is mainly intended to let each department focus on an area of
responsibility. The chief executives of these large organizations do play a vital role.
To give a general idea of how forest data and information is processed, this chapter will
begin with a general description of the FRWOI. This description will be followed by
information on data collection and the dissemination mechanism.
3.3.2 The main long-term goals of FRWOI
Forestry planning is the responsibility of the FRWOI. Forestry planning has been done in
full consideration of, and with a view to supporting, the national goals for socio-economic
development. The major objectives of forestry planning include:
• Conservation of natural forests and wildlife resources through the establishment of
large-scale forest plantations
• Efficient utilization and exploitation of forest products to meet sustainable forest
development objectives
• Provision of forestry extension services, and the improvement of the national capacity
for the development of forest and pastures in terms of the required skills and technology.
• Establishment and encouragement of assembled industries and cooperative within the
society useful for exploiting the forest and rangelands according to relevant regulations
and laws.
3.3.3 Departments of the FRWOI
FRWOI is one of the dependent organizations of Ministry of Jahad -e– Keshavarzi. It has
the five following deputies:
• Forest Department - responsible for forest development and rehabilitation; the
managing of forest parks, the forest management and the harvesting of north forests in
Iran
Forests and forestry information in Iran 19
• Rangeland and soil Department - responsible for the planning and management of
rangelands and forests outside of the north forest; monitoring stabilization and
desertification
• Department of Conservation and Soils Issues - responsible for conserving and
differentiating national resources including the forest, rangeland and desert; utilize these
lands for different purposes
• Department of Watershed Management - responsible for producing, developing and
conserving resources; utilizes floods and reduces the effects of dryness; supervision the
conservation of soils and the reduction of sediment in rivers.
• Department of Planning and Support - responsible for supporting human resources,
finances, personnel and administration, program planning and statistics, information, and
computation
There are some additional units that are under the direct control of the Organization
Director. These are as follows:
Forest and Rangeland Council; Public Relations and International Office; Inspection and
legal Office; Security Office; Engineer Technology Office.
Forestry Department
The forest Department for northern forest is located in Chalous city because of it’s
proximity to the Caspian forests in north of Iran. The department includes three offices;
the Forestry Technical Office (FTO); the Plantations and Parks Office (PPO); the
Harvesting and Timber Industries Office (HTIO).
Forestry technical office offers the following services
• investigation of forest management plans and delivering of the plans to the forest
council for approval,
• provision of statistics and information required for the construction of forest resource
databases,
• control and supervision of the implementation of forest management plans,
• identification and investigation of the socio-economic problems facing the rural
population
Forests and forestry information in Iran 20
• the planning of the removal of domestic animals from forests and relocation of rural
people inhabiting the northern forests,
• selection and felling of trees under the forest management plans,
• provision of the volume tables and the corresponding paperwork.
The objectives of the Plantations and Parks Office
• study, investigation, provision and execution of relevant plantation and reforestation
plans,
• control and to appraisal of approved plans,
• creation of recreation areas, natural forest parks and planted parks
• production and collection seeds and establishment of the seed orchards in forest; also
conservation of seed producing trees within forest stands.
• co-operation with other divisions for the protection and conservation of natural forest
resource.
The Harvesting and Timber Industries Office provides the following services
• investigation of the production and the consumption of timber resources from the
northern forests; management of non- timber products and other resources in the
country,
• provision of harvesting plans and utilization of the northern forests and their auxiliary
products,
• supervision of harvesting operations in order to reduce operation costs, damage and
logging waste,
• investigation of mining activities in the forests,
• overseeing of the harvesting and utilization by the timber industries and the
exploitation of non-timber forest products,
• determination of the mean annual price of timber, industrial round wood and fuel
wood and the government revenues to be generated from the implementation of the
forest management plans,
• subcontracting and supervision the implementation of forest management plans in the
northern forests,
• forecasting of the incomes garnered from forest and rangeland products in the northern
Iran
Forests and forestry information in Iran 21
Department of Conservation and Soil Issues
The department includes three offices: the Soils Audit Office; Soil Delivery Office and
the Conservation and Protection Office. Below is a description of only one of the three
offices involved in the collection of forest information.
The Conservation and Protection Office provides the following services
• drawing up of conservational and protection plans and their transfer to the provincial
General Natural Resources Offices for execution,
• investigation, supervision and appraisal of the conservation and protection plans
implemented by the provincial General Natural Resources Offices and subsequent
revision where shortcomings are identified,
• facilitation of means of transfer of timber and non-timber forest products for
processing, and provision of chainsaws to authorized persons,
• conduit to the court of justice to ensure the timely investigation of offences identified
in relation to the use of natural resources,
• monitoring and evaluation of existing conservation laws and submission of
recommendations for either the reform of existing laws or the implementation of new
laws for consideration by the legal office,
• planning the construction of fixed and mobile stations at different locations in forests
and rangelands.
Forests and forestry information in Iran 22
Figure 3. The structure of Forest, Rangeland & Watershed Organization of Iran
Forest, Rangeland& Watershed
Organization of Iran (FRWOI)
Department of Conservation and Soil
Issues Soils audit office
Soils delivery office Conservation and protection
office
Rangeland and Soil Department
Pasture Technical Office Desertification and Sand
Stabilization Office Forest office except northern
forest
Forest Department Parks and Plantations Office Harvesting and Timber Industry Office Forestry Technical Office
Director office Forest & rangeland council
Engineer technical office Public relations and international office
Security office Education and people partnership’s office
Inspection and right office Training office
Department of Watershed
Management
Department of Planning and
Support Financial Office
Administrative Office Programme Planning and Statistics Office
Structure, Methods and Information Office
General Natural Resource
Offices (GNRO)
Municipal Natural Resource Offices
Forests and forestry information in Iran 23
3.4 The status of different aspects of forestry information in the Iranian forestry sector
The forestry data and statistics currently collected are considerable. They vary in scope and
details, their sources and method of collection. Nevertheless, they can be broadly classified
into the following categories:
3.4.1 Forest resource inventory
Different forest resource inventories are carried out for different purposes. The forest
inventories in Iran can be divided into the following two major parts:
National forest inventory
The first national forest inventory was carried out by a group of Iranian experts under
the supervision of Dr.Rajerz in 1958. In this study the north forest was divided into 18
units (except Talesh area) and into a total 753 sample plots (1000 m²) in the field and
8,310 sample plots in the aerial photographs were studied. Then the results were
generalized to total north forest area. The fifth national forest inventory was carried
out by the Forestry Technical Office (FTO) in 1996. The results of this investigation
were based on 5000 permanent sample plots that were located systematically on the
U.T.M network. In the table below, the abstract of conditions of the studies in different
periods is shown.
Number Year Supervisor Inventory
method Type of
Plot Field plot Aerial photo
plot
1 1958 Dr.Rajerz Double
sampling Permanent 753 8310
2 1973 Dr.William 3P Permanent 753 ….
3 1974 Yaakko Pöyry
Firm Random Temporary 1264 ….
4 1985 Mr.Najaran Systematic Temporary 15000 …..
5 1996 Mr.Moshtagh Systematic Permanent 5000 …..
Table 2. Summary of the main components of the national forest inventories between
1958 -1996 (FRWOI, FTO documents 2003)
Forests and forestry information in Iran 24
Forest inventory to provide the forest management plans
Forest inventory activities are carried out by the FTO. The forest inventory for the
forest management plan is carried out once every ten years. The inventory defines the
extent and location of the forested areas and classifies them by forest types and broad
volume categories. This inventory employs data gathered from sample plot
measurement in the field and maps. The area to be inventoried is selected on the basis
of field survey. All possible data are collected in order to provide a sound base for the
decision- making process in management planning.
3.4.2 Forest plantation statistics
Data for forest plantations is only available for those plantations that are on government
budget. The sources of information are from the provincial General Natural Resources
Offices who keep records on annual tree planting activities.
Forest plantation records are kept and maintained by the provincial Plantation and Parks
Office and Organizational Plantation and Parks Office both of them are involved in
plantation establishment. Data on the area planted, year, costs and list of contractors are
compiled and submitted to the PPO of the FRWOI in Chalous which co-ordinates the
implementation of the plantation projects.
The government has strongly promoted re-forestation and tree planting activities, with the
aim increasing forest cover year by year. The promotion of forest plantations targeted the
annual planting programme of 20,000 ha and the target to be achieved by 2020 is
approximately 500,000 ha (Hedayati 2003).
Forests and forestry information in Iran 25
Table 3. The statistical information on plantation activities in northern Iran
The key problems in relation to plantation information are:
• the absence of information on the choice of species, especially where site-species
adaptation is involved,
• a lack of information on the progress and the mortality rates of the plantations,
• the lack of spatial information about the plantations,
• the lack of standardisation with regard to seed sources, seed technology, nursery and
planting practices and
• inadequate data on the growth rates of indigenous species.
3.4.3 Statistics on forest harvesting and timber products
The Harvesting and Timber Industries Office (HTIO) is responsible for collecting timber
products information. This information is gathered from reports issued by the general
offices.
The key problems in relation to harvesting information are:
• the repetition of the same information at different levels and in different reports
• the lack of a specific format for storing and reporting such information
Year Area Planted (ha) Average of annual plantation
1962-78 29454 1732.6
1979-88 60010 6001
1989-93 89685 17937
1994-99 69435 11572.5
2000-02 79516 26505
Total 328100 7486.7
Forests and forestry information in Iran 26
3.4.4 Revenue collected from the sale of forest products
The HTIO is responsible for collecting information on the revenue earned from forest
products. The information comes from the monthly reports of the general offices and is
transferred to the HTIO.
3.4.5 Statistics on timber trade
Information on timber prices, export volume by species group and destination, import
volume by product type and point of origin are collected by the Ministry of Trade through
the customs office. This information is disseminated for both national and international
use through the annual statistical reports of the Customs Office. The export of timber and
timber products from Iran amounted to 11,465,899 $ and the import of timber and timber
products to Iran equal to 77,754,892 $ in 2002 (Customhouse 2002).
3.4.6 Statistics on forest or timber-based industry
From 1991, the Harvesting and Timber Industries Office took action to collect
information on the operators of the forest or timber-based industries (e.g. sawmills,
plywood/veneer mills and paper mills). Information was also collected on the number of
removal passes, species, volume input into the mills, volume input into the processing
machinery, output of converted timber and sales of timber to markets. The information is
collected by the HTIO of the FRWOI through either the mail or on-site inspections. This
process takes about four months every year.
There are about 52 big productive mill units in Iran, including plywood mills, paper mills
and pulp mills. There are a further 40,000 or so small mills engaged in timber and wood
products. The total capacity of the big mills is estimated to be about 2.3 million m³.
However, due to a lack of the required wood, the utilisation rate in 2002 was only around
1,435,000 m³. The total capacity of the large and small mills combined is estimated to be
about 3,700,000 m³ (FRWOI, HTIO documents 2004).
Forests and forestry information in Iran 27
3.4.7 Fire and other incidents
The data on forest protection activities such as fire, pests, diseases and forest offences are
kept in the Conservation and Protection Office. The sources of this information are the
monthly, quarterly and annual reports of the GNROs.
3.4.8 Number of families inhabiting the forests
There is a plan in place at provincial level to remove rural people and their livestock from
the northern forests. The plan was implemented in 1990 and was intended to prevent the
degradation of the northern forests. It was also designed to increase timber production,
decrease the destruction caused by livestock and change the means of livelihood of the
rural forest community. A special office was established for this purpose. This office
collects information on the number of families living in the forests and their livestock.
Based on a study in 2000, there are about 4,848 cowsheds including 747,310 domesticated
animals. Of these, 52% are cows, 39% sheep and 9% goats. About 5000 families are
currently living in this forest area (Ghiassallhossini 2000).
3.4.9 Fire wood production and consumption
Fire wood production and consumption are based on official studies and estimates.
Nevertheless, the figures seem rather low. The total annual local fire wood consumption is
estimated to be about 2 million m³ for the north of Iran.
3.4.10 Trees located outside of the forests
Information on trees located outside of the forests is not collected. Based on the results of
only one study conducted by the Harvesting and Timber Industries Office in 1996 on
Populus.sp plantations, these plantations produced about 2 million m³ wood (HTIO
documents).
3.4.11 Non-timber forest products
Other than some studies on the potential of non-timber forest products (NTFP),
information is not collected.
Forests and forestry information in Iran 28
3.4.12 Statistics on forestry organisation and administration
Information on the administration, staff deployment and manpower requirements are
compiled and recorded at the district, province and national organizational levels.
3.5 Different agencies and organizations involved to collecting of forestry information
In the absence of a well-defined centralized national forest information system, forestry
information on different subjects is collected and disseminated by other agencies which fall
into the following broad categories:
• Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands
• Department of Environment
• Statistics and Information Organization
• Customs Office
The nature, collection method, storage and dissemination of information by various
organizations in the above categories are largely independent of each other and mostly
uncoordinated.
3.5.1 Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands (RIFR)
Research into the status of the forests and their protection is conducted by the RIFR and
universities. The RIFR is an autonomous institution affiliated to the FRWOI and located
in Tehran. The RIFR collects and disseminates forestry information linked to certain
subject areas. Unfortunately inefficient and insufficient contact exists between the
research bodies and those responsible for implementing the results in Iran.
3.5.2 Department of the Environment (DoE)
Iran has an extensive conservation network comprising seven national parks and
approximately sixty other protected areas. These encompass approximately 12 % of the
country’s forests. The main administrative and management body responsible for
protected forest areas designated as national parks is the Department of the Environment
(DoE), established in March 1972. The most important duties of the DoE are as follows:
Forests and forestry information in Iran 29
• fulfilment of Article 50 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran to protect
the environment and ensure the legitimate and sustainable utilization of natural resources
to guarantee a sustainable development process,
• prevention of the destruction and pollution of the environment,
• preservation of Iran’s biodiversity (DoE of Iran)1.
The department is divided into a series of divisions dealing with different environmental
matters. The Parks and Wildlife Division is the main body charged with the management
of protected areas. Generally, the department undertakes long term environmental studies
and management projects. It collects the pertinent information relating to the area of the
national parks and the condition of the wildlife resources in these areas.
3.5.3 Statistics and Information Organization (SIO)
The Statistics and Information Organization is a key agency in the country which collects
and disseminates official statistics on number of themes. The data so collected facilitates
planning on a national scale. FRWOI is the major provider of forestry information to the
Statistics and Information Organization
3.6 Main constraints and key challenges in relation to forestry information and information systems in Iran
3.6.1 Increasing demand vs. limited national capacity
Traditionally, the main objective of forest management has been timber production.
However, forest policy and forest management objectives have diversified and expanded
in recent decades.
In common with the traditional aims of forest management, the main focus of forestry
statistics has been on timber, timber products, timber processing industries and forest
resource assessments. Following the structural and institutional alterations in the national
forestry sector over recent years, as well as changed objectives, there is now increased
concern in relation to and recognition of the need for the collection of information on
forest condition, growing stock and yields of non-timber forest products, trees outside
1 http://www.irandoe.org/en/about.htm
Forests and forestry information in Iran 30
forests, fire wood use, biodiversity, etc. The demand for information from different users
and interest groups is growing rapidly. However, there are some limitations in relation to
the collection of certain information, such as trees outside forests, non-timber forest
products, biodiversity and so on.
3.6.2 Lack of funding
A lack of funding is a permanent constraint in data collection, especially in the field
offices where, in most cases, funds are insufficient even for the regular monitoring of
production and forest condition. Data collection and monitoring are usually incidental,
carried out as part of other overriding activities and, therefore, have low priority.
There is no specific office or unit within the forestry sector with a clear mandate and the
facilities necessary to collect, to compile and to analyse the data and information required
for sustainable forest management.
The staffs of FRWOI have inadequate data collection and analysis skills, especially at the
field level.
Although data processing and analysis are simplified somewhat by computers, most field
offices have not acquired computers and other relevant equipment.
Data storage systems are limited and data – especially raw data – are managed carelessly
and are sometimes lost. Furthermore, the inadequacy of the data transfer systems often
slows the flow of information from the field to the organisational level and, therefore,
causes delays in the dissemination of information to the users.
3.6.3 Fragmentation and duplication of efforts, validation and dissemination problems
It may be said that there is a shortage of forest-related statistics in Iran, both in terms of
the scope of the available data and the quality and reliability of collected data. This can be
easily demonstrated on the basis of the fact that a large proportion of the time and other
resources allocated for forestry studies and the evaluation of forest development projects
are spent on ad hoc data collection. Moreover, as these data collection efforts are in turn
frequently neither particularly well documented nor disseminated the same data must
Forests and forestry information in Iran 31
often be collected again at a later date, often only a few years later, by other agencies or
even by same institute.
Relevant information is often scattered in different units, departments and ministries. For
example, information on forest cover and forest products is held by the FRWOI, while
information on wildlife is the possession of the Department of Environment of Iran. The
forestry sector may be responsible for timber production from natural forests but
information on the export and import of timber is theoretically collected by the Customs
Office. There is no mechanism for the sharing of information and the departments do not
consider information as a public good. Furthermore, the same types of data may be
generated by different systems and may in fact be contradictory and difficult to reconcile.
Even though vast amounts of data are collected, virtually most of them are not in a readily
accessible form or in a form suitable for dissemination. The situation in relation to
systematic forestry data/information management in the country is not well developed and
it can be generally concluded that there is no appropriate national system in place to
handle the collection, processing and dissemination of forest information. To mitigate
these problems, the FRWOI mandated to coordinate, collect, process and disseminate
forestry information, sought recently to develop and establish a national forest information
system.
3.6.4 Irrelevant and unutilised information
Frequently, the information required by decision makers is not available to them. At the
same time, much of the data that has been collected is irrelevant and remains unused.
Appropriate and timely information is particularly important because of the increasing
complexity of forestry and the demands for policy changes being made by numerous
stakeholders.
Data are often collected for the sake of data collection or because of historical precedents.
Little time is spent on selecting the appropriate level of precision, the data collection
method or the updating interval. Survey forms are sometimes poorly designed and even
when questionnaires are returned the data may not be coded for further processing, let
alone subjected to secondary analysis. Efforts are generally focussed on particular sectors
Forests and forestry information in Iran 32
of forestry (usually timber production), which means that data collection for these sectors
is more important than for other sectors of the organisation.
3.6.5 Institutional arrangements
The national forestry information system typically suffers from a lack of clear identity and
a lack of ownership. While the Statistics and Information Organization is charged with the
responsibility for all official statistics, responsibility for forestry statistics is, in many
instances, delegated to the FRWOI, which is often technically ill equipped or financially
not able to assume this responsibility. The role of the FRWOI in data collection and
reporting is very important, but its information systems are becoming less effective, and
the data they contain less accurate and more or less not updated.
3.7 Information requirements of the FRWOI
3.7.1 Introduction
Decision making is perhaps the most crucial role undertaken by top executives and
managers of FRWOI. An understanding of the decision-making process into which
information will be delivered is a critical first step towards producing cost-effective
information (Reynolds and Busby 1996).
The basic input required to make decisions is information. The effectiveness of decision
made depends among others on the quality of the information used. Better the quality of
the information greater the probability to come to the right decision and subsequently
better the chance for the organization to achieve its objectives (Reynolds & Busby 1996).
The responsibility and the functions of the FRWOI in the advancement of the forestry
sector of the country demand them to establish an information system of suitable size,
scope and complexity. The organisation requires access to information ranging from the
lowest level of the organisation hierarchy, i.e. the control offices responsible for
controlling the forest management plan, to the highest level of the organisation and to
other local and international organisations engaged in the advancement of forestry in Iran.
In addition, the information flow should be on a regular and timely basis and should be
able to provide the necessary input for policy development, decision making and daily
operations.
Forests and forestry information in Iran 33
3.7.2 Forestry information users
The information needs of the different decision making groups may be surprisingly
similar, providing substantial scope for efficiency. For example, a senior manager in the
Plantation and Parks Office may require a map showing the distribution of threatened
species in a specific location. This need appears to differ greatly from that of a senior
forest officer wishing to know the sustainability of logging operations in the same
location. However, much of the baseline data required to generate the maps may be the
same. Thus, knowledge of information needs from the earliest stages of an information
project can save costs by pinpointing areas of overlap and ensuring that common baseline
datasets are available. Therefore, the key to the use of forestry information is to focus on
essential information only. In a situation where financial resources are scarce this is,
inevitably, the information required to set and achieve immediate policy and management
goals.
There are many users demanding forestry data and information for many purposes
including planning, monitoring, evaluation, analysis, decision making, research, and so
on. At the organisational level the main users are FRWOI offices, research and training
institutions, international organisations, and the general public. Different users require
forestry data and information not only for different purposes but also to various degrees of
detail and aggregation. Four types of forest information requirement can be identified:
operational management level information needs, provincial management level
information needs, organisational or national management level data needs and data needs
to satisfy international demands.
Operational level data and information needs
The information requirement at the operational level encompasses users requiring detailed
data for the monitoring and control of operations, the preparation of budgets, project
investment identification, etc. In many cases, such users are also producers of data.
Because of their direct involvement with operations or the collection of data they are able
to exercise effective, although often informal quality control of data.
Forests and forestry information in Iran 34
Users categorised in this group include the control offices responsible for forest
management plans, firms and the provincial offices involved in undertaking tasks directly
or indirectly related to the implementation of forestry development projects.
The research institutes, universities and other training institutions will possess data that
supports their research work, development, course curricula, etc.
Provincial management level data and information needs
Provincial level management are mainly the responsibility of controlling and
implementing of the forestry development plans. The primary interest of these offices is to
monitor and control the performance of the forestry plans in operational level and its
needs in terms of resource allocation.
For successful monitoring and performance assessment this user group normally requires
data and information in a comparative format and in the form of a historical series. In
order to satisfy the information needs of this group, statistical data should be organised in
such a way that it combines data generated at the operational level together with data
collected through special surveys and inventories.
Users in this group require data and information for:
• assessment and reformulation of forestry policies,
• preparation of organisational and provincial plans, budget allocation, definition of
norms, standards and specifications,
• overseeing the correct implementation of forestry plans,
• assessment of personnel policy, in terms of recruitment, training and the establishment
of training centres.
Data needs at the organizational and national level
At the national level the primary users of forestry data and information are mainly
planning commissions and all offices closely related to highest executive and legislature
organs of the government.
At this level the volume of data need is smaller, highly selective and aggregated which
usually supposed to be supplement or combined with data from other sectors.
Forests and forestry information in Iran 35
Users in this group require data and information for:
• setting out long term objectives for the forestry sector,
• the definition of policies and measures for the achievement of long term objectives,
• the preparation of national plans and strategies,
• the allocation of financial resources.
Users in this group include organizational Plan, Program and Statistical Office, the High
Forest council, Minister of Jehad - e- Keshavarzi,
Data needs at the international level
International financing institutions including non-governmental organizations, United
Nations and its affiliated organizations such as FAO, and IUFRO require forestry data and
information for:
• Project evaluation and financing,
• Analysis of development gaps and allocation of resources aimed at reducing these
gaps,
• International comparison and experience transfer,
• Planning training programs and
• Undertaking research of every kind
Data and information are of no value unless they reach those who need them, can be easily
understood and are actually used. It is therefore, of crucial importance that collected
forestry data and information is disseminated to targeted users.
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 36
4. Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector
4.1 The fundamentals of information and information systems
Data an extremely valuable resource as it may translate into information needed which is the
life blood of any decision-making system to support decision levels ranging from technical
aspects to policy instruments for sustainable practices (Ribeiro et al. 2003). The availability of
pertinent information is a major concern of management. Consequently, there is a need to
develop an information system to support collection, processing and analysis of data.
The purpose of information system is to collect, store, process and disseminate information.
However, the concept of information is itself not well understood. It is in some sense a
relative concept, rather than an absolute one. Data is relatively raw and information is a
refined form of data which is more useful for human understanding and decision process
(Garg, 2002b). Data are unorganized and unevaluated. For example, in forest inventory the
numerical data are tabulated for two quantities, the height, H, and the diameter, D, trees.
These height and diameter measurements are evaluated only in the sense that, given careful
measurement techniques, we may be relatively sure that they are reliable estimates of the
quantities we intended to measure. But beyond measurement reliability and pair-wise
association, these values have little meaning (Schmoldt and Rauscher 1996).
By contrast, information may be defined as a collection of data that has at least some level of
organization. For example, the graphical display of these data on a Cartesian coordinate
system is also a way of organization data and it aids our understanding due to its visual
nature. Information remains unevaluated in the sense that we don’t know whether to believe
in its validity (TRUTH value) or not. In this example we merely have an empirical
relationship with no support for believing it (Schmoldt and Rauscher 1996).
Information is converted to knowledge when we develop a justified belief in its truth value. In
terms of this height-diameter relationship, justification would consist of some causal or
biological support of our beliefs- some justification that says trees grow in height and girth
simultaneously and corroborating empirical evidence from other populations, using a similar
mathematical relationship, might also be used to justify our belief. Once we have justified true
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 37
belief in this height- diameter relationship, then we can use this knowledge to imply similar
relationship for other tree populations.
Data organised into information, which goes into the formation of knowledge, may be likened
to clay formed into bricks used in the construction of a building (Schmoldt and Rauscher
1996).
Even if the concepts of information, data and knowledge are interrelated in some sense, the
relationships are not fully understood. In spite of this, any piece of information to be provided
through given information system will have some of the following attributes (Solvberg and
Kung 1993):
• Relevance is the most important attribute of any piece of information. The evaluation
of other attribute of information depends on the relevancy of the information in
question, with respect to the goal of the organization or the individual who uses the
information.
• Correctness of information refers to the degree to which the information reflects what
is actually happening.
• Accuracy refers to the degree of vagueness in the information. Not every piece of
information has accuracy as a property. For instance, the statement ‘’ cats are
animals’’ is correct but it is meaningless to evaluate the accuracy of the sentence.
• Content concerns the amount of knowledge that the information conveys.
• Originality measures how new or how different the information is with respect to
existing knowledge.
• Obsoleteness refers to the usefulness of the information with respect to the time of
observation. It might be that the system that is observed changes so fast that
information loses its value over time.
Having given a preliminary definition of information, we need to define what is meant by a
system. System as ‘ a set or arrangement of things so related or connected to form a unity or
organization’ or a system is a regular, orderly way of doing something. Fig 4 shows the
system with the four elements of input, processing, output, and feedback (Kanter 1972).
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 38
Input Processing Output
Feedback
Figure 4. Different elements of a system (Kanter 1972)
The system part of ‘information system’ represents a way of seeing the set of interacting
components, such as:
• people (for example, analysts, programmers, business users)
• objects (for example, computer hardware devices)
• procedures (for example, those suggested in an information systems development
procedure)
All this must take place within a boundary that separates those components relevant to the
system.
According to Avison and Fitzgerald (1995) systems have also a purpose. For example, many
information systems are designed to provide relevant information to users for decision-
making. Information needs to be presented at the right time, at the appropriate level of detail
and of sufficient accuracy to be of use of its recipient.
An information system is similarly viewed as consisting interrelated subsystem for collecting,
storing, processing, and distributing information. The operation of an information system is
expected to be supported both by machines and by humans. Information systems are non-
deterministic systems where human decision- making plays a central role. Aspects like quality
of data with respect to quality of decision-making are important in information systems.
There are as many proposed definitions for the concept of an information system as there are
for the concept of information (Solvberg and Kung 1993, Avison and Fitzgerald 1995):
• An information system is an institution which is intended to serve the improvement
and support of outside information.
• Information systems are organization’s instrumentation. They inform decision makers
at all levels about those variables that represent the state of the organization (inventory
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 39
holding, staff numbers) and about those that represent changes, or rates of change. In
variables affecting the organization (cash flow, production rates)
• A system of information sets needed for decision and signalling in a larger system (of
which it is a subsystem) containing subsystems for collecting, storing, processing and
distribution of information sets.
• An information system is an organization provides facts useful to its members and
clients. This information could concern its customers, suppliers, products, equipment
and so on.
• An information system is a system which assembles, stores, processes and delivers
information relevant to an organization ( or to society), in such a way that the
information is accessible and useful to those who wish to use it, including managers,
staff, clients and citizens. It is a human activity (social) system that may or may not
involve the use of computer systems.
4.2 The types of information systems
As MIS deal largely with managerial applications an appreciation of the theory of
organizations is a necessary prerequisite for the successful application of MIS. In any
organization, three distinct levels of management are described:
• The operational management is largely concerned with the day- to- day operations.
There is less planning in the operating level than in either middle or top management.
It has also the function of directing the use of resources and performance of tasks
according to established procedures. Information required for operational management
tends to be routine, very short-term and is more easily structured. The accuracy and
timeliness of collecting and disseminating information is important at the operational
level. Most of the transaction processing tasks (accounts receivable and payable, etc)
generate data that are directly useful to management at operational level (Kanter
1972).
• Middle management is mainly involved with tactical decisions that have a medium
range impact on the organisation and specify polices, procedures and objectives for the
lower units of organisation. Its function is to acquire and allocate resources and
monitor the performance of sub-organisational units. It requires information that can
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 40
support decision making in a structured and sub-structured environment (Kanter
1972).
• Top management’s main focus is on long-term strategic decisions that have far
reaching long-term impact on the organization. It is also responsible for monitoring of
the strategic performance of the organization and its overall direction (Kanter 1972).
Relevant but slightly inaccurate data and information is far better to the strategic
decision than accurate but irrelevant data. However, to goal must be to generate data
that is both accurate and relevant.
A corporate database is required to meet the demand for information for managers at all the
levels. The corporate database is composed of data pertaining to the organization, its
operation, its plans and its environment. Figure 5 shows all internal and external components
and their relationships in a computerized management information system (MIS) (Fong and
Hung 1997).
Generally, decisions are executed based on information generated from the corporate database
and managerial expertise. Higher-level managers set goals to direct operational level
activities, and produce plans which form part of the corporate database. Business transactions
reflect actual results of operational activities and the database will be updated by these
transactions to reflect the current state of the business. Operational level managers query the
database to perform daily operations. Tactical level managers receive reports derived from the
transaction data stored in the database. They compare the actual results shown in these reports
with planned results. Managers at the strategic level need information for modelling and
forecasting. The corporate database supports all levels of information needs for operations,
decision-making and management process.
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 41
Figure 5. Organisational pyramid and types of information needed to manage organisation (adapted from Kanter 1972)
There are two major ways to classify information systems. According to Thiel et al. (1999)
the first way is based on the use of the information systems at the different hierarchies of the
business and the other way focused on the different functions of the system (from Thiel et al.
1999 cited by Selassie 2001). In the later case, information systems are categorized according
to three major types:
• Systems for information retrieval- database or management information systems,
• Systems for information processing – expert systems or decision support systems,
• Systems for information transfer – groupware, e-mail, workflow systems.
On the other hand, information systems can be classified into five types based on and
corresponds to the different level of management hierarchy found in a typical organization
(from Thiel et al. 1999 cited by Selassie 2001):
• operative systems (transaction processing systems)
• accounting systems
• reporting systems, (management information systems)
• control and analysis systems (decision support and expert systems)
• strategic decision making and information systems (executive information and support
systems).
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 42
Figure 6. Hierarchy of information systems (adapted from Thiel et al. 1999)
Avison and Fitzgerald (1995) classified information systems into four types. These include
transaction processing systems, decision- support systems, expert systems and office
automation systems. Moreover, they also identified other types of information systems that
can be categorized to or variants to the aforementioned major information types. A data
processing system is a rather out-of-date name for transaction processing system and was a
term that covered all standard business computer applications of the 1960s and 1970s, and
most of the manual systems that preceded computer technology. The decision-support system
has a number of variants. These include management information systems, which concentrate
on summary information; executive information systems, which stress the presentation of
information to senior managers, usually provide information from one database source, but
provide it quickly and efficiently; and computer supported cooperative work, which supports
collaborative decision making (and also other work, such as writing, planning and
negotiating). Likewise, intelligent knowledge –based systems are similar to expert systems,
but the term has a wider meaning (Selassie 2001).
4.2.1 Office automation systems (OAS)
These are characterized by repetitive, short term, input output oriented systems used
directly by a large number of end users like clerks, typists, and accountants. A large
number of accounting systems like pay roll, invoicing, billing, inquiry belong to this
category. These systems are more tuned to the generation of information rather than the
use of information. Information support for such systems must be simple, flexible and
user friendly (Garg 2002b).
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 43
4.2.2 Transaction processing systems (TPS)
Transaction processing systems, which are probably the most common information
systems, refers to the traditional commercial applications of computers such as invoicing,
billing, order, dispatch, delivery, stores accounting, and so on. Transaction processing
systems which are also called operative information systems form the basis for the
evolutionary development processes of the classic concepts of the management
information systems. Very often they concern on the day-to-day operations of the
organization and aimed to increase the efficiency of transaction processes (Selassie,
2001). Many transaction processing systems also use very large processing of databases
by hundreds of users using and employing equipment distributed over dozens of locations
spread over a vast geographical area (Garg 2002b).
4.2.3 Management information system (MIS)
Management information (reporting) system is the dominant type of information system
in forestry development projects. Traditionally information from management information
system presented on hard copies. While the conceptual MIS does not in principal require
computers, any meaningful MIS today is a computer-based system (Garg 2002a).
Figure 7. Three components of management information systems (Garg 2002a)
Unlike transaction processing systems, which focus on improving transaction processing
efficiency, management information systems concentrate on summary information to
improve the effectiveness of decision making processes, especially those of the middle
level managers within an organisation. Management information systems are basically a
reporting system intended to present information on both internal business operations and
the external business environment.
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 44
Logical foundation of MIS
Any meaningful MIS is built on four logical foundations identified by Davis et al. in 1985
and illustrated in Fig 8 (cited by Garg 2002a).
• Computing science: major MIS systems are built on computational devices that focus
on database management, systems analysis and computer networking
• Theory of organizations and organizational behaviour: MIS has been developed
principally for by organizations and therefore concentrates on issues such as the structure,
socio–economic impact, competition and the cultural environment within which work
takes place.
• Operations research and management science: mathematical and statistical
techniques in the form of linear programming, and sensitivity analysis are being
increasingly used by mangers in decision-making.
• Information theory: issues such as analytical quantification of information content of
a message, information content and filter, and error detection and control have significant
relationships to MIS.
Figure 8. The foundation of MIS (Garg 2002a)
MIS
Computer Science
Operations Research &
Management Science
Theory of
Organizations
Information Theory
DBMS, file structure, hardware, software, storage, etc.
Behavior, structure,
competition, business,
socio-economic
impact, etc.
Sensitivity analysis, linear
programming etc.
Content of data,
information filter, etc.
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 45
4.2.4 Decision support systems (DSS)
Management information systems are not very effective to enable managers to make
decisions. First they provide information to managers only on pre-defined formats but
they lack tools to support decision-making processes of managers. These drawbacks of
management information systems lead to search for a better system that would better
satisfy decision-making activity of managers. These problems can be overcome by
decision-support systems (Selassie 2001).
Decision support systems are intended to help individual managers in their decision
making capabilities. Such systems need access to the large information generated by
office automation and transaction processing systems (Garg 2002b). Such systems may
use the whole range of facts about the organization, or part of the organisation, or
sometimes relate to aspects external to the organisation, that is, its environment, to
provide information to aid the decision maker. This system is designed to enable
managers to retrieve information, to use analytical decision modelling tools and
specialized database that will help them to make decisions (Avison and Fitzgerald 1995).
Figure 9. Conceptual scheme of a decision support system1
1 http://www.mcrit.com/ASSEMBLING/assemb_central/WhatESS.htm
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 46
4.2.5 Executive support systems (ESS)
An ESS (or in more general terms a decision support systems, DSS) is a software system
under control of one of many decision makers that assists in their activity of decision
making by providing and organised set of tools intended to impart structure to portions of
the decision making situation and to improve the ultimate effectiveness of the decision
outcome.
These systems are meant to be used directly by senior managers to provide support to
decisions in the strategic management categories. The information needed would be
largely external, unstructured and even uncertain. Access to external database, technology
information like patent records, technical reports by consultants and consulting
organisations, market reports by market intelligence agencies, confidential information
regarding competitors, speculative information about market, source of financial
information, likely government policies etc. belong to the information that must support
executive decision. Executive support systems therefore provide the highest levels of
challenge for the information systems design. Tools of artificial intelligence (AI) and
expert systems (ES) are often used to cope with some of the complexities of executive
decision making (Garg 2002b). The circle in figure 9 represents the domain area of a
typical executive support system.
4.2.6 Expert systems
Artificial intelligence (AI) has a big role to play in data management so as to support
information systems for forestry applications. It will potentially be capable of storing,
managing and organising large amounts of spatial data. One recent trend in AI is the
development of the so-called expert system for solving specific problems (Ashbindu
Singh 1987).
Expert systems attempt to simulate the role of human experts. It is a general term for
special software systems that preserve the knowledge of human experts and reason with it.
Their usefulness is derived from the reasoning ability of the system to use its knowledge
base of the particular domain to provide solutions or guidance to problem solvers in
particular situations. An expert system might be used, for example, to diagnose the
reasons for failure in business or technical process. Expert systems (ES) have been widely
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 47
used from technical a medical to financial, teaching, and administrative applications
(Avison and Fitzgerald 1995). The use of this technology for monitoring changes in forest
cover using multi-temporal satellite data has been successfully demonstrated (Ashbindu
Singh 1987).
In recent years, expert systems have played an important role in information systems.
Their technology has been used in the more advances information systems, such as
executive information systems and executive support systems.
4.2.7 Knowledge management systems (KMS)
A Knowledge Management System (KMS) is a distributed hypermedia system for
managing knowledge in organisations.
Knowledge management systems attempt to capture available expertise and knowledge
(as opposed to skills) within the organisation in an easily retrieval and re-usable form, for
current and future use. One of the most critical components of knowledge management
systems is the identification and capturing of new knowledge and keeping the knowledge
base updated.
A knowledge system provides assistance and support in decision making - often in the
shape of a computer program - that contains expert knowledge within a subject area
(Iwarsson and Johansson 2001).
Knowledge systems can be used, for example, to:
• give advice or to provide support in decision-making - what is the best thing to do in
this situation?
• accumulate knowledge - the system is always supplied with the latest research results;
• place diagnoses and make searches for errors; and
• make prognoses.
Research has shown that an effect of building knowledge systems is that participating
experts have often developed into better experts having completed a project. For the first
time, they might have seen their knowledge in a structured presentation, and identified
gaps in knowledge, etc.
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 48
4.2.8 Other information systems
There are also other types of information systems. But according to Avison and Ftizgerald
(1995) most of them are variants to one or the other major types. For instance, information
retrieval systems, which usually provide information from one database source, but
provide it quickly and efficiently, and computer supported co-operative system, which
supports collaborative decision making can be considered as variants to executive
information systems. A variant to expert system in intelligent knowledge-based systems
but the term has a wider meaning, for example, covering machine translation of natural
languages.
English speaking area German-speaking area
OAS – Office Automation System Büroautomationssytem
Bürokommunikationssystem
TPS – Transaction Processing System Transaktionssysteme Operative Systeme Administrationssysteme
MSS – Management Support System MUS- Managementunterstützungssystem
MRS – Management Reporting System
MIS – Management Information Systems
MIS- Managementinformationssystem
Berichts –und Kontrollsystem
Computergestütztesinformationssystem
Betriebs - Wirtschaftsinformatik
DSS- Decision Support System EUS- Entscheidungsunterstützungssystem
XPS – Expert System ES- Expertensystem
XSS- Expert Support System Wissensbasiertes EUS
EIS – Executive Information system
ESS- Executive Support System
FIS – Führungsinformationssystem
CIS – Chefinformationssystem
VIS - Vorstandsinformationssystem
Table 4. Different terms of computer - based information systems (Susallek 1998)
4.3 Selecting different information system technologies in the forestry sector
4.3.1 Introduction
The structure of the existing management in the forestry sector determines the set-up,
organisation and operation of management information systems. As with other
organisations, forestry organisations have a three level pyramid-like hierarchy of
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 49
management and operation. These are operational, tactical and strategic managerial and
operational levels, each of which demands different information systems designed to meet
the specific information needs of users at the given management level. However, high
levels of expertise and resources are also required to establish and run concurrently
different types of information system suiting the specific types of user in the management
hierarchy of the forestry sector.
Most authorities on forestry information systems recognise three types of information
need:
• information for strategic planning and analysis,
• information for tactical (medium and short term) planning and
• information for operational management and control.
Each of these has its own requirements, although the technologies overlap to some extent.
4.3.2 Existing forestry information system technologies for strategic planning and analysis
What kinds of information and information technology can help in making strategic
decisions? The following paragraphs provide a list which probably applies to nearly all
forestry organizations.
• Simulation models
A simulation model is a physical system that is modelled as a set of mathematical
equations and/or algorithmic procedures that capture the fundamental characteristics and
behaviour of a system.1
These are useful not so much for forecasting what is likely to happen, but rather for
making projections of the potential consequences of futures that might happen. If a
company can see that bankruptcy is a probable outcome of its current practices, then it
might well consider this question more seriously than it would otherwise.
Models have been constructed in forest management for a host of management and
research objectives. Forest management decision making is dependent on accurate
1 (http://www.course.com/downloads/computerscience/invitationcpp/keyterms12.htm)
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 50
forecasting of growth and yield. While growth and yield forecasts enter into virtually all
decisions, the primary uses of models can be categorised as: inventory updating,
management planning, evaluation of silvicultural alternatives and harvest scheduling
(Amaro et al. 2003).
According to Monserud (2003) six classes of forest model exist, i.e.: forest yield models,
ecological gap models (population succession), ecological compartment models (resources
fluxes), vegetation distribution models, process/mechanistic models and hybrid models.
The potential consequences of different operations on the forest can be forecasted by
using the relevant simulator developed based on these models.
4.3.3 Existing forestry information system technologies for tactical (medium and short term) planning
Most of what we normally think of as forest planning is really tactical planning (Dykstra
1997). Even though foresters are accustomed to thinking in terms of one or more timber
rotation periods, their plans typically concentrate on five or ten years into the immediate
future.
What kinds of information technology can contribute to better tactical planning in
forestry? The easy answer is that most of the "traditional" information sources, such as
maps and inventories, as well as nearly all of new crop of information systems, are
focused squarely on tactical planning. Nearly all forestry organizations would probably
benefit, most of them in substantial ways, from the information technologies described in
the following paragraphs.
• Remote sensing imagery
Aerial photography remains, as it has been for more than a generation, a fundamental
tool for capturing forestry data remotely. Aerial photographs can be used with relatively
inexpensive equipment, together with field sampling, to produce quickly and with
satisfactory accuracy maps showing vegetative types, soils, streams and lakes,
infrastructure and topography. The technology is well understood and has been fully
integrated into many forestry organizations.
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 51
Satellite imagery is well suited to the classification of digital data into broad land cover
classes and to the detection of changes in forest area or condition over time. It is no
substitute for aerial photographs, however, because the image resolution is much lower.
Furthermore, the analysis of satellite imagery is a relatively specialised field, requiring a
considerable investment in computer hardware and software and specially trained
personnel. Like aerial photograph interpretation, it requires field verification.
• Geographic information systems
Computerized geographic information systems (GIS) represent an important development
in information technology. A GIS is a computer hardware and software system designed
to organize, store, retrieve, analyse, display and publish spatially referenced data.
Although most GIS are capable of producing high-quality maps, their capabilities go far
beyond this. The key to the importance of GIS, in fact, lies in their advanced analytical
capabilities which enable managers to analyse complex situations rapidly, sometimes in
entirely new ways. As an example, with GIS it is possible to "overlay" map layers
representing timber classes, soil types, and topography so that a map can be produced
which shows all areas of mature timber on fragile soils where the ground slope exceeds
40%. As this "derived" map layer resides in the computer system, its area can be quickly
computed. Inventory information can then be combined with the map data to estimate the
reduction in the allowable annual harvest volume that would result if this area were
removed from the allowable cut base (Dykstra 1997). GIS represents a tremendously
powerful tool that has the potential to enhance greatly the capabilities of forestry
organizations in tactical planning. To achieve this potential, the organization must be
prepared to commit substantial resources in terms of both personnel and funding.
GIS will be useful for forestry analysis, only if the foresters use it. This means that all
professional forestry staff (including top-level managers) should receive at least
"awareness" training in GIS, and those who will use the system to extract information and
carry out analyses should receive additional, more technical training. Sufficient hardware
must also be provided so that each professional who will be using the GIS has convenient
access to it.
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 52
• Global positioning systems
A recent development in information technology that has managed to capture the
imagination of foresters around the world is the Navistar global positioning system (GPS).
GPS is an all-weather navigation and position-fixing system based on radio signals
transmitted by satellites launched and maintained by the United States Department of
Defense. This network comprises a fleet of satellites which, together, provide position-
fixing capabilities almost anywhere on earth, day or night. One important application of
GPS is to provide data for GIS. In fact, the system makes it possible to collect certain
kinds of spatially referenced data that it would otherwise probably not be economically
feasible to obtain (Dykstra 1997).
4.3.4 Existing technologies of forestry information systems for operational management and control
As important as they are for strategic and tactical planning, advances in information
technology are also changing the way forestry organizations manage their day-today
operations. As with planning technologies, information systems for operational
management and control are of many different types and they are used in different ways
by different organizations. Some of the more common information systems currently in
use or under development include the following:
• Electronic data recorders
Electronic data recorders (EDRs) are basically hand-held computers developed for
recording field data electronically. Many are available with software written specifically
to enable the collection and preliminary analysis of forest inventory data. These EDRs
consist of a keypad, screen and memory for recording and storing data. They must
generally have some means (typically a serial port) of transferring data to a computer for
incorporation into the organisation’s permanent database (which might, for example, be a
GIS) (Dykstra 1997). Those used in forestry must be rugged so that they can withstand
exposure to rain, hot and cold temperatures and rough handling.
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 53
• On-board computers
With the advent of timber processors and cut-to-length harvesting machines, it is
becoming more common for such equipment to include on-board computers which can
help decide on the optimal crosscutting strategy for individual stems. In the future, it is
likely that on-board computers will be connected through radio transmission links to a
central computer at the mill. This will permit crosscutting to satisfy order requirements,
rather than simply considering each stem independently, and will also permit crosscutting
rules to be changed at intervals during the day as new information on product orders
becomes available (Dykstra 1997).
• Manual crosscutting by computer
In places where trees are large and the topography is rugged, such as the Pacific
Northwest of the United States, manual felling and crosscutting still predominates. Even
here, through hand-held computers, technology is now available that permits crosscutting
decisions to be rapidly optimized. Such practices can routinely increase log values by 10%
to 15% as compared with conventional crosscutting methods (from Garland et al. 1989
cited by Dykstra 1997).
• Truck-mounted GPS
Some forestry organizations are experimenting with the use of GPS to help improve the
efficiency of truck scheduling and routing. Trucks equipped with both GPS and automatic
radio-transmitting equipment to send the GPS data to a central receiving point make it
possible for transportation equipment to be tracked in real time on a display map of the
operating area. The feasibility of such systems depends to a considerable: extent on the
availability of reliable radio communications. Such systems have perhaps been
implemented most extensively in the Nordic countries (Dykstra 1997).
• Real time data transmissions
In an effort to reduce log inventories and improve order responsiveness, some forestry
organizations are experimenting with the transmission of production and transport data
from the production site to the mill and the transmission of order requirements from the
mill to the production site. This is usually done by radio at intervals during the day. The
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 54
intention eventually is to use automated transmission systems which would require little
or no human intervention. Theoretically, it should be possible to maintain almost no log
inventory at the mill, and to harvest and crosscut trees in response to specific orders. This
will require more reliable radio transmission capabilities than are currently available in
most countries (Dykstra 1997).
The following list provides a summary of the information systems that may be used in the
forestry sector:
• Office automation systems,
• Forest inventory systems,
• Geographic information systems (GIS)
• Use of computers in planning and decision making (DSS)
• GPRS (General package-oriented radio service), a package-oriented transmission
service in the range of the portable radio is used. Most new mobile telephones support
GPRS for example as data communication service for the view from Wireless
Application Protocol (WAP) sides. The WAP is a secure specification that allows
users to access information instantly via handheld wireless devices such as mobile
phones, pagers, two-way radios, smart-phones and communicators. Multimedia
Messaging service is based likewise on GPRS.1 Applications of these technologies in
forestry are increasingly used. For example; Public data access to forestry data using
WAP and wireless internet, mobile controlling of forestry operation activities, mobile
forestry data updating inside the forestry organization and so on.
4.4 Factors influencing information system development within the forestry sector
4.4.1 System characters and system environment
Information systems are built in order to provide information services that enable tasks to
be preformed in other systems and contexts. Information systems, therefore, must be
planed in a total context, taking all relevant actors into account. Only in this way can a
sufficiently wide framework be provided to enable the development of information
systems with enough desirable features (Solvberg and Kung 1993).
1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPRS
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 55
Information system development methods must to some extent be holistic and all relevant
aspects have to be considered, be they of a technical, sociological or political nature
(Solvberg and Kung 1993). Likewise system development for forestry sector of
developing countries can be affected by internal and external factors. The objective of
system, the functions the system intend to support, resource endowment situations
necessary to operate the system and the characteristics of forestry projects and programs
and environment in which the system to operate affect the nature of the system and
methods required to develop the system and its implementation in forestry sector.
Figure 10. Factors influencing system development in forestry sector
System objective
The development of integrated management information system is intended to improve
the decision and decision-making process and monitoring capacity of top and middle level
management of the forestry sector. Moreover, the system should be simple and flexible to
be operated in environments where:
New problems may arise that may need a new set of information
• The organization implementation plan itself may change as a result of external
factors, for example, new policy decisions, insufficient resource, unpredictable
failures and events, etc.
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 56
• The emphasis of information need will shift during implementation period from
control over input and activity implementation to effect and impact evaluation,
these situation demands to use software that can allow to structure information in the form
and format that is appropriate to support decision- making processes of senior decision-
making personnel in the organization.
Functions of the system
The functions of the supposed system to perform are important factors that determine the
success of the proposed system. The functional aspect of an information system can only
be sorted out relative to the needs of the system’s environment (Solvberg and Kung 1993).
Therefore, the system should be designed in line with the functions of the management
that the systems are intended to support. Based on the description of the management
functions of the FRWOI, the systems at organization level should provide information that
should be able:
• To specify FRWOI’s objectives and plan which supposed to translate higher
political authorities wishes
• To develop appropriate activities and delivery systems and to determine the
required input and output,
• To make sound decisions with regard to resource (man-power, finance, etc.)
allocation and utilization,
• To prepare realistic work plans and schedules, keeping in view of the available
resource and staff capabilities,
• To maintain detailed records of physical progress of forestry plans
• To supervise the performance of individuals and various units of the organization
• To monitor extension project/program performance so that relevant adjustments on
ongoing or planned activities can be made in time, and
• To provide periodic reports to supervisory units of organization and public and
international organizations.
In short, it must support the management functions of planning, implementation,
monitoring and evaluation.
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 57
Resource situation
Resource situation is one of the most important subject that affect system development
and implementation. It includes costs and operational characteristics of computers, other
technical devices and people. Hence system development should consider differences in
technical and human resources efficiency and ability. It is also important to anticipate the
evolution or the future of the organization (how to look like and what it wants to be).
These factors are more evident in the forestry sector of developing countries where
resources are scarce even for primary functions. In these countries many development
projects and programs experience scarcity of resources. Moreover, many of them are
faced with lack of technical skills required to conceptualize and design systems. It is also
difficult to recruit professionals with the necessary skills and initiative. Even if they are
available, it is more or less impossible to keep them in the projects due to the long-time
problem of salary structures prevalent in the public sector compared to the private sector.
More often, the skills and experience to use hardware and software to operate systems are
not good enough to ensure a sustainable system operation. It is important to include
training programs as a component of systems design to equip potential users with the
necessary skills to operate the systems.
System environment
Organizations are open systems. They are not closed and self-contained and therefore the
relationship between the organization and its environment is important. They will
exchange information with the environment, both influencing the environment and being
influenced by it. The system, which we call the organization, will be affected by, for
example, policies of the government, competitors, suppliers and customers, and unless
these are taken into account, predictions regarding the organization will be incorrect
(Avison and Fitzgerald, 1995). Therefore, the system to be developed should be:
• compatible to any existing system and situations (implementation plans, forestry
system, system to support project management, procedures for project monitoring
and evaluation and reporting),
• able to maximize a common use of the scare resources available to the
organization
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 58
• designed to be flexible to accommodate unpredictable decisions to resources cut,
transfer etc. by supervising and funding agencies,
• designed in accordance with the available power supply and other important
facilities, for example, those that can be used for online data transfer,
• designed taking into account the characteristics of the potential system users.
These include mainly the technical capabilities of the potential users and their
level of motivation, and the incentives available to help sustain and improve this
motivation. These factors are also important during system introduction and in the
post-system implementation phase.
4.4.2 Aspects of system development
A system consists of a set of elements that relate and interact in one way or another to
achieve a given objective or to perform a given task. This is also true for information
systems. These elements are also reflected during system development phases and thus
affect the process of system development. There are various system perspectives to be
considered during information system development (Selassie, 2001).
According to Kuron (1993), there are four system development aspects or perspectives:
They are the system content perspective, the user perspective, the technological
perspective and the organisational perspective.
• System content perspective
Information systems are built to provide information. The system content perspective of
information development therefore concerns to provide adequate information both in
terms of quantity and quality. The information contained in the system should improve the
quality and speed of business processes and enable to make appropriate decisions and thus
to deliver value to the institutions.
The content perspective is about the completeness, consistency and accuracy of the
information to be processed and disseminate. The system content should enable to support
management functions of planning, monitoring and evaluation. It should also be taken into
account the needs of management at various hierarchies of the organization and
supervisory agencies.
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 59
The system content should cover information on the following four broadly classified
groups:
Basic data: data describing pre-project intervention situations in forestry projects. The
data:
• include topography maps and forest cover maps,
• are mainly required for project problem analysis, design and the formulation of
forestry programmes.
Input data: data required for the implementation of forestry programmes and plans,
including data on:
• stand volume, inventory,
• information about finance, transport and manpower, describing the capacity of the
organisation to realise its objectives.
Operational data: output data derived from the organisation activities and forestry
projects. They comprise data on:
• forest management plan activities, timber products, felling licences, plantations,
etc.
Such data will be used to monitor the implementation of projects, supervise the
performance of executives and to provide periodic reports to the supervisory bodies.
External data: data originating primarily outside of the forest organisation. This can
be information on government policy in relation to forestry plans, the import and
export of forest products, market demand for timber products, the supply and price of
timber products, etc.
• Users’ perspective
System users are at the centre of system development and thus users’ perspective is an
important factor that can influence system development. It concerns the art and way of
presenting information to be produced by the proposed integrated management
information system. The factors should be considered in users’ perspectives of system
development:
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 60
User friendliness, Relevance, Timeliness and regularity, Aggregation versus detail,
Presentation forms (tables, graphs, text, etc.)
User friendliness
The proposed information system should be user friendly and comfortable. It should
have a consistent interface that can facilitate easy and quick navigation and
familiarization to the system. The information in demand should be found easily and
the system should provide it quickly.
Relevance
Relevance is the most important factor for users. Users will join or login into the
system to search information that exactly meets their demand either for decision-
making or other purposes. Therefore adequate attention should be given to ensure that
the system provides relevant information.
Timeliness and regularity
Timeliness is a contextual system-related dimension as it focuses on the computing
resources needed to make data promptly available when needed by decision-makers or
other users (Ribeiro, et al. 2003). According to Selassie (2001) the time dimension of
information is an important element of the system quality. This is because any
information is basically time sensitive. Therefore the system to be developed should
be enable potential users’ to get information at the time when the information is
needed (timeliness) to support decision-making (right frequency). The system should
be designed to provide up-to-date (most recent) but also information about the past
and future (forecasted data) when appropriate.
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 61
System content perspectives
Completeness, Accuracy, Consistency Users’ perspectives
User friendliness, Relevance, Aggregation versus detail, Timeliness& regularity, Presentation forms (table, graphic, text etc.)
Technological perspectives
Module structure, Flexibility, Privacy and security, Software and network Compatibility and standardization, Databank and its management
Organizational Perspectives
Structure of information users, Organization and level of communication network, Organization and information department
Table 5. Aspects of an integrated information system development
Level of data aggregation
Level of data aggregation will vary so as to be appropriate for a particular type of user.
The level of detail and aggregation varies directly with the level of management.
Information from internal and external sources and especially information on critical
success factors should be processed and presented taking into account this difference
of need. This can be handled during system design using drill-down and hierarchy
method.
Information presentation format
Information can be presented either in text, graph, table etc or a mixture of one or
more of these forms. The more the form presenting a piece of information the better
will be its acceptance and use. In general management the top level of the organization
requires information in summary form and mostly in graph and/or table forms. As this
is an important aspect of system users’ perspectives, it should get appropriate attention
during system specification.
• Technological perspective
The technological perspective of an integrated management information system for a
typical provincial general natural resource office has two aspects. It depends on users need
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 62
and the organization of the information system and the activities (information collection,
processing and communication) it comprises.
However the central question remains the technology to be adapted should enable to
provide information on internal and external critical success factors in acceptable forms
and formats. According to Kuron (1993), the following factors should be considered in
system technology perspectives:
Module structure, flexibility, software and network, compatibility and standardization,
databank and its management, privacy and security, module structure.
Module structure
The proposed integrated management information system should be structured and
built in modular mode based on the needs of the organization and its users.
Flexibility
The system should base on flexible and adaptable technologies. The hardware, system
and application software and data management techniques should use flexible
technologies that can adapt easily to changing information needs. This should be
determined during system specification.
Software and network
Software use should be standardized in all departments. It is also recommendable to
use a local area network, which facilitate fast and efficient communication and
information exchange throughout the organization.
Compatibility and standardization
Information exchange should be standardized and compatible both within the
organization and across partner institutions. Electronic information exchange is
important in this endeavour. It demands to standardize the use of hardware and
software technologies and to network computers through area- wide-network.
Financial constraints and infrastructure problems limit the progress of electronic
information exchange in most forestry sector of developing countries. However, the
decline in the price of computers and continuous improvement in and better access to
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 63
information technologies has opened the door for most forestry sectors to adopt these
technologies. In spite of this, the progress is still very slow.
Database and its management
The system, which designed to present internal and external information, will be the
database system. It can be designed at organization-wide level to be administered
centrally or decentralized to department level. However, this should be decided during
system specification.
Privacy and security
Electronic data processing and exchange has the risk of losing information to
unwanted users. This is very important especially if the information in question is on
personal or sensitive issues. The system should incorporate techniques (Passwords),
which can protect information privacy and system safety.
• Organizational perspective
Adequate organization is a major prerequisite for a successful system development and
implementation. It is also equally important as the content, users and technological issues.
In this regard the following points should be considered:
• structure of information users,
• communication and information (users) network (intra and inter- organizational
communication and support),
• organization of information department and system support.
Structure of information users
The structure of management existing in the forestry sector determines the set-up and
operation of information systems and use.
The structure of management of Iranian forestry sector has a three level vertical
hierarchy which correspond to the country’s political structure:
Each organisational, provincial and municipal level hierarchy has its own top
management to operational level hierarchy. This in turn requires that information
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 64
systems be designed to address these differences and the specific needs of each level.
However, the management information systems should also be designed with
consideration to the wider perspective and the system environment in which it
operates.
Figure 11. Typical management structure in Iranian forestry sector
Information (users) network (intra and inter - organizational communication and support)
The tasks of information generation, processing, dissemination and documentation
involve both human and organizational interactions and network. Adequate
information network is a prerequisite to establish and sustain an efficient organization-
wide information system. This network involves interaction of people, organizations,
information and information technologies. In this regard, it is important to analyze and
improve existing information network (relationship, cooperation and hierarchy) used
to provide forest organization services. Moreover, users should regularly discuss
existing problems and possibilities to improve the system.
Types of information systems to be considered for the forestry sector 65
It is the strength of this network and cooperation that guarantees the best use of the
system and its sustainable operation and future improvement. The elements (members)
of the network and their responsibilities should be explicitly identified and defined.
Organization of information department and system support means
The organization of the department in charge of information management plays an
important role for efficient operation of the system and for delivery of adequate
service to system users. The system can be organized in a centralized or decentralized
way. The form of organization (centralized versus decentralized information service
unit) is an important issue to be discussed especially when the system faces problems
for on-time processing and optimum distribution of information.
The department in charge of information management should continuously discuss and
collect comments about its service from all users. It should standardize information
system of the organization by minimizing any irregularities or inconsistency in the
system. But it should be also able to recognize the difference among various users and
provide service which considers this difference.
It is important to use a combination of media to optimize a wider dissemination of
information.
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 66
5. The procedure for the development of a forest management information system
An integrated management information system should be explained based on system theory.
System theory is helpful for clarifying the structure of a complex organization and its
information and communication system. Information systems as any other system contain a
set of elements which relate and interact in one a way or another to collect, process,
repackage, store, transfer and present information (from Schwarze J.1995, cited by Selassie
2001). A computer supported information system consists of:
• hardware and software
• rules and concepts (on organization etc.)
• people (users)
• management for system operation, control and maintenance, and
• data
Organizations require information systems to help analyze their business, along with their
environment, and formulate and check that they achieve their goals. The information system
may help the organization to achieve improved efficiency of its operations and effectiveness
through better managerial decisions.
Before describing a model procedure used to develop an integrated management information
system the methods used for information requirement analysis are explained.
5.1 Information requirement analysis
Introduction
Information requirement is a dynamic value. This dynamic is very important to be included in
planning information systems. On the one hand the dynamics of information needs depends
on the level of knowledge the society and on the other hand depends on the achieved steps of
current concrete tasks like problem solution process.
The information need can be defined as amount of information that is considered by a
responsible person as necessary and sufficient information in a certain point of time for the
solution of a task. The information requirement defines the sum of objectified information
that in fact is necessary for implementing a certain task (Feghhi 1998).
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 67
There is almost always a difference among the amount of information supply, information
needs and information demand (Fig 12).
The reasons for this difference can be explained by the incapability of users to analyse the
comprehensiveness of the information requirement, the variability of information requirement
or the inefficiency of information facilities.
Figure12. The proportion of information requirement, information supply and information demand (adapted from Koreimann 1974, Feghhi 1998)
The purpose of information requirement analysis is to identify the information flow within the
organization and to determine the different information needs, ranging from operation or
routine activities to effectively implementation of management decisions (Solvberg and Kung
1993). Information requirements analysis entails a detailed study to be conducted to determine
users’ requirements for the new system. It is usually performed simultaneously with a review
of the existing or traditional systems if the organization has already started operations. The
Information supply
Information requirement
1
4
2 3
7 6 5
Information demand
1= information, the information needed but neither demanded nor supplied
2= information, the supplied information but not demanded
3= information, the demanded information but not supplied
4= information, the supplied and demanded information and are necessary
5= information, the supplied and demanded but are not necessary
6= information, the supplied but are neither demanded nor necessary
7= information, the demanded but are neither supplied nor necessary
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 68
review of the traditional systems is intended to determine which of the features specified in
the new system are already present in the existing system.
Information requirement analysis starts with the investigation of system outputs. First, the
information needs of the organisation must be established. Analysing the operational
information needs, by some action initial analysis method, may do this and by starting with an
analysis of decision processes, etc. One determines which outputs the information system
should provide. Next, by working backwards through information archive – updating,
intermediate processing, etc., to the creation of the information sources – an understanding of
the structure of the information flow will be obtained (Solvberg and Kung 1993).
Many formal methods have been developed to support information requirement analysis.
There is no unique method to include all factors of information requirements. Therefore, it is
necessary to use a multi-method procedure to information requirement analysis. Which
methods should be combined depends on purpose of the system development.
Like all other analysis plans, the analysis of information requirements can be done based on
two procedures, namely:
• the inductive method (bottom-up analysis)
• the deductive method (top-down analysis)
Küpper 1995 (cited by Feghhi 1998) proposed a clear systematisation of different methods of
information requirement analysis for operative decisions. He distinguished the methods first
according to information sources, then determined whether information requirement should be
analysed inductively or deductively.
Method of analysis Information sources
Inductive analysis method
Deductive analysis method
Operational document Documents analysis -
Operational data gathering Technical data analysis Organization analysis
-
Information user Questioning - Functions and objective of enterprise
Deductive – logical analysis
Planning model of enterprise - Model analysis
Theoretical planning model - Model analysis
Table 6. Methods of information requirement investigation (Feghhi 1998)
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 69
Using the inductive method the information within the system (e.g., forest organisation) that
is actually available and used or transmitted is investigated. Sources of information for the
inductive method include operational documents, the results of operational data collection and
information users. The following inductive analysis methods are worth considering:
In the document analysis the plans and documents that one decision maker allocated for
implementing a task are analysed.
Technical data analysis appraises the data ascertained and used for certain processes and
areas.
Organisation analysis concerns the actual state of the current tasks and activities of an
enterprise. What information is used for which particular task is analysed.
Through questioning the information users provide information about subjective information
requirements.
In this study document analysis and questioning methods were the analysis methods used
for the derivation of subjective information requirements (Appendix 1).
Interviewing and questionnaires techniques
Interviewing is the most commonly used and normally useful information requirement
analysis technique. We can interview to collect information from individuals face-to-face.
There can be several objectives to using interviewing, such as finding out required
information, verifying required information, clarifying required information, getting the end
user involved, identifying requirements, and gathering ideas and opinions.
However using the interviewing technique requires good communication skills for dealing
effectively with people who have different values, priorities, opinions, motivations, and
personalities.
There are two types of interview i.e. unstructured and structured
Unstructured interview are conducted with only a general objective in mind and with few, if
any, specific questions. The interviewer counts on the interviewee to provide a framework and
direction to the interview. This type of interview frequently loses focus and, for this reason, it
often does not work well for database analysis and design.
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 70
In the case of structured interviews the interviewer has a specific set of questions to ask the
interviewee. Depending on the interviewee’s responses, the interviewer will direct additional
questions for clarification or expansion ( Connolly and Begg 2001).
Open-ended questions allow the interviewee to respond in any way that seems appropriate
(see appendix1).
Close-ended questions restrict answers to either specific choices or short, direct responses
(see appendix1).
Questionnaires
Another information requirement analysis technique is to conduct surveys through
questionnaires. Questionnaires are a highly structured method of data collection in
respondents are requested to ‘’fill in the blanks’ on a form. This can be a valuable data
collection tool in itself, or as a guide to facilitate data gathering in interviews (Connolly and
Begg 2001).
Questionnaires are special purpose documents that allow facts to be gathered from a large
number of people while maintaining some control over their responses. When dealing with a
large audience, no other fact – finding technique can tabulate the same facts as efficiently.
There are two types of questions that can be asked in a questionnaire, namely free-format and
fixed-format. Free-format questions offer the respondent greater freedom in providing the
answers.
Examples of free-format questions are;
• What are the data on forest and natural resources that the office collects?
• What survey instruments are being used to collect such data?
• What reports do you currently receive and how are they used? (see appendix
Some rules should be followed in relation to the questions posed, for example:
• The questions should be simple,
• The question should be short formulated
• The question should be formulated in a neutral way
• The question should be related to one issue (Feghhi 1998).
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 71
Fixed format questions require specific responses from individuals. Given any question, the
respondent must choose from the available answers. This makes the results much easier to
tabulate.
5.2 System development processes
5.2.1 Introduction to system development
Every information system has a functional aspect, a technical aspect and an operational
aspect (Fig 13) (Solvberg and Kung 1993). What is the system to do? How shall things be
done? Who shall do it? The what –aspect of an information system can only be sorted out
relative to needs of the system’s environment, the how-aspect depends on the type of
system must be analysed relative to available technical solutions and the who-aspect
includes different people who are involved in building a system (e.g. programmers,
system analysts, business analysts etc.) as well as costs and operational characteristics of
computers, datasets, other technical devices. The various technical and human resources
have different abilities, capabilities, costs and reliabilities.
Figure 13. Three aspects of an information system (Solvberg and Kung 1993)
5.2.2 Methods of system development
Modern Information system development has got its root from electronic data processing
of the 60’s. The primary goal of electronic data processing (EDP) in the 60’s and 70’s was
automation of existing business operation in organizations (Fong and Hung 1997).
However it was only during 1970’s that well accepted formal methodology to develop
data processing systems came into existence. These early methodologies are named
differently; conventional systems analysis, traditional system analysis, the system
development life-cycle or waterfall model. The following steps are common in most of the
conventional methods (Fig 14).
What? The functional aspect
How? The technical aspect
Who? The operational aspect
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 72
Figure 14. Development processes in waterfall model (Hawryszkiewycz 2001)
Development processes are also known as the system life cycle or problem solving
cycle, or sometimes the system development cycle (Hawryszkiewycz 2001).
Most software teams still use a waterfall or linear processes for development projects,
where they complete each phase in a strict sequence of requirement, then analysis and
design, then implementation/ integration, and then testing.
Such approaches leave key team members idle for extended periods of time and defer
testing until the end of the project lifecycle, when problems tend to be tough and
expensive to resolve (Hawryszkiewycz 2001).
Waterfall or linear cycle processes
• Concept definition
Many people consider concept formation to be the most important phase of system
development. It provides a broad statement of user requirements in user world terms. The
requirements state what the users expect the system to do and thus set the direction for the
whole project. The resources to be made available to the project are also often specified in
this phase.
Part of the concept formation phase is feasibility study, which propose one or more
conceptual solutions to the problem set for the project. Three things must be considered in
the feasibility study; Technical feasibility, Operational feasibility, Economic feasibility.
Technical feasibility, this evaluation determines whether the technology needed for the
proposed system is available and how it can be integrated within the organization.
Development processes
Concept Definition 1
System Specification
2
Problem Definition Feasibility Analysis Analysis Requirements
System Design 3
Architectural Design
Detailed Design
System Development
4
Construction Testing
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 73
Operational feasibility, operational feasibility covers two aspects. One is a technical
performance aspect and the other is acceptance within the organization. Technical
performance includes determining whether the system can provide the right information
for the organization’s personnel and whether the system can be organized so that it always
delivers this information at the right place and in time.
Economic feasibility, this evaluation looks at the financial aspects of the project. It
determines whether the investment needed to implement the system will be recovered.
• Developing the system specification
During this phase it is necessary to find out more about the system problems and what
users require of any new or changed system. This phase is usually characterized by the
following activities:
• producing a detail analysis model describing how the current system works and
what it does, usually in subject world terms.
• using the statement of requirements and the more detailed system analysis to state
what is needed from the new system by a requirements model in user terms.
• producing a detailed model in subject terms of what the new system will do and
how it will work, here called the design model, which is expressed in system
terms.
• producing a high-level description of computer system requirements using system
terms.
• System design
This phase produce a design specification for the new system. In this phase designer must
specify the interfaces provided to users and the business procedures. They must specify
the databases and system programs and select the equipment needed to implement the
system. System design usually proceeds in two steps, logical design or what the system
will do and the physical design or how the system will do it.
• System development and construction
This phase is also often broken up into two smaller phases: development and
implementation. The individual system components are built during the development
period. Programs are written and tested and user interfaces are developed and tried by
users. The database is initialized with data.
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 74
During implementation, the components built during development are put into operational
use. Usually this means that the new and old systems are run in parallel for some time.
One important part of construction is testing. It is necessary to test all modules to make
sure they work without any errors once they are put into operation.
• Post- installation review
After the system has been installed and used for some time, a review is conducted to
investigate whether the system operates in a way it intended to.
The post- installation review usually takes place about a year or less after the system is
implemented, when everything is fresh in the minds of users. It evaluates the new system
to see whether it has indeed satisfied the goals set for it. The system is examined to see
whether the benefits expected of it has been realized. This evaluation then sets guidelines
for decision making in future projects.
• Maintenance
System maintenance aims to ensure the continued efficient running of the system.
Maintenance is necessary to eliminate errors in the system during its working life and to
tune the system to any variations in its working environment. There is always some errors
detected that must be corrected. These corrections may involve all aspects of modification
from changing system hardware and software requirement to major modification on the
existing system. System maintenance can be described as a process of monitoring,
evaluation and making required corrections to the system in operation (from Parker and
Case 1993 cited by Selassie 2001).
Rational unified process method (RUP)
There is other software development approach like Rational Unified Process (RUP). In
contrast the waterfall (linear) approach, the RUP uses an iterative approach, that is, a
sequence of incremental steps or iterations. Each iteration includes some, or most, of
development disciplines (requirements analysis, design, implementation, and so on). Each
iteration has a well-defined set of objectives and produces a partial working
implementation of the final system.
As shown in Fig 15 the RUP is organized along two dimensions: the dynamic aspect
(horizontal) expresses cycles, phases, iterations, and milestones and the static aspect
(vertical) expresses activities disciplines, artefacts, and roles.
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 75
Phases
Disciplines
Business modelling
Requirements
Analysis &design
Implementation
Test
Deployment
Configuration & change management
Environment
Iterations
Figure 15. Two dimensions of the RUP (Kroll and Kruchten 2004)
According to Kroll and Kruchten (2004) different approaches of development processes
can be compared based on two dimensions that are discussed below and shown in Fig 16.
Low ceremony / High ceremony, on the horizontal axis. Low ceremony produces
minimum supporting documentation and has little formalism in the working procedure;
High ceremony has comprehensive supporting documentation and traceability maintained
among artefacts, change control boards, and so on.
Waterfall/Iterative, on the vertical axis waterfall is a linear approach with late integration
and testing; Iterative is a risk-driven development approach with early implementation of
an architecture and early integration and testing.
Inception Elaboration Construction Transition
Initial Elab1 Elab2 Const1 Const2 Const 3 Tran Tran2
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 76
Figure 16. Process map for processes comparison (Kroll and Kruchten 2004)
5.3 Database design
5.3.1 Introduction
The database and its history
According to Connolly and Begg (2001), database is a shared collection of logically
related data and a description of this data, designed to meet the information needs of an
organization. The database is a single, large repository of data which can be used
simultaneously by many departments and users. The database holds not only the
organization’s operational data but also a description of this data. For this reason, a
database is also defined as a self –describing collection of integrated records. The
description of data is known as the system catalogue (or data dictionary or meta-data the
data about data of database).
Since the 1970s, database systems have been gradually replacing file-based systems as
part of an organization’s information systems (IS) infrastructure. At the same time there
has been a growing recognition that data is an important corporate resource that should be
treated with respect, like all other organizational resources.
The database is now the underlying framework of the information system, and has
fundamentally changed the way many organizations operate as well as is now such an
integral part of our day-to-day life that often we are not aware we are using one. For
example purchases from the supermarket, purchases using your credit card, booking a
Waterfall Few risks, sequential,
late integration and testing
Low Ceremony Little documentation Light process
High Ceremony Well-documented Traceability
Risk- driven Continuous integration and testing
Iterative
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 77
holiday at the travel agents, using the local library and using the internet (Connolly and
Begg 2001).
Database design lifecycle
A computer-based information system includes a database, database software, application
software, computer hardware, and personnel using and developing the system (Connolly
and Begg 2001).
The database is a fundamental component of an information system, and its development
and usage should be viewed from the perspective of the wider requirements of the
organization. Therefore, the lifecycle of an organization’s information system is
inherently linked to the lifecycle of the database system that support it. The stages of the
database application lifecycle are shown in Fig 17.
5.3.2 Overview of the database design methodology
After having planned a database system in the preliminary and the detailed study, the
building of the system starts with the design of the database. Three main types model of
database management system (DBMS) are hierarchic, networked and relational. The
procedure described in the following refers to a relational database, as the relational
database management system has become the common data processing software in use
today. In the relational model, all data is logically structured within relations that are
physically represented as a table. The relational database is built around relational model
designed by E.F. Codd at IBM in 1970 (Connolly and Begg, 2001). Database design is
made up of three main phases, namely conceptual, logical, and physical design.
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 78
Database design
Figure 17. The stages of the database application lifecycle (Connolly and Begg 2001)
Database planning
System definition
Requirements collection and
analysis
Conceptual database design
Logical database design
Physical database design
DBMS selection (optional)
Implementation
Data conversion and loading
Testing
Operational maintenance
Prototyping (optional)
Application design
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 79
5.3.2.1 Conceptual database design
The objective of conceptual database design is to build a local conceptual data model of
an enterprise or organization for each specific view.
During analysis, a number of user views may have been identified and depending on the
amount of overlap between these views, some user views may have been combined
together to form a collective view, which is given an appropriate name.
Each local conceptual data model comprises:
Entity types; Relationship types; Attributes and attribute domains; Primary keys and
alternate keys. The conceptual data model is supported by documentation, including a data
dictionary, which is produced throughout the development of the model.
• Identification of entity types
The first step in building a local conceptual data model is to define the main objects
that the users are interested in.
All interesting topics or objects on which information is needed are to be examined,
and a decision made on whether to incorporate them in the DBS or not. Usually most
of these objects appear in the existing form sheets, statistics and reports. All objects of
the same kind form a so-called entity type.
For example, an object could be a specific defined area, or parcel, within the forest as
a whole. Together all of the existing parcels form the object type ‘parcel’. Another
example of an object type might be ‘forestry plans’ or ‘district’.
One method of identifying entities is to examine the user requirements specified. From
this specification, we identify nouns or phrases mentioned (for example, district ID,
district name, GNRO ID, GNRO name, GNRO address, parcel or plot ID, etc. An
alternative way of identifying entities is to look for objects that have an existence in
their own right. For example, a ‘district’ is an entity because districts exist whether we
know their names or not, as do areas and localities. If possible, the users should assist
with this activity.
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 80
• Identification of all entity attributes
Entities or objects have certain attributes, about which information is stored. This
attributes are to be defined in detail.
The values of the attributes (the data elements or variables) are to be given for each
entity. Each entity as an ‘occurrence’ of object type has to get key attribute as a
unique identification.
An object type ‘entity set’ for which each occurrence (object or entity) is definitely
identified is called a ‘relation’.
If an object can only be identified by a combination of attributes, these are referred to
as ‘partially identifying’ attributes.
For example, in the case of the object type ‘parcel’ with the single parcel of land as an
object or entity, the attributes could be area, species, timber output, burnt area, planted
area, etc. The attributes of ‘fire’ alternatively are time of fire, weather conditions,
location, damage, etc. The key attribute given each parcel might be the name of the
parcel, or preferably a parcel identification ID (as the name of parcel might appear
twice). Subsequently, the values (variables) for all attributes of the object type ‘parcel’
can be stored in the database system parcel by parcel.
• Removal of homonyms and synonyms
Frequently the names of attributes used normally are not clearly defined. Therefore,
homonyms must be given different names and synonyms can be joined to one
attribute. For example, in forest inventory standing trees can be distinguished as
botanical species. In forest harvesting the felled trees are often put together in classes
which can have the same name.
• Identification of repeated attributes within one entity type
Often one or more groups of attributes appear repeatedly within one object type
(relation). It is necessary to find out which attributes belong to such a group, which
attribute is the key attribute, and whether there are connections between these groups.
These groups of attributes are sometimes called ‘multiple fields’. In a relational
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 81
database these multiple fields form separate relations. For example, within one district
various species can be planted, each with attributes such as quantity, age, cost, etc.
This group of attributes forms a multiple field, with the species as the key attribute.
The multiple fields will be repeated for every species planted in this parcel.
• Determine of attribute domains
The objective of this step is to determine domains for all the attributes in the model. A
domain is pools of values from which one or more attribute draw their values. For
example we may define:
• The attribute domain of valid parcel_ID as being a 9 character variable length
string.
• The possible values for stand disturbance by wind or snow etc from surv_ stand
status entity as being either ‘yes’ or ‘no’ (please see CD).
A fully developed data model specifies the domain for each attribute and includes:
• The allowable set of values for the attribute; sizes and formats of attributes.
• As attribute domains are identified, a record of their names and characteristics is
kept in the data dictionary.
• Determine candidate and primary key attributes
This step is concerned with identifying the candidate key(s) for an entity and then
selecting one to be the primary key. A candidate key is a minimal set of attributes of
an entity that uniquely identifies each occurrence of the entity for example district_ ID
from ‘district’ entity. We may identify more than one candidate keys, in which case
we must choose one to be the primary key, the remaining candidate keys are called
alternate keys.
When choosing a primary key from among the candidate keys, use the following
guidelines to help make the selection:
• The candidate key with the minimal set of attributes;
• The candidate key that is least likely to have its values changed
• The candidate key with fewest characters (for those with textual attribute)
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 82
• The candidate key with smallest maximum value (for those with numerical
attribute
• The candidate key that is easiest to use from the users’ point of view.
• Removal of redundancy within the various relations
The same information can occur in several relations (object or entity types). It is one
of the advantages of a database system, that information (in principle) is stored only at
one place in order to avoid double updating, tending to mistakes and inconsistent
redundancy. It is to be decided in which relation this information should be stored.
For example, the relation ‘fire’ could be information about the districts, in which the
fire took place (area of district, species of district, etc) even if several fires took place
in the same district. On the other hand, the relation ‘district’ could contain for each
district, information on fire (as time of fire, weather conditions, etc.) which affected
several districts
• Document entity types and their attributes
As entity types are identified, assign them names that are meaningful and obvious to
the user. Record the names and descriptions of entities in a data dictionary. If possible,
document the expected number of occurrences of each entity. If an entity is known by
different names, the names are referred to as synonyms or aliases, which are also
recorded in the data dictionary.
Attributes should also be assigned names that are meaningful to the user as they are
identified. The following information should be recorded for each attribute:
• Attribute name and description
• Data type and length
• Any aliases that the attributes is known by:
• Whether the attribute is composite and if so, the simple attributes that make up the
composite attribute;
• Whether the attribute is multi-valued;
• Whether the attribute is derived and, if so how it should be computed;
• Any default value for the attribute
• Record the identification of primary and any alternate keys in the data dictionary.
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 83
• Define of the relationship types
When we identify entities, one method is to look for nouns in the requirements
specified by users. We can use the grammar of the requirements specification to
identify relationships. Typically, relationships are indicated by verbs or verbal
expressions. Fig 18 provides an example:
GNRO Implement Surveys
Every Survey has many plots
Figure 18. Examples of different relationships types
The fact that requirements specification records these relationships suggests that they
are important to the organization, and should be included in the model.
In most instances, the relationships are binary; in the other words, the relationships
exist between exactly two entity types. It must be taken care to ensure that all the
relationships that are either explicit or implicit in the users’ requirement specification
are detected. For all object types (relations) it has to be checked, whether there are
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 84
relationships between them. The attributes that connect the object types are to be
determined. It is to be clarified, whether the connecting attribute is unique in the both
relations or only in one relation or is multiple in both relations.
For example, the object type ‘fire’ is connected to ‘district’ as each fire takes place at
a certain locality. The connecting attribute could be the district ID. The attribute
district ID is of course unique in ‘district’ but is a multiple entry in ‘fire’ as several
fires can occur in one district. In terms of database theory, the result of steps till now
is an ‘entity relationship diagram’ of the analysed unit. To visualise a complex system
we use entity-relationship (ER) diagrams to represent entities and how they relate to
one another more easily (Fig 19).
Figure 19. An example of entity – relationship (ER) diagram
• Check that each entity participates in at least one relationship
Generally, an entity cannot be modelled unrelated to any other entity otherwise when
the entity is mapped to a relation there would be no way to navigate to that relation.
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 85
• Document relationship types
As relationship types are identified, they are assigned names that are meaningful and
obvious to the user and relationship descriptions and multiplicity constraints are also
recorded in the data dictionary.
• Potential problems
When identifying the entities, relationships, and attributes for the view, it is not
uncommon for it to become apparent that one or more entities, relationships, or
attributes have been omitted from the original selection.
As there are generally many more attributes then entities and relationships, it may be
useful to first produce a list of all attributes given in the requirements specification. As
an attribute is associated with a particular entity or relationship, remove the attribute
from the list.
One must also be aware of cases where attributes appear to be associated with more
than one entity or relationship type as indicated by the following:
Several entities that can be represented as a single entity were identified. For example,
we may have identified entities Violat_article43 and Violat_repeating44 and
Violat_article44 all with the attributes VIOLAT_LIVESTOCKNUM, VIOLAT_DATE,
VIOLAT_LOCAL, VIOLAT_STATLOCAL; which can be represented as single entity
Violation case with the attributes VIOLAT_LIVESTOCKNUM, VIOLAT_DATE,
VIOLATLOCAL, VIOLAT_STATLOCAL and VIOLAT_TYPECD ( the values 2, 5 or
6). On the other hand, it may be that these entities share many attributes but there are
also attributes or relationships that are unique to each entity. In this case, we must
decide whether we want to generalize the entities into a single entity such as
VIOLAT_43, Violat_article44 and Violat_repeating44, or leave them as specialized
entities representing distinct violation type.
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 86
5.3.2.2 Logical database design for the relational model
The logical database design for the relational model is the process of constructing a model
of the information used in an enterprise based on a specific data model, but independent of
a particular DBMS and other physical considerations.
Objective
The objective is to build a local logical data model from a local conceptual data
model representing a particular view of the enterprise and then to validate this model
to ensure it is structurally correct (using the technique of normalisation) and to ensure
it supports the required transactions.
• Remove features not compatible with the relational model (optional step)
The objectives of this step are to:
• remove many-to-many (*:*) binary relationship types;
• remove many-to-many (*:*) recursive relationship types;
• remove complex relationship types;
• remove multi-valued attributes.
A multi-valued attribute holds multiple values for a single entity. If a multi-valued
attribute is present in conceptual data model, we could decompose this attribute to
identify an entity. For example, in the ‘GNRO’ view to represent the situation where a
single general natural resource office has up to three telephone numbers, the Tel_No
attribute of the ‘GNRO’ entity has been defined as being a multi-valued attribute, we
can remove this multi-valued attribute and identify a new entity is called Telephone
with the Tel_No attribute now is represented as a single (primary key) attribute and a
new 1: n relationship called provide.
• Derive relations for local logical data model
To create relations for local logical data model to represent the entities, relationships,
and attributes that have been identified.
In this step, relations were derived for the local logical data model to represent the
entities, relationships, and attributes defined in the view. The composition of each
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 87
relation was described using a database definition language (DBDL) for relational
databases. Using the DBDL, the name of the relation was specified first, followed by a
list of the relation’s simple attributes enclosed in brackets. The primary key and any
alternate and foreign key(s) of the relation were then identified. Any derived attributes
were also listed together with how each one was calculated. How relations were
derived from the possible structures present in the data model was then described.
• Validate relations using normalization
The objective is to validate the relations in the local logical data model using the
technique of normalization.
Normalization is used to improve the model so that it satisfies various constraints that
avoid unnecessary duplication of data. Normalization ensures that the resultant model
is a closer model of the enterprise that it represents, it is consistent, and has minimal
redundancy and maximum stability.
Normalization is often performed as a series of tests on a relation to determine
whether it satisfies or violates the requirements of a given normal form. Three normal
forms were initially proposed called first (1NF), second (2NF), and third (3NF). For
more information it suggested to the relevant books about database design.
• Definition of the periods of validity of the data elements
Some data elements are valid for a long time (e.g. the name and number of parcel).
Others or can change at a fixed day (area of parcel) or refer to a certain period
(planting in a particular year) or a certain event (information on a fire). It is also
necessary to define how long a specific set of data should be stored and kept available.
• Definition of the flow of information
In this step the input and volume of data is to be defined: How is the flow of data from
place of origin (e.g. in the forest) to the database in the computer? What data go from
where to where? How often? Who should enter the data? How much data will have to
be transfer from where to where? For the forestry sector in Iran maybe it needs to
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 88
reform some forms for the input of data (reports from field level and general office
level to the organizational level).
In this study it is proposed that the central IFMIS (Iranian forest management
information system) may be established at forest deputy in Chalous city and each
provincial GNRO should be equipped with required computer software and hardware
system and the same structure of database management system. Despite the repetition,
it is worth reiterating that the equipment acquired at the GNRO level must be
compatible with that at the central IFMIS in Chalous, so that portability and
transportability of data is achieved.
• Definition of plausibility check
As a lot of mistakes can occur during data input, comprehensive plausibility checks
should be performed before entering mass data into the DBS. The incorrect data have
to be corrected so that the database remains clean. An example of a plausibility check
might be: is the area planted greater than the area of the parcel?
• Definition of the functions and output of the database system
The main functions and main output of the system is to be defined. Which
combinations and connections of information are desired? Which output (screens,
reports) is necessary? for which users, etc.
• Review local logical data model with user
Review the local logical data model with the user to ensure that the local logical data
model and supporting documentation that describes the model are a true representation
of the view. The local logical data model for a view should now be complete and fully
documented at the end of the step logical database design methodology we build a
global logical data model by merging together the individual local logical data models
produced for each view.
5.3.2.3 Physical design of the database system
The logical design and the definition of the flow of information are independent from
specific hard- and software. The physical design reduces the logical model to the specific
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 89
features of the computer system (hard- and software). It prepares rules for the
programming.
Whereas logical database design is concerned with the what, physical database design is
concerned with the how. It requires different skills that are often found with different
people. In particular, the physical database designer must know how the computer system
hosting the DBMS operates, and must be fully aware of the functionality of the target
DBMS. For example, the designer will need to know:
• how to create base relations;
• whether the system supports the definition of primary keys, foreign keys, and alternate
keys;
• whether the system supports the definition of required data (that is, whether the system
allows attributes to be defined as not null)
• whether the system supports the definition of domains
• whether the system supports relational integrity constraints
• whether the system supports the definition of enterprise constraints.
The three activities of physical design include:
1. Design base relations to decide how to represent the base relations identified in
the global logical data model in the target DBMS
For each relation identified in the global logical data model, we have a definition
consisting of:
• the name of the relation
• a list of simple attributes in brackets
• the primary key and where appropriate, alternate keys (AK) and foreign keys
(FK)
• a list of any derived attributes and how they should be computed
• referential integrity constraints for any foreign keys identified.
From the data dictionary, we also have for each attribute:
• its domain, consisting of data type, length, and any constraints on the domain:
• an optional default value for the attribute
• whether the attribute can hold nulls?
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 90
2. Design representation of derived data to decide how to represent in the global
logical data model in the target DBMS
Attributes whose value can be found by examining the values of the other attributes
are known as derived or calculated attributes. For example, the following are all
derived attributes:
- total volume of produced log for every felling licence
- total violation case in a general natural resource office and so on.
Often derived attributes do not appear in the logical data model but are documented in
the data dictionary. From a physical database design perspective, whether a derived
attributes is stored in the database or calculated every time it is needed is a trade off.
The designer should calculate the additional cost to store the derived data and keep it
consistent with operational data from which it is derived and the cost to calculate it
each time it is required.
3. Design enterprise for the target DBMS
• Definition of access paths
A DBMS provides access to all information of the database. But in order to facilitate
and speed up access to often and commonly used data, the usual access paths and the
information needed should be defined: frequent queries to the DBS can be pre-
formulated and taken into account, when defining the DB- files. These definitions can
be done out of the definition stated in the ‘flow of information’.
For example it is necessary to know whether fire statistics are always only used to get
fire statistics information the data then to be indexed on ‘fires’ entity (thus containing
mainly information on the fire itself as weather conditions, area burnt, etc). Or should
there also be an additional index, for example, a ‘district’ index providing the answer
to the question ‘which fire caused what damage and in which parcel?
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 91
• Definition of naming conventions
As a database system usually becomes rather voluminous with a lot of variables and
files, definition of naming conventions for file names, variable names etc. can assist
structured proceeding in organizing and programming of the database.
Naming conventions depend on the software used. When there are for example 8
characters available to name files the first 2 characters could describe the object type,
the next one the subgroup of data elements, the next 2 the year of data and the last
character the type of file (e.g. temporary and permanent files. analogous definitions
can be provided for the names the variables (attributes).
• Definition of database files and file organizations
One of the main objectives of physical database design is to store data in an efficient
way.
The logical data model must be transformed to match the features of the hardware and
software with regard to the requested input and output.
The relations- as obtained in logical design- will be split or combined to files. The
objects (the occurrences of each relation/ the rows of the table) will be the records in
these files, the attributes fields. The relationships between files, as stated in conceptual
design will be realized by inserting the same key attributes in the corresponding
records of both files. By this step the final structure of the database is defined.
For example the relation ‘district’ should be split into several files, according to
duration of validity and according to sub-object types with information closely
connected to each other: one file for basic information (area, name, etc.), files for
information on species information and so on.
On the other hand, it can be useful to use redundant information in one file, in order to
speed up access times or to facilitate programming. But one should be aware of the
danger on introducing inconsistencies and mistakes.
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 92
• Definition of internal flow of data in the database system
There must be defined input files (without a plausibility check), corrected files (after a
plausibility check), current files (weekly, monthly, quarterly, etc), final files with
information for one year and backup files for all files.
• Documentation
Each step should be documented in order to facilitate later improvements and changes
of the database system. This is more important as new staff that was not involved in
the original design of the database system, should be able to do this work.
A good and well tried way of documentation for a DB-design is the installation of a
data dictionary (DD), in which all object types and their attributes are designed in
detail. A DD can accompany the whole process of DB-Design from the selection of
objects until the physical definition of database system files and definition of internal
flow of data. Each manipulation of attributes, of relationships, of files, of the input and
output, of the plausibility which the attributes must meet can be described here (see
Appendix 2).
• System technology requirement and analysis of transactions, response time and
estimate disk space requirements
The system is composed of various system components that have the ability to
function on stand-alone bases and also as an element of an integrated system. A given
system component integrates various modules constructed with a well-define interface.
The modules have various degree of detail designed to meet the need and interest of
different users.
The system technology requirement design is intended to provide an overview of the
technology required by the individual modules to perform their respective tasks. The
model describes the factors critical to determine the technology requirement of the
proposed system. The following factors are important to determine the technology
requirement:
• type and volume of data to be processed
• data transaction rate
• data transfer method
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 93
• processing facilities
• output management facilities
To carry out physical database design effectively, it is necessary to have knowledge of
the transactions or queries that will run on the database. This includes both qualitative
and quantitative information. This is the number of transactions that can be processed
in a give time interval. In some systems, such as airline reservations, high transaction
throughout is critical to the overall success of the system.
This is the elapsed time for the completion of a single transaction. From a user’s point
of view, we want to minimize response time as much as possible. However, there are
some factors that influence response time that the designer may have no control over,
such as system loading or communication times.
The object of this step is to estimate the amount of disk space that is required to
support the database implementation on secondary storage. Estimating the disk usage
is highly dependent on the target DBMS and the hardware used to support the
database. In general, the estimate is based on the size of each tuple and the number of
tuples in the relation. The latter estimate should be a maximum number, but it may
also be worth considering how the relation will grow and modifying the resulting disk
size by this growth factor to determine the potential size of the database in the future.
5.3.2.4 Design security mechanisms and organization of data privacy and data security
It is important to organize which persons are allowed to use / to alter data, where the
copies of what data will be stored who is allowed to change programs and how
unauthorized persons can be kept off.
As the data stored are of great importance and as it is difficult to recover lost data,
accidental or even intentional loss of data must be avoided. A database represents an
essential corporate resource and so security of this resource is extremely important.
During the requirements collection and analysis stage of the database application
lifecycle, specific security requirements should have been documented in the system
requirements specification. Some systems offer different security facilities than others.
Relational DBMS’s generally provide two types of database security; System security and
The procedure for the development of a forest management information system 94
data security. System security covers access and use of the database at the system level,
such as a user name and password. Data security covers access and use of database objects
(such as relations and views) and the actions that users can have on the objects. Again the
design of access rules is dependent on the target DBMS.
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 95
6. The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran
6.1 General conditions of natural and human resources in the GNRO of Mazandaran province (Noo –shahr)
The total area of this general office is about 850,000 ha, extending from the city of Ramsar to
the city of Royan in the western division of the province Mazandaran (Fig 20). Based on one
study by FRWOI in 1986, the extent of the natural resources within this area – comprising
forest and pasture – is about 617,063 ha. The area of pasture is 296,665 ha and that of forest
320,398 ha.
The forest area of this extent can be divided into 3 categories as following
• the commercial and productive forests or the dense forests are containing more than
180,000 ha
• the degraded forests cover about 110,000ha
• the conservational and protection forests cover about 30,398 ha, 9.5% of total forest
area.
As much as 85% of the forest cover contains the following dominant species: Fagus
orientalis, Carpinus betulus, Quercus castaneaefolia, Alnus spp. and Acer spp. The remaining
15% hosts other species such as Tilia spp., Ulmus spp., Parrotia persica, Diospyrus lotus,
Zelkova carpinifolia, Sorbus torminalis and Gelditschia caspica.
For 143,060 ha a forest management plan has been provided. About 27,000 ha of these areas
were considered as conservation and protection forests till 1999.
The total production of wood in the forest cover of this GNRO was about 147,072 m³ in 2003.
The permanent staff of the general office numbers about 760, comprising professional
foresters, forestry college graduates and forest labourers.
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 96
Figure20. The geographic area of GNRO of Noo-shahr in northern Iran (FRWOI, FTO 2003)
6.2 Problem definition and objectives
Information is a vital ingredient in making gainful decisions. There is no economic or social
activity that can effectively function without accurate, relevant and reliable information. What
is lacking in the forestry sector in Iran in relative term is not forest information but its
management and the corresponding capacity to use it efficiently.
The Iranian forestry sector has recognized that information is an essential element of
development process and flow of reliable and relevant information is the pace maker of
progress. Effective information systems play a major role in facilitating organizational
performance and achieving the goals and objectives.
Gorgan
Northern forests of Iran
Rasht
Noo-shahr Sari
Gorgan
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 97
The forestry sector in Iran has encountered the following information-related problems in the
implementation of its development programs and projects:
• limited technical capacity to identify, manage and use critical success factors and
information
• difficulty to summarize, structure and present / display information especially those
relevant for top management
• lack of standardization or defined form of generating output and summary analysis
• inefficient in handling, searching and retrieving data/information whenever required
• inefficient (limited access or too late) flow of data / information between users in
various departments inside and outside the organization.
In order to solve these problems one possible solution is the establishment of an electronic
information system and database. Any new initiatives should take advantage of the new
developments made in the information technology and communications sector in recent years;
changes which have revolutionised the way people communicate, exchange and manage
(store, retrieve, update and deliver) information.
• Objectives
A forestry database and information system could provide the FRWOI tools necessary for
strategic and policy decisions, enabling them to answer ad hoc enquiries, provide the
means for monitoring development trends and provide means of managing day to day
activities. To meet these aims, the establishment of a well designed information system is
necessary, and it must be able to meet the users’ expectations and demands. However, it
should not be a ‘once off’ job, but a long term process and basic component of the
FRWOI’s management tasks and incorporated into both its short and long term plans.
The purpose of the present study is to develop a model of an integrated computer-based
management information system for the FRWOI generally and the General Natural
Resource Office in Noo-shahr in particular.
The main objectives of study:
� Analysis the present condition of forest information flow in forestry sector of the
Mazandaran province in Iran and identification of the gaps in data transfer and
information
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 98
� Analysis of information requirements of the FRWOI
� Design a database model and forest management information system for managing
information on a regional scale
� Construction and testing of a database model
The system will contain many features of an executive information system. For example
• is an automated way to deliver information especially to upper level of management in
a form easy to manipulate and make them very easy to access
• gives top management the possibility to ‘’navigate’’ through the different layers of
information to analyse the causes of any deviations from the plan
• can summarise, structure and display information in text, tabular and graphics forms
or in any combination of the display alternatives.
• The risks associated with the project
At the end of inception, one should have a rough idea of what risks are present, especially
in the areas of acquisition of technology and reusable assets, such as architectural
framework, packaged software, and so on. The risks of this project can be summarised in
the following points;
Budget risk, it should be determined how much the project will cost and how long it
will take to complete the project. For this regard, economic feasibility of project must
be considered.
Economic feasibility determines whether it is worthwhile to invest the money in the
proposed project or whether something else should be done with it.
To carry out an economic feasibility study, it is necessary to place actual money
values against any purchases or activities needed to implement the project. It is also
necessary to place money values against any benefits that will accrue from a new
system created by the project. Such calculations are often described as cost-benefit
analysis (Hawaryszkiewycz 2001).
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 99
Cost-benefit analysis
Cost-benefit analysis usually includes two steps: producing the estimates of costs and
benefits, and determining whether the project is worthwhile once these cost are
ascertained.
The goal is to produce a list of what is required to implement the system and a list of
the new system’s benefits (Hawaryszkiewycz 2001).
Cost-benefit analysis is always clouded by both tangible and intangible items.
Tangible items are those to which direct values can be attached (e.g. the purchase of
equipment, time spend by people who are involved in the project, insurance costs, or
the cost of borrowing money and so on).
Tangible costs often associated with computer system development they include the
following:
• Equipment cost for the new system. Various items of computing equipment as
well as items such as accommodation cost of furniture are included here.
• Personnel costs. These include personnel needed to develop the new system
and those who will subsequently run the system when it is established.
Analysts, designers, and programmers will be needed to build the system. Also
included are any costs incurred to train system users.
• Material costs. These include stationery, manual production, and other
documentation costs
• Conversion costs. The costs of designing new forms and procedures and of the
parallel running of existing and new systems are included here.
• Training costs. These include both training users of the new system and any
training required for developers who may be required to use new technologies.
• Other costs. Sometimes consultant’s costs are included here. Together with
management overheads, secretarial support and travel budgets.
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 100
The values of intangible items, on the other hand, cannot be precisely determined and
are made by subjective judgement. For example, how much is saved by completing a
project earlier or providing new information to decision makers?
The sum value of costs of items needed to implement the system is known as the cost
of the system. The sum value of the saving made is known as the benefit of the new
system. Once we agree on the costs and benefits we can evaluate whether the project is
economically viable.
The cost estimates are usually used to set the project budget. Often it is convenient to
divide these costs into projects phases to give management an idea of when funds and
personnel will be needed.
On the other side of the evaluation are the benefits of the project. These can also range
from the tangible to intangible. Tangible benefits include those benefits that can be
measured in actual currency terms. Such benefit can include reduced production costs
through the introduction of new technologies, or reduced processing costs through the
uses of computers.
Intangible benefits cannot be measured. For example, what is the benefit of better
decision making through computer support or the benefit of shorter time for retrieving
of required information and so on.
Determining whether a project is worthwhile?
The costs and benefits are used to determine whether a project is economically
feasible. There are two ways to do this: the payback method and the present value
method.
The payback method defines the time required to recover the money spent on a
project. The idea of the present value method is to determine how much money it is
worthwhile investing now in order to receive a given return in some years’ time. The
answer obviously depends on the interest rate used in the evaluation.
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 101
Performance risk- for example, collecting, deriving, entering of required information
and selecting an unsuitable contractor to performance the project or un-coordination
between the contractor and employer (in this case FRWOI).
Bottlenecks and some solutions
The creation of a data base for FRWOI is no simple task. There are many data that are
not standardised in all GNROs and are found to be inconsistent in structure some
times within a GNRO itself and more so between the GNROs. Some forms like
violation cases form or monthly progress report of forestry plans are not uniform.
Therefore, these forms should be standardised and uniformed.
6.3 Procedures used for information requirement analysis and the results
6.3.1 Introduction
The proposed management information system was developed following the analysis of
the existing system, which provided the basis for the design, with the creation of a new
structure where appropriate.
The development of a professional information system should follow clear-cut procedures.
The following procedures were followed in the present study:
• analysis of the conditions and situations at the GNRO and FRWOI potentially
relevant to the development and implementation of the proposed system,
• description of the approach to system design. This included a description of the
information requirement analysis and database design.
The procedures used for the information requirement analysis combined and integrated the
results of the document analysis and the survey procedure (interview and questionnaire).
In general, it incorporated procedures designed to identify and analyse the information
needs of both top management and users at lower levels primarily occupied with the
transactional and operational activities of the FRWOI. The procedures combined the
following activities:
• situation analysis to determine the objectives and strategies of the FRWOI, which in
turn helped to set the objectives and scope of the study (problem analysis). Literature
review, expert discussion, and interviews and observation were used for situation
analysis,
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 102
• assessment of the system environment, including information generators and users,
current reporting methods, system support facilities and factors which affect system
implementation and smooth transformation from the existing to the proposed system,
• the FRWOI information requirement analysis using inductive methods,
• determination of the information requirement (integration of results from the above
methods) and obtaining of approval from potential users, and
• evaluation of the requirement analysis and the setting of the tasks to be performed by
the proposed information system (Fig 21).
The results of the document analysis and the survey were combined to define a
comprehensive information requirement for the FRWOI. Potential users and top
management were asked whether the results represented their information needs and
provided a clear picture of the organisation’s information requirement. The information
architecture was then defined. The purpose of this design was to illustrate the information
structure required to support decision making processes by the FRWOI executives and the
routine activities of the information system users.
The methods employed to accomplish the aforementioned tasks were an introductory
discussion, personal observation, literature and documents review, interviews and
questionnaires. The introductory discussion and meeting were conducted to prompt the
participation of potential users, and to explain the objectives of the study. The literature
review was carried out to identify problems that possibly remained unidentified over the
course of the discussions and to obtain details on the problems that were revealed in the
discussions. The study of documents was also helpful to further clarify the activities
carried out by the FRWOI and the requirements of the new information system. The
literature review was instrumental to the formulation of the questions posed in both the
questionnaire and the interviews to determine the gaps in the existing information and
information flow. The personal observation was a helpful means of identifying areas of
weakness in the existing system.
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 103
Figure 21. Procedure to information requirement analysis
6.3.2 Results of the interviews, questionnaires and document analysis
Interviews were conducted with officials from the different levels of the FRWOI (see
appendix 1). Those interviewed from the study region had a wide range of responsibilities
and positions in the provincial and organizational offices. They included planning and
information officers and staff from different offices such as PPO, HTIO, FTO, supervisors
of the forest management plans and so on. All the interviews were recorded by a tape
cassette recorder for a later and exact analysis. Different offices at each level of the
organisation were studied in relation to their data collection, organising, input and
maintenance activities. The type and amount of data collected were noted during
interviews with personnel. The transfer of data and the flow of information from the field
level (control offices of forest management plans) to respective units of the GNRO was
evaluated, from the general office to the respective offices of the FRWOI, and vice versa.
• Field level (Control office level)
The supervisors or controllers of the forest management plans in the field are the starting
point from which the information stems, flowing from there to the upper levels of the
organisation. They, as representatives of the general office, control all of the activities
carried out by contractors or executives operating in the area covered by forest
management plans. The control of supervisors is based on booklets of the forest
Setting the objectives and scope of the study (problem analysis )
Situation analysis
Clear organizational information requirement (Integrate document analysis and interview)
Prototype construction (database design)
Test and evaluation of the prototype
Final system
Problem
Ok
No
Ok
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 104
management plans. In the booklets different activities and operations such as, forestry,
harvesting, silviculture, stand tending, re-forestation, construction of roads, and so on
were anticipated.
Files refer to data and information that are gathered and kept at the respective office in the
general offices or control offices. Once these files are sent out in compliance with a
directive or following a procedure, they become reports. In other words, reports are sent
out and received and when they are archived they become files. The data and information
collected at different levels are shown in the following tables.
Data and information
• All information about harvesting operations (marking, re-measurement, sorting of timber products, transfer licence, clean certification)
• List of felling licensees • Information about re-forestation and stand tending operations
• List of workers and contractors Reports
• Monthly timber productions and disposition report (25th) • Monthly reforestation and stand tending operations report (25th) • Monthly physical progress of the forestry plan report(25th) • Quarterly physical progress of the forestry plan report (25th)
• Monthly protection and conservation report by the natural resource offices to the general office (5th)
Table 7. Data and information at the field level
• The general office level
Almost all information held at field office level can be found in the general offices, in
slightly greater detail. The controllers of the forest management plans regularly report on
the progress of the plans to the FTO in the general office and the reports are then recorded
in the computer office. In Table 8 the existing information and reports that are sent from
the GNRO are listed.
• The organizational level
Provincial GNROs report the progress of implemented activities to respective offices in
the FRWOI monthly. Each division holds this information separately. The Plan, Program
and Statistic Office at the end of each fiscal year compiles necessary information for
making composite annual report to forward to the Ministry of Jahad – e - Keshavarzi and
the national planning commission. In Table 9, the information and reports administered at
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 105
the organization level are shown and in Table 10 the relationship of data classes, their
generators and report frequency are shown.
Data and information
• Data and information on forestry operations such as physical progress of forest management Plans, volume of wood products, plantations
• Data and information on forest protection activities Such as confiscated logs, fire, pests, cases filed in court, deployment of forest guards
• List of felling licensees • Information about reforestation and stand tending operations • List of employees, workers and contractors • Information about rural community and their livestock in the forest area • Information about forest management plans and Integrated resource management plan
• Maps of the management plan areas and other areas Reports
• Monthly(10th), quarterly, annual disposition and production report • Monthly 10th), quarterly annual physical progress of the forestry plan report • Monthly (10th), quarterly, annual forest protection report • Monthly(10th), quarterly, annual reforestation and plantations report • Monthly revenue report
Table 8. Data and information at the general office
Data and information
• History of the plantation and parks office (PPO) activities / projects / programs ( in computer and excel table )
• History of the harvesting and timber industries office (HTIO) activities ( from 1997 in annual booklet)
• History of the forecasting of the forest wood products ( from 1980 in booklet) • The conservation and protection office activities • Information on different working management plans and their executives, their facilities,
personnel, ( booklet) • The forest management plans booklets for the northern forest • Maps on the various projects/ activities and the maps of forest cover for the northern forest. • History of the organization operations from 1995 (annual booklet)
Reports
• Quarterly, annual re-forestation and plantations report to the plan, program and statistic office (PPSO)
• Quarterly, annual, timber production report from HTIO to PPSO • Quarterly, annual, HTIO revenue report to PPSO • Quarterly, annual, protection and conservation activities to PPSO • Annual organization operations report • Occasionally reports of different offices
Table 9. Data, information, reports in FRWOI level
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 106
Data/Report Generators (Departments or offices)
Data Class
Report frequency
Control
offices
Forestry
technical office
Plantation
and parks office
Harvesting and
Tim
ber industry office
Conservation and
protection office
Adm
inistration and finance office
Program
, plan and statistic office
Natural resource
offices
Manpower administration (Workers and contractors)
Monthly, Quarterly, Yearly, on- demand
*
Finance management
Monthly, Quarterly, Yearly,
*
Forestry plans (every ten years ,Continuously)
*
Information on harvesting operations (Marking, felling licences, … Stand tending operations
Monthly, Quarterly, Yearly on- demand
* * *
plantation Monthly, Quarterly, Yearly
* *
Information on Protection and conservation
Monthly, Quarterly, Yearly on- demand
* *
Information on Forest products revenue
Monthly, Quarterly, Yearly
*
Information on various projects/activities
Quarterly, Yearly on- demand
* * * * * *
Information on organization operation
Yearly
*
Table 10. The relationship of data classes, their generators and report frequency
6.3.3 Current status of information technology
Information processing and exchange have been significantly improved and automated
with the help of computers and other information technologies which are under
continuous improvement. This advancement and the spread of technology have lead many
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 107
to refer to this time as the information/digital age. But this is not reflected in the situation
in the forestry sector of Iran. Nevertheless, the computer market in Iran is well developed
and almost all major software and hardware products are available, information exchange
through electronic media in forestry sector is still in its infancy. There are also many
private and governmental institutes providing different training courses, even
programming courses in several programming languages in Iran.
The FRWOI has recently started to automate its data processing and information
dissemination processes. Encouraging progress has been evident in recent times. The full
computerization of information processing and exchange to and from all information
generators and users by means of the networking of computers using both LAN (local area
network) and WAN (wide area network) and application software are currently top of the
FRWOI current agenda. A master plan for the construction of a database within the
FRWOI in Chalous exists. There is also another national master plan, entitled TKFA, for
the development of information and communication technology nationally. The master
plan applies to all governmental organisations, including the FRWOI. Recently a primary
study was conducted on the technical and financial issues involved in the computerization
of forestry data and information processing and dissemination processes.
Almost all top and middle level staff within the FRWOI (also general offices) possess at
least some basic knowledge of personal computers and popular office software (word,
excel). However, the organisation does not have well trained computer and information
technology professionals who can undertake system analyses, systems design, software
development, database administration and other technical tasks. The training and
employment of computer and information technology professionals and the upgrading of
the skills of management and other staff through continuous training is one of the areas
that can contribute to improved performance.
• Hardware in use
The hardware available within the organisation and the general offices is mostly Pentium
III 800 and IV 2.4 GB. More up to date and efficient hardware has also been acquired
recently. Currently there are a total of 70 PCs in use in the GNRO of Noo-shahr. There are
various printers of different types and capacity.
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 108
• Software in use
Many different software applications are also in use within the organisation and the
general offices. Word processing software, excel and other useful programmes for
statistical analysis and graphics are also available. There is also GIS software for
providing maps and GIS analysis. Report preparation and other transactions are currently
mostly handled by MS Office software available in the general offices. There is also a
forestry system (FS) in the GNRO of Noo-shahr used for the analysis and retrieval of
information relating to marked trees and the provision of felling licences. Work on the
system began in 1990. There are some constraints to working with the system. The first is
that the system was designed with only the marked crop trees in mind, whereas many
other routine tasks cannot be accomplished. Another problem is the aged system’s lack of
power resulting in long processing times and an inability to cope with large volumes of
information.
• Network and communication
There is no network communication (online communication) between the offices of the
GNROs, except the Financial and Administrative Office. Fortunately, all offices within
the GNRO and the FRWOI possess the basic hardware necessary for network
communication. Listed in the following table are the basic characteristics of the hardware
network in the GNRO and the FRWOI1
Network Topologies
Width Band
Transport Protocols
Node Server Computers
GNRO
(Noo-shahr)
Bus 10/100 IPX 25 Pentium IV 70
FRWOI (Chalous)
Star 10/100 TCP/IP 110 Pentium IV 50
Table 11. Basic characteristics of hardware network in GNRO and FRWOI
1 Nazmavaran consultant engineering firm, unpublished, 2004.
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 109
6.3.4 Analysis of the current information flow of the forestry sector in Iran
• Data flow diagram
This study made use of work flow processes and the data flow diagram approach
following the three most important components of data and information management
for forestry – processes, files and flow, as shown in Fig 22. Processes show what
systems do. Each process has one or more data inputs and produces one or more
outputs. Each process has a unique name and number (Hawryszkiewycz 2001). Figure
22 shows a work flow process used to provide a forest management plan. The term
work flow is used because there is a defined flow of information and defined actions
to be taken at different points of this flow. A data flow diagram (DFD) shows how
data flows within a system. DFDs may be established at different levels of an
organisation, depending on the requirements of the task (Hawryszkiewycz 2001). The
input and output files are shown by the corresponding arrows, and also indicate the
flow of data. In this case, the starting point of this process is the application for the
determination of a specific site by the FRWOI’s FTO.
• Mechanisms used to ensure vertical flow of data:
Data on the production of forest products are obtained from periodic reports provided
by license and permit holders monitored by regional and field offices. Administrative
recording systems are most commonly used for official forest statistics.
The flow of data was characterised by a general model, the vertical data flow model. It
had the following features:
Data flows from the lowest (field control office) to the highest (FRWOI) level and
instructions based on the information generated flows in the reverse direction.
The lower levels record or collect data, which serve as source of all kinds of
information about forestry plans.
Data processing takes place in the units located at the medium (GNRO) and highest
(FRWOI) level; lower levels are rarely involved in data processing but may be asked
to verify data. Information is most often used to monitor performance.
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 110
Figure 22. Workflow processes for provision of a forest management plan
The highest level is the authority responsible for licensing and regulating forest –based
activities at the lower levels.
To better understand the flow of data from the field level to the organisational level, it
is helpful to describe the steps involved in the logging process in the Iranian forestry
sector.
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 111
The logging procedure
Prior to harvesting the selected crop trees are measured and marked individually and
some specifications of the crop trees such as tree number, species, diameter and height
are recorded on a special form. A copy of the completed form is kept in the control
office and a copy is sent to the FTO in the GNRO. Once the record is inputted into the
‘Forestry system’, the information can be analysed to determine the volume of the
marked crop trees. A felling licence must then be issued. The process is complex and
time consuming, especially in cases where the volume of crop trees exceeds 150 m³
because a one-year contract must be concluded to pay the price of timber products. A
copy of the felling licence with a list of the crop trees is sent to different offices (FTO,
HTIO, PPO) within the FRWOI in Chalous. A detailed copy is also sent to the
contractor or executive forest management plan and a copy is kept in FTO of the
GNRO. The information relating to felling licences has been stored in excel tables
since 1983, supplementary to the hard copies.
After the contractor or executive receives the felling licence, he can fell the marked
crop trees. These are then re-measured. The next step is stripping and sorting. A
felling licence may include several phases of stripping and sorting based on the type of
wood product (logs, lumber, fire wood). Once completed, the extraction and transport
of forest products from the forest can take place. The plan controller must submit the
transport licence. The licence is submitted in five copies: two for the truck driver, one
kept on file in the control office, one is sent to the general office and the final copy is
submitted to the plan contractor or executive. The presence in the field of the plan
controller at each juncture is essential and there is also a special form to be filled out
for each step for the recording of all pertinent information. Almost all steps in the
logging process go through the same procedure as was outlined for the marking of
crop trees. The last step is the submission by the supervisor of a certification of proper
conduct after all wood products have been extracted from the forest. This certification
is forwarded to the contractor or executive and a group of inspectors from the general
office accompanied by the plan controller then visit the site to confirm that the correct
procedures have been adhered to.
Unfortunately, this process is very cumbersome in practice and excessive manpower
and time is required to obtain the desired results. Fig 23 shows the work flow process
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 112
involved in the processing of a felling licence. As was mentioned previously, DFDs
may be established at different levels of an organisation.
Figure 23. Work flow process from the recording of marked trees to receipt of a felling licence
Existing information systems within the forestry sector should provide information to
various users within the FRWOI and to outside users. With respect to internal users,
the system is supposed to support users and executives in relation to:
• improving their implementation, monitoring, supervising and control capacities,
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 113
• discharging their decision making responsibilities,
• discharging their evaluation responsibilities (an assessment of the relevance,
performance and impact of various projects and programmes with respect to their
stated objectives) and
• discharging their responsibilities in relation to the provision of data to the national
forest information system.
The system is built upon experience. It is highly structured and less flexible in terms of
satisfying user demands especially, those at top levels. The level of operation of the
organization (organizational hierarchy) has an effect on the set-up, structure and
operation of the existing system. The system is composed of three sub-systems or
operational hierarchies.
However the type and scope of information demanded by the respective subsystems
varies as they have different users (Fig 24).
Figure 24. FRWOI, three hierarchical levels of information exchange
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 114
• Reporting methods
Reporting systems are the most established form of management information system
in the Noo-shahr general office, as in the other general offices. The reporting method
can be categorised according to three types: formal (periodic) progress reports,
exception (or problem diagnostic) reports and demand reports. However, these reports
are not explicitly identified by the FRWOI.
Formal periodic progress reports are prepared in accordance with pre-
designed formats. Their purpose is to inform the managers of the general office
and their supervisors within the FRWOI on the status of the various forestry
management programmes and projects, and on activities undertaken during the
period under review. They are supposed to provide information about the
ongoing forest management plans and tasks completed and those still in
progress.
Exception reports are supposed to be produced during project implementation
when certain parameters fall below expected levels.
On-demand reports are generated when an office director requests particular
information to support a decision making process. The nature and scope of on
demand reports differs greatly depending on the coverage of the information
required. This also affects the length of time taken from when the request is
made to submission of the report. Some reports are produced instantaneously,
whereas others require much more time.
• Gaps in data transfer and information flow
The information systems existing within the Iranian forestry sector are typically
classified as management reporting systems. They are general in nature and built
primarily to serve the average user (operational and middle level staff) within the
FRWOI. They are poorly designed when it comes to meeting the requirements and
expectations of different internal users, and external users even more so. They include
thousands of data entities and elements in relation to harvesting, plantations,
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 115
inventories, forest products, socio-economic issues and office resources (manpower,
finance, transport and other properties).
The system is centrally administered in the sense that data from all field offices are
collected regularly and kept in centrally administered computers or filing cabinets at
provincial and organizational level.
Reports are submitted via fax, post, telephone or by hand, and are kept in filing
cabinets in numerous offices and some statistical information is stored in excel tables.
Although almost all of the organizational and provincial offices have a computer some
staff members are not familiar with how to use them. There are not enough training
facilitates available for staffs to improve their qualifications. As was stated previously,
there is no computer network in place for the transfer of reports or information.
Processed data is disseminated to various users in the form of reports. The system is
predominantly paper-based.
Occasionally, an office in the FRWOI headquarters or the general office must report
the same information to different divisions and in different formats. The preparation of
essentially identical reports in different formats is a waste of both time and money.
Sometimes the submission of reports is delayed as the forestry officers responsible
have not accorded the data and information an especially high priority. They are less
concerned about the accuracy and the comprehensiveness of the data and information.
There appear to be no gaps within the existing, cumbersome reporting system because
the reporting system is followed studiously.
• Major weaknesses in the current management of forest information in FRWOI
According to the findings of this study, the management information system employed
by the forestry sector does not satisfy the information needs of the FRWOI, hampering
the management functions of the organisation. In general, the system suffers from a
multitude of weakness that can be categorised on the basis of content, efficiency, and
organisational and operational weakness.
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 116
Content weakness
• inaccurate and incomplete information in some reports
• too detail, rigidity and more routine nature of reports
• inadequate forms and formats for the presentation of information
• delays in the transfer of information, often excessive delays
• inconsistency and slow update of information.
The reporting system is geared towards lower or operational levels of
management. It lacks the capacity for aggregation and the flexibility required by
top management, thereby hampering their ability to draw on information necessary
for decision making within a changing environment.
Efficiency shortcomings
As a result of FRWOI inability to coordinate and manage data resources, the same
data is sometimes collected independently by different branches within the
organisation or other agencies. Alternatively, in the case of other potentially vital
information no one assumes responsibility for its collection.
The system is manual. However, the current national forest information system
project is supposed to tackle problems associated with the sluggishness, lack of
accuracy and the high levels of irrelevance of the present reporting system.
Preparation of reports with little consideration of the decision needs of
management at various hierarchies. As a result some times executives at higher
levels receive the same information with the same excessive details as lower level
staffs or executives. Consequently, much time is wasted for sorting and extracting
relevant information or report is simply discarded.
The forms and formats used for the dissemination of information are often
inadequate. There is no common/standardised format for reporting information to
different offices or levels so presumably they are getting reports in different format
any way.
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 117
Organizational and operational shortcomings
There is a tendency to collect large quantities of data. Although this might be
viewed as a positive phenomenon, data collected without any specific purpose in
mind are of limited use and may often be a liability rather than an asset to the
organisation. Such data are neither fully analysed nor put to effective use. Nor are
they amenable to incorporation in subsequent evaluations.
Information for internal management use and that collected for supervisory and
funding agencies are collected and processed similarly. They are comparable in
terms of content but with some minor differences in the degree of aggregation.
There are few or no mechanisms in place to conduct systematic verification or
validity tests to check the quality and accuracy of data collected. This has a
negative effect on the decisions or plans prepared using the data if the data proves
inaccurate.
Although management information systems are specialised structures requiring
special skills and need continuous development, little or no effort is made to train
or to update the skills of staff engaged in or required to work with forest
management information systems. There is lack of adequate resources and logistics
necessary to run forest MIS efficiently, especially at field and sometimes even at
provincial level. At the same time, the available forest MIS equipment is also
inefficiently used (such as computers).
• Problems associated with reports and reporting system
Data generation and collection
The absence of standardised and comprehensive information dissemination formats
coupled with inappropriate principles and methods of data collection and processing
lead to:
• ambiguous or/and inconclusive definition of the data requirement
• a shortage of data, especially for evaluation purposes
• a lack of checks and cross checks for the data collected
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 118
• poor communication between data collectors, processors and users.
Data processing, dissemination and communication
• monotonous presentation of data
• inefficient handling of data, difficulties obtaining even available data
• inefficient sharing and flow of data/information and communication between
data/report generators and users.
Data use and retrieval
• Limited technical and institutional capacity to use, locate, store, and retrieve
data
• Lack of skill and sometimes interest to use and communicate even available
data
• Inefficient and uncoordinated use of information technologies and media
(computer, telephone).
Summary of the above problems
The major problems associated with reports and the reporting systems in the FRWOI
are summarised in the following:
• Contents problems
• Layout problems, i.e., monotonous way of presenting data
• Inadequate technical and material capacity to identify critical information
requirements and to establish a comprehensive system which can meet both short-
and long-term needs and sustain in changing situations and needs
• Interpretation problems
• Time problems (to send and receive reports at appropriate time)
• Problems in updating data/information
• Poor (or below expectation) communication
• Incompleteness of reports
• Lack of consistency and comprehensiveness
• Problems or lack of uniformity in reports and reporting formats (in spatial and
time-series terms) especially with respect to long-term needs.
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 119
All these contribute for poor utilization of reports and low users’ interest and
confidence even to use available data and information.
6.4 Prototype database
6.4.1 System modules
The results of the system specification were used to construct the prototype of the
proposed system to provide the information necessary to support decision making
processes by the top management of the FRWOI and the planning and monitoring
activities of the middle level users (GNRO). The present forest management information
system was designed in line with the aforementioned objectives and procedures. Microsoft
Access 2000 was used to develop and manage the database. Data to be used for
report/information generation can be stored updated and altered in the database
constructed using Access. It was adopted because the relational database management
system has become the common data processing software in use nowadays and Microsoft
Access is the most widely used relational DBMS for the Microsoft Windows
environment. Microsoft Access doesn’t load software components that aren’t required for
all databases, such as Visual Basic for Applications and Data Access objects until they are
needed. This shortens the time it takes a database to load, improving its overall
performance (Chandurkar and Sudeshna 2003). When a table, query or form is saved,
Microsoft Access saves any sort order that has been specified and automatically reapplies
it each time that object is opened. If a new form or report is based on a table or query that
has a sort order (increasing, decreasing or alphabetical order) saved with it, the form or
report inherits the sort order. Each time the form or report is opened Microsoft Access
automatically reapplies the sort order. Standard query language (SQL) in MS Access can
also be used to retrieve different information and to produce and display information in
different report formats.
The forest management information system designed for the GNRO of Noo-shahr
comprises four system components. These four system components consist of about thirty
interrelated modules, each of which can function as an element of an integrated
information system. They are:
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 120
1. Survey system component
1.1 General survey information
1.2 Plot information
1.3 Stand status information
1.4 Trees information
1.5 Regeneration information
1.6 Witness trees1 information
2. Harvesting system component
2.1 Forestry plan information
2.1.1 Information on the progress of forestry plan
2.1.2 Information on forestry plans incomes
2.1.3 Information on forecasted products of forestry plans
2.1.4 Marked trees information
2.1.5 Felling licence information
2.1.6 Information on the re-measuring of trees
2.1.7 Timber assortment information
2.1.8 Information on forest products extraction conditions
2.1.9 Information on contracted firms
3. Plantation system component
3.1 Plantation information
3.2 Forest nursery information
3.3 Forest park information
3.4 Forest reserve information
3.5 Seed orchard information
4. Information on violation cases2 system component
4.1 Article cases 11, 42, 43, 46, 49, 50, 55, 690, 3 (7), Arrest case 42, 48
4.2 Arrested case, timber wood forest products in control stations
4.3 Arrested case, non-timber forest products in control stations
4.4 Fire information
1 witness tress, the two trees in each sample plot that the height should be measured in addition to other parameters 2 Violation cases, comprise different violation and illegal uses from forest and other natural resources
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 121
Figure 25. System home page
The prototype consists of different screens with different type of information. The first
screen is the system homepage. It has a welcome message and consists of four main
options for selecting different components system and three another options one for
closing the system and the other one for opening different useful links page and the last
one for opening the report page as it shows in Fig 25.
6.4.2 Survey system module
The survey system component consists of six interrelated forms representing different
surveys, plots, stand statuses, trees information, regeneration information and witness tree
information, as shown in Fig 26. The main objective of the component is to store forest
inventory information, which is the basic information required for the provision of forest
management plans. This system component allows new surveys to be added to the system.
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 122
The source of data for the module will be the forest inventories carried out by FRWOI’s
Forestry Technical Office every ten years. Through the spatial information in this system
component – such as watersheds, district and parcel IDs, as well as the coordinates and
codes of the sample plots – the survey information can be inserted or transferred to the
GIS component. Therefore, different forest maps such as species distribution maps, maps
of forest type, maps of stand damage, stock maps, etc., can be generated by using the GIS
component.
6.4.3 Harvesting system module
Sufficient comprehensive information about different harvesting operations is important
for the successful implementation of forest management plans and projects.
The operation of the harvesting module is supported by several subsystems. The major
objective of the module is to keep top management in the GNRO and FRWOI informed of
the progress of forest management plans and the activities of different contractors or
executives in forest management plan areas.
The harvesting module represents the information covered within the forest management
plans: progress of the commitments laid down in forest management plans, incomes,
forecasted products, marked trees, felling licences, re-measurement of trees, timber
assortments, extraction conditions for timber products, contracted firms (see Fig 27 to 32).
The data for this module is to be collected from the different forest management plan
progress reports sent by the control offices to the GNROs. As can be seen from Fig 27
showing the main page of this module, the information on the different operations planned
for each district and the operations completed within each year of the forestry plan can be
entered and stored. This helps the manager compare the forecasted harvesting operations
with what has actually been done. This subsystem module can also be a useful tool for
ensuring that all of the commitments made by different contractors operating in the area,
and incorporated within the management plan, are fulfilled. On the right side of the page
are several links to other subsystems within the module.
Fig 28 shows the mask for the page relating information concerning the process of
marking crop trees for harvesting, the first step in the harvesting process (see section
6.3.4). The information stored and processed by this subsystem includes the spatial
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 123
(location as either a parcel or district ID, forestry plan, harvesting year and so on) and
species information pertaining to crop trees (species name, tree type (industrial or fire
wood trees), dbh, height).
The felling licence subsystem (Fig 29) will store summary of marked crop trees
information (tree species to be cut) and the information relating to the felling licences
(felling licence number, date of felling, date of expiry of felling licence, location and so
on) permitting contractors to cut trees.
Fig 30 shows the re-measurement subsystem. This subsystem module was designed to
provide information on the re-measurement process as another important step within the
harvesting process, and concerns the re-measurement of crop trees after felling. The re-
measurement of felled trees provides more accurate information on the volumes of crop
trees by dividing them into several sections, each of which is numbered and measured.
This information should be stored to allow for comparison of the quantities of industrial
and fire wood trees felled.
The timber assortment subsystem module (Fig 31) was designed to store information on
the location of timber assortments (parcel, district, forestry plan name), harvesting year,
timber assortment type (logs or other wood products, and so on) and information on the
timber products produced (species name, product type, length, diameter, width).
The extraction of the assortments products upon the felling and re-measurement of trees is
the last part of the harvesting process. When all of the products are extracted from the
forest then the supervisors of the forest management plans can provide the contractors a
certificate. This certificate confirms that the contractors fulfilled all of their commitments.
Therefore, the extraction condition of the assortments produced subsystem module is an
important module designed to store the information on products transported from the
forest and the conditions for their transport, as outlined in every felling licence. As Fig 32
shows, general information is stored in this subsystem module (felling licence number,
district ID, forestry plan name, and report date), in addition to the extraction conditions
(produced log, transported from the forest), transport conditions (log volume, lumber
volume, bolster volume, sawn wood volume, tunnel wood volume, fire wood volume,
charcoal).
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 124
6.4.4 Plantation system module
The first page of the plantation system component (Fig 33) consists of five options for
different certificates: plantation certificate, forest nursery, forest parks, seed orchard and
forest reserve certificate.
The plantation certificate module is designed to facilitate the recording, processing, use
and retrieval of plantation information. Given that there is not enough detailed information
about the planted area in northern Iran, and as there is no information on the mortality of
plantations this subsystem is another useful tool storing and processing the information
required in relation to plantations and their mortality. As Fig 34 shows, the plantation
subsystem includes general information about the locality of the plantation, topography
information (slope, aspect, coordinates, altitude, soil condition, date of plantation) and
species information (species, distance, n/ha, %/ha, number of bare root planted species,
number of container planted species, species age, seed provenance) for every plantation.
The spatial information contained in this subsystem module facilitates insertion of the
information stored in the module in GIS. With the help of the GIS component, different
maps can be created, such as maps of the species distribution of plantations or plantation
areas, and so on.
In fact, by using the spatial information or special IDs and codes of other subsystems
within this system module – forest nursery, forest parks, seed orchard and forest reserve –
each subsystem can be connected to the GIS component to generate the different maps
required.
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 125
Figure 26. Survey page1
Figure 26. Survey page2
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 126
Figure 27. Starting page for the forestry plans component of the system
Figure 28. Marked trees information page
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 127
Figure 29. Felling licence information page
Figure 30. Information on re-measurement of trees page
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 128
Figure 31. Timber assortment information page
Figure 32. Extraction conditions of produced products information page
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 129
Figure 33. Starting page for plantation component
Figure 34. Plantation information page
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 130
Figure 35. Forest nursery information page
Figure 36. Forest parks information page
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 131
6.4.5 Violation cases system module
One of the major problems facing the forest Conservation and Protection Office of the
FRWOI is preventing the illegal use of the forests and other natural resources. Complete
information concerning different violations can help management to better control and
combat these problems. The purpose of this module is to provide comprehensive
information about illegal forest use and other natural resources. The data for this module
will derive principally from monthly reports compiled by the natural resource offices
(NROs) and submitted to the GNROs. This module system is divided into four main sub-
modules (Fig 37 to 39).
Figure 37 shows the first page of the system module. In this page firstly can be entered the
general information for each violation case (ID_case, NRO name, GNRO name, file
number, violation article type, date, local, status of local, name of violator). Then base on
the type of violation, optional extra information may be added for example, for the case of
arrest case42 special information consist of number of timber, timber volume, fire wood
volume, charcoal weight.
Figure 37. Starting page for violation cases component
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 132
Figure 38. The page for violation cases of arrested TWP in control stations
Figure 39. The fire information page
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 133
6.4.6 Creating reports and making an enquiry
The IFMIS allows the user to generate reports for different subsystems. Both tabular (Fig
40-42) and graphic reports (Fig 43) can be generated using this module. These reports can
be created from information contained in only one table or from a query of different
tables. For example, the information contained in Fig 42 was extracted from a query of
different tables such as marked trees, re-measurement and timber assortment table (see
appendix 2). This report can help the user to compare the industrial wood and fire wood
volumes produced by marked trees prior to cutting and assortments produced after cutting
for each felling licence. One of the important advantages of a database is the extraction of
only the relevant information from one or more tables containing a huge volume of
information by using a query. This advantage can save time spent on the retrieval of
information. Various commonly asked questions can also be pre-designed to get an
efficient and quick response.
Figure 40. An example of forestry plan commitments report
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 134
Figure 41. An example of marking trees information report
1 Figure 42. An example of felling licence information report
1 MARK IND WOOD = Volume of Industrial marked trees, MARK F WOOD= Volume of Fuel wood marked trees, RE MEASUR IND WOOD= Volume of Industrial re-measured trees, RE MEASUR F WOOD= Volume of Fuel wood re-measured trees
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 135
Figure 43. An example of graphic report produced by MS Access
6.4.7 GIS and its application in forestry sector in Iran
What is a GIS?
A geographic information or geographical information system (GIS) is a system for
creating, storing, analyzing and managing spatial data and associated attributes. In the
strictest sense, it is a computer system capable of integrating, storing, editing,
analyzing, sharing, and displaying geographically-referenced information1.
GIS Components
A GIS is an integrated system that consists of hardware, software, data, and users.
These components interact to address spatial questions that can be used to facilitate
more efficient decision-making processes. Overall, the components of a GIS are
dynamic. Advancements in technological developments in GIS computer hardware,
1 http://www.rst2.edu/ties/GENTOOLS/what_gis.html
es Diagram of total basal area in different diameter classes
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 136
software, and data acquisition techniques compel users to pursue additional training to
develop the necessary technical skills that will support the use of a GIS to its fullest
potential1.
GIS applications in natural resources
Since its inception, GIS technology has been strongly associated with the mapping and
management of natural resources. Although GIS continues to be used for automating
the making of forest maps, attention is largely focused on developing and using the
modelling capabilities of GIS software to analyse natural resource issues and concerns.
In forestry, some models simply automate the calculation of timber yields, help select
timber for either harvest or conservation, or analyse potential forest-management
alternatives. Within this decade, GIS will be used increasingly to interface with
predictive models, providing forest managers with a critical tool to aid in the analysis
and comparison of integrated resource- management alternatives.
GIS application in the Iranian forestry sector
There is a small GIS unit within the Forest Technical Office of the FRWOI, as well as
the general office. This unit mainly caters for mapping needs and data management for
watershed management projects. The use of GIS in forest management in Iran began
in 1991 (Rassaneh 2003). From 1998 to 2001 a study on the use of GIS as a supporting
system for providing forest management plans was carried out. This study established
a fixed sample plot grid for 103 watersheds in the northern forests area. It also
included different spatial layers (shape files representing watersheds, districts, parcels,
roads, boundaries and villages in the forest). A GIS database is available in Arc View
format. There are digital maps of forest cover, and the location of sample plots are also
indicated on the maps.
Unfortunately there are not enough computer specialists to maintain and upgrade the
GIS database, although some GIS encoding is pursued through the geo-referencing of
important GPS points. Generally, spatial data are unavailable, poorly maintained,
outdated or incorrect. Spatial information is not defined in a consistent manner and is,
therefore, of low quality. Data are not archived in such a way that they are available
1 http://www.rst2.edu/ties/GENTOOLS/comp_gis.html
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 137
for later use. Despite its availability, the existing application of GIS lacks an analytical
form. The main reasons for this are:
• the poor understanding on the basic concepts and principles of GIS,
• insufficient training for personnel,
• a shortage of funds required for the establishment of a comprehensive GIS
system.
The potential benefits of integration GIS into the IFMIS
Providing a framework for the integration of GIS exists, remote sensing information
inputted into the IFMIS can aid in the decision making process, helping solve
problems caused by the non-availability of spatial information. It can serve as a spatial
decision support system via the analysis of spatial forest data presented in map-based
formats.
• Forest monitoring
The northern forests of Iran are monitored through ground-based surveys with a
certain degree of field sampling. Two types of information are collected, spatial
and point/plot related information. By employing the emerging remote sensing and
GIS technology, the spatial maps of forest cover can be prepared using satellite
data and changes to forest cover can be evaluated at regular intervals. All of the
data can be stored in the GIS for decision making purposes.
• Forest protection and damage
The Iranian forests are currently undergoing rapid change and degradation as a
consequence of various human activities (illegal harvesting, grazing) and natural
disturbances (fire). The information with regard to various forms of damage can be
incorporated in the GIS and used to determine the areas where containment of the
damage has the highest priority. One such example might be a decision support
system for predicting fires and simulating the damage they cause.
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 138
• Forest conservation
Forest conservation is also an important potential function of the GIS component
of the IFMIS, necessary for the preservation of the rich habitats and biodiversity of
the northern forests of Iran. The spatial information relating to national parks,
biosphere reserves, forest parks, etc., can be integrated into the GIS and the data
used to assist conservation planning. However, the data characterising the physical
and biological conditions and structures of these areas first need to be inventoried
and integrated into the GIS.
• Forest growing stock assessment
The availability of remote sensing, GIS and GPS technology for the localisation of
plots has contributed greatly to forest inventory and the assessment of growing
stock. The integration of growth models into the GIS represents a vitally important
future task for the Iranian forestry sector. A forest inventory data analysis system
can be developed by incorporating forest inventory data contained in the IFMIS
into the GIS. The information contained within the survey system module can be
transferred into GIS on the basis of the spatial information, such as watershed,
district and parcel IDs, as well as the coordinates of plots.
Therefore, the system has the potential to provide spatial data and maps of forest
cover, forest type, species composition, stand volumes and other stand attributes.
• Forest management plans
Approximately one million hectares of the northern forest of Iran are managed
according to the prescriptions detailed in management plans, normally prepared for
a period of ten years. A major part of the content of the management plans
concerns spatial and non-spatial data, which can be fully digitised and incorporated
into GIS. The synthesis of forest operations according to their locations, objectives
and results organised in the database and linked to the maps enhances the capacity
to understand productive regions and to plan further silvicultural treatments.
The development a model of integrated forest management information system in Iran 139
For example, the harvesting module system in the IFMIS can be readily
incorporated into GIS – on the basis of the spatial information such as parcel,
district and forestry plan IDs – to create different harvesting operation maps.
Conclusion and recommendations 140
7. Conclusion and recommendations
7.1 Conclusion
Progress in the development of forestry depends on several frequently interrelated factors.
These factors comprise infrastructure, research, policy, etc. However, the priorities attached to
each of these factors differ sharply from country to country. The problems associated with all
of these factors cannot be adequately addressed and translated into useful policies and
executable projects and programmes without sufficient information and information
management. An economic activity cannot be implemented effectively or function correctly
without relevant, timely, accurate and reliable information.
Forestry database and information systems can provide management with the tools necessary
for strategic and policy decisions, enabling it to answer ad hoc inquiries, providing the means
to monitor development trends, compare plans and results, and to manage the data required
for day to day activities. Forest management information systems should, therefore, be the
basic component at the heart of any forest organisation and must be incorporated into both its
short and long term plans.
The organised development of an integrated forestry information system is a complex and
long term job, and requires careful analysis and design before implementation. A major
component of the analysis is a detailed study of the information requirements of the
organisation in question. There are numerous sets of people involved in the development of
information systems within an organisation: managers, system users, the computer
programmers who implement the systems, etc.
The identification of the information to be processed, disseminated and documented is the
cornerstone of any new information management initiative and the development of an
information system. It ensures that the organisation collects and manages only that
information which is useful for the success of its operations. It makes sure that the collection
of irrelevant information is avoided, thereby lowering the costs of management. An
information requirement analysis is based on a systematic approach and methods. The
interviewing and questionnaire methods are the most common and popular formal methods
used to identify the information requirement of an organisation. These methods help to
identify information useful to the organisation’s management, and to determine what
Conclusion and recommendations 141
information they use in the current systems, and how it is used. The approach also involves
determining what information personnel feel is lacking, and which if provided would allow
them to better perform their jobs. There are two important aspects to understanding user
requirements:
Understanding the flow of documentation within an organisation; documents represent the
basic data available within an organisation and it is therefore essential to know from where
they originate and how they flow.
Understanding the rules used to process data; very often the rules are complex and transmitted
verbally, leading to misunderstandings.
Information system design is the next step in the development of an information system.
There are different types of information systems, however, any one of which may be better
suited to a particular user at a particular level of the management hierarchy of an organisation.
Traditionally, management information systems were believed to serve all users in an
organisation equally. This is one of the reasons why in the present study an attempt was made
to develop an integrated forest management information system (IFMIS) incorporating many
features typical of an executive information system.
The effects of using an IFMIS can be direct and indirect, measurable and ‘un-measurable’.
The most significant directly measurable effects are increased production and better quality,
together with greater opportunities for predicting, planning and controlling processes within
the forestry sector. The direct and measurable effects are:
• less administrative and routine work,
• saving on space and equipment,
• elimination of conventional documentation,
• less data redundancy,
• lower stock costs,
• shorter time and increased quality of data and information processing
The proposed IFMIS will improve the efficiency and effectiveness of decision making
processes by top management and the planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation
activities of middle level and operational level management of the FRWOI by:
Conclusion and recommendations 142
• Introducing flexibility in information structure including reporting form and format,
• Providing the possibility to ‘navigate’ the layers of the information hierarchy. This
allows users to determine the underlying contents of the information and to analyse
any deviations from the management plan, to draw on data from a wide range of
internal and external databases, to re-group them and to run different types of analyses
on the spot. Users can utilise this capability to pre-programme analytical routines
which can perform ad hoc comparisons of actual results with plan data, of current
results with those of the previous year, etc.
• Increasing the efficiency of data communication and monitoring. This will improve
the overall productivity in the organisation and reduce the costs of communication,
such as the cost of phone calls, paper and so on. This is due to the electronic nature of
data processing and the online transfer mechanism provided by the system and intranet
facilities on which the system can be based.
• Promoting a ‘culture’ of shared attention to key areas of the success of failure of
forestry projects and other information. It enables all departments to access the same
data concurrently.
The prototype method was used to design the system. It is a participatory method promoting
user involvement and facilitating the production of an early version of the system. Prototyping
allows potential users to interact with the initial version on a trial and error basis until the
final version of the system has evolved.
Potential users at the FRWOI tested the prototype, highlighting weaknesses and suggesting
improvement possibilities. They commended its performance and recommended it be
developed into a fully operational system.
7.1.1 System technology requirement and proposed data flow
The volume of data and the transaction rate for the proposed system are high.
Furthermore, many people will use the FRWOI database concurrently. The database has
been designed to handle all of the FRWOI’s data requirements and its many branch
offices. The system, therefore, demands technology that can handle a large database with
many concurrent users.
Conclusion and recommendations 143
A broad decision to be made concerns whether to adopt batch or online facilities. In online
systems, the user communicates with the computer directly through a terminal or
workstation. In a batch system, transactions are collected, inputted into the computer and
processed together when the output is produced. This is then passed on to the appropriate
user. Considerable time may elapse between the original input and the response (Avison
and Fitzgerald 1995). Taking into consideration the current situation at the FRWOI, a
batch system is recommended (Fig 44). However, once enough experience has been
gained an online system should be introduced.
Figure 44. Proposed organizational network in information generation and use in FRWOI
A system providing various processing facilities can produce outputs in various formats.
Outputs (reports) can be presented as text, graphs and tables, or as a combination of the
aforementioned. The diverse functions of the FRWOI mean that a system is required that
can produce output reports in various forms and formats suiting different users. The MS
Access database can also be connected to the system so as to facilitate the transfer of data
to statistics and GIS programmes for the provision of the required output.
Most of the data to be included in the first phase of the IFMIS database is expected to be
provided by the GNROs, with a considerable amount of this data contained in supervisor
Conclusion and recommendations 144
reports. The available raw data from the supervisors can be transferred directly onto
computer by the supervisors themselves. To achieve this, the supervisors or control offices
need to be equipped with the relevant computer hardware and software. From the GNROs
the processed data can be transferred to the central database in Chalous by an off-line
connection or by means of different computer compatible media such as floppy discs and
CDs. The advantages of this alternative are that it is time effective and it solves
operational problems in relation to data consistency and validation because the central
IFMIS does not need to be contacted to resolve the problem each time an inconsistency is
noticed in the raw data. It is, therefore, advisable that data entry should take place at
control office level or at the GNRO level. The GNROs are also to be responsible for
providing data for the update of the database from time to time. The FRWOI computer
centre in Chalous may be entrusted with the task of creating the database, editing the
‘data’, updating the national forest information database, and most importantly of all,
developing the software required for the retrieval of information from the database when
queries are made by different users. In fact, with the use of IFMIS it should be mentioned
that the hierarchy of data flow from the first point namely control offices to the
organizational level would not be changed what can change is the time of data flow and
the quick accessibility and retrieval of required information.
7.1.2 Transferability of the system and procedure
The transferability of the prototype and the methods used to develop it further are a
function of the objectives and activities of the system development. Moreover, the type
and level of information technology to be used for information processing and
dissemination should be standardised. The greater the similarities in these factors between
the Noo-shahr GNRO and the other GNROs, the higher the probability that the system
and the procedures followed in its development will be transferred.
The method used to develop the prototype (integrated forest management information
system) for the Noo-shahr GNRO is new to the FRWOI. There is not much prior
knowledge or experience of the design of an IFMIS that can meet exclusively the
demands of the top management of the organisation. Therefore, the prototyping method
used in this study to produce an appropriate model can be used to design a system for the
Conclusion and recommendations 145
whole FRWOI and in a situation where system users have failed to define their
requirements.
The aforementioned factors justify the transferability of the methods and procedures used
to develop the prototype. The prototype itself can be changed easily to accommodate
different operating systems used in other GNROs.
7.1.3 Factors affecting implementation and operation sustainability of the system
Technical and institutional capacities are the two major factors determining the successful
implementation and operational sustainability of the system to be evolved from the
present prototype.
Technical Capacity
• Manpower
The problem with manpower is in most cases related to the very low pay for computer
professionals. The hiring and retention of skilled information technology professionals
requires greater monetary incentives than are currently being paid by government
institutions. The problem is worsened by the demand for the very same skilled
individuals within the growing private sector. It is time that the government addresses
the issue so that problems associated with skilled manpower can be solved before it is
too late. This is supported by the fact that there is not a single computer science
professional within the FRWOI trained in database design or networking.
• Training
Due to the low level of information and computer literacy in the FRWOI, the capacity
to identify critical success factors and design an executive information system is
generally low. The level of knowledge in relation to the use of hardware and software
is also low despite the limited and slow improvements registered recently.
Upgrading the skills of both management and workers through continuous training
would undoubtedly contribute to better performance. IFMIS cannot be implemented
and maintained unless driven by user requirements, which are themselves a result of
continuous and relentless training. Personnel able to act as trouble shooters in the
event of small but critical and frequent problems are also insufficient. According to the
Conclusion and recommendations 146
findings of this study, the main types of training required relate mainly to the
following:
• data collection and collation techniques,
• manual data validation, basic to advanced general computer training,
• client server database management systems,
• web page design and maintenance,
• network administration and maintenance.
Most of aforementioned training is relevant for junior and senior technical staff in the
data management and processing department. However, senior management and
decision makers – the principle users of the executive information system – also
require special training. This training will promote future improvement. Users at
middle and lower management level engaged in routine operations also need training
in basic computer use and the proposed IFMIS prototype.
Institutional capacity
Institutional capacity refers to the ability of an organisation to operate and sustain the
system under its present structure and administration guidelines. A sustainable
organisational structure must be in place to allow the system to operate effectively.
The legal and institutional framework with respect to data collection, processing and
dissemination between the general offices and the FRWOI, as well as other institutes
involved in collecting forestry data, should be critically reviewed and established to
avoid the duplication of work and the wasting of resources. The FRWOI can serve as
focal point for the implementation of the system but should be properly structured and
staffed to meet fully the tasks delegated to it.
Operational sustainability refers to the structures and operational guidelines put in
place to enhance the continuous operation of the system. Capacity building should be
an ongoing process and a component of system development efforts. This should be
based on continuous business process re-engineering, the improvement of the
technical capacities of personnel and the modification of the institutional structure
based on the results of the business process re-engineering and the improvements
made.
Conclusion and recommendations 147
User benefit is critical to the sustainability of any new system. The system should
meet user requirements at all levels and at all times. This is paramount to its
sustainability. The quality of the system should be high in order to maintain user
interest in accessing and using the information. The quality of data, the ease of
connectivity and accessibility are also key factors in the sustainability of the system.
Inter-institutional linkage and cooperation is also important for a sustainable system.
All general offices participating in the system – whether through data collection,
processing, use or documentation and dissemination – have a well defined charter
clearly stating their responsibilities, and defining how they can coordinate their
activities and fulfil their responsibilities.
Finally, it is necessary that all involved realise and take cognisance of that fact that the
complete implementation of all aspects of an integrated IFMIS can span around 10 to
15 years, depending on the size of the forest organisation (staff resources, equipment,
data creation and its periodic updating and validation, training, maintenance and
repair, upgrades and software support).
7.2 Recommendations
7.2.1 Collecting useful information and construction of a metadata database
Traditionally, forestry statistics and information covered an extensive area of what is
today considered sustainable forest management. In developing a comprehensive system
of information collection, the most critical questions are:
• what information is required for decisions by different stakeholders and at various
levels?
• what is the precision of the information required to support decision making?
• how can access to information be ensured for a wide range of potential users?
• how to find out what information is available?
A metadata information system is needed to answer some of these questions.
Conclusion and recommendations 148
Metadata information system
Metadata are data about data. Metadata describes how and when and by whom a particular
set of data was collected, and how the data is formatted. Metadata is essential for
understanding information stored in data warehouses1.
Metadata is particularly important in relation to providing information on what
information is accessible and from where and how it can be accessed. Metadata also
include technical information, for example, the exchange format, exchange medium,
software and hardware used, and so on.
Often such metadata are defined in one metadata database. The metadata database should
provide sufficient and detailed information so that the actual information sought is
accessible and may be correctly used. It should facilitate both information exchange and
experience exchange. It serves as a source of information letting users know where
information suiting their purposes is available. One important feature of the performance
of metadata is a problem oriented access on information that means access must originate
in needed content of information and it should not set technical characteristics in
foreground. The Metadata information system can be constructed for both non-spatial and
spatial data set.
The quality characteristics of information ascertained should be stored as a metadata
component of a metadata database. Metadata should answer the following questions:
• To what does the information pertain?
• When and where was the information collected?
• To what area does the information refer to?
• Who provided the information and for what purpose?
• Who has access to the information?
• Where is the information stored?
• In what format is the information available?
1 http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/m/metadata.html
Conclusion and recommendations 149
• What is the quality of the information?
• Who can provide the information?
• What is the cost of obtaining the information? (Feghhi, 1998)
The construction of a metadata information system is another important task facing the
forestry sector in Iran. If completed, it will be an especial help to forest researchers
wishing to find out quickly just what information already exists.
7.2.3 Increase co-ordination and collaboration
Co-ordination and collaboration between the different sectors involved in forest
information are essential to streamline information systems and to provide comprehensive
information at the national level.
In order to increase and enhance co-ordination and collaboration, thereby ensuring the
provision of a comprehensive public good, i.e., information, it is recommended that the
following should be done:
• Partnership developed between all forestry stakeholders, with an exchange of
information and a sharing of responsibilities.
• Increased co-operation to avoid duplication, which is essential particularly where there
is a shortage of funds.
• Development of standard and cost-effective guidelines and methodologies for data
collection, processing and dissemination.
• Development of efficient information networks to facilitate the flow of information.
Summary 150
Summary
The size and diversity of activities carried out by the Forest, Rangeland & Watershed
Organization of Iran results in the production and reproduction of huge volumes of data and
documents. It is difficult to provide reports suited to the particular needs of a specific user and
in turn for the user to retrieve from the reports the information required for decision making,
research, and so on. What is lacking in the Iranian forestry sector is not so much forestry
information but its management (the capacity to systematically process, store, retrieve,
disseminate and document forestry information) and the corresponding capacity to use this
information efficiently.
Therefore, there is an urgent need for the forestry sector in Iran to organise this huge
collection of information and the dissemination activities under a unifying umbrella and work
out mechanisms for information exchange and generation. Unless this is done, information
collection and utilisation in the forestry sector will fail to support any specific planning and
management objectives. The best possible solution to these problems is an electronic database
and information system.
The aim of the present study was to introduce a computer-based management information
system for the provincial General Natural Resource Office (GNRO) in Noo-shahr in particular
and the Forest, Range & Watershed Organisation of Iran (FRWOI) generally. The two main
objectives were:
Analysis of the present conditions of forest information flow in the forestry sector of
Mazandaran province in Iran and identification of the gaps in data transfer and information
Analysis of information requirement
Design of a database model and forest management information system for managing of
information on a regional scale
Construction and testing of the database model
The first step in the development of a forest management information system is an
information requirement analysis. The procedures used for information requirement analysis
Summary 151
combined document analysis and questioning (interview and questionnaire). The procedures
combined the following activities:
• Situation analysis to determine the objectives and strategies of the FRWOI, which in
turn helped to set the objectives and scope of the study (problem analysis). Literature
review, expert discussion, and interview and observation were used for the situation
analysis
• Assessment of the system environment including information generators and users,
current reporting methods, system support facilities and factors affecting system
implementation and smooth transformation from the existing to the proposed new
system
• Determination of the information requirement (integration of results obtained using
the above methods) and getting the approval of potential users.
The methods employed to accomplish the aforementioned tasks were introductory
discussions, personal observation, literature review, interviews and questionnaires. The
introductory discussion and meting were conducted to prompt the participation of potential
users, and to explain the objectives of the study. The literature review was carried out to
identify problems that might not have been revealed during the discussions and to get details
on the problems that were discussed. The study of the existing documentation was also
helpful in further clarifying the activities carried out and the issues in relation to the present
information system. Finding the gaps in the information and information flow was
instrumental to formulating questions for the questionnaire and interviews. Observation
helped identify weaknesses in the existing system.
The results of the literature review and questioning were combined in a comprehensive
evaluation of the FRWOI’s information requirement. Potential users and top management
were asked whether the outcome addressed their information needs and produced a clear
representation of the organisation’s information requirement.
The next step in the development of an integrated forest management information system was
database design. The results of the system specification were used to construct a prototype of
the proposed system. MS Access 2000 was used to develop and manage the database. Data
used for report/information generation were stored, updated and altered in the database.
Summary 152
The prototype of the forest management information system designed for the GNRO of Noo-
shahr comprised four system components. These four system components (survey, harvesting,
plantation and violation cases) consisted of more than thirty interrelated modules working as
an element of an integrated system.
The main objective of the survey component system is to store forest inventory information,
that is, the basic information required for the provision of the forest management plans. The
various forest maps required, such as species distribution maps, forest type maps, stand
damage maps, stand stock maps, etc., can be generated using the GIS component.
The harvesting module contains information pertaining to forestry plans (progress, incomes,
forecasted products, marked trees information, felling licence information, re-measuring trees
information, timber assortment information, extraction conditions), contractors.
The plantation certificate module is designed to facilitate the recording, processing, use and
retrieval of plantation information. The spatial information in this subsystem module allows
for the incorporation of the information stored in the module in GIS. With the help of the GIS
component different maps can be created, such as species distribution maps, plantation area
maps, and so on.
The purpose of violation cases module is to provide comprehensive information on violation
cases, which represent a major challenge for the forest conservation and protection division of
the FRWOI. The division is trying to prevent the illegal use of forests and other natural
resources. Management can better control and combat these problems if they have complete
information concerning the different violations.
In view of the current situation at the FRWOI a batch system was deemed the most
appropriate foundation for the management information system. However, once enough
experience has been gained an online system should be introduced. Most of the data to be
included in the first phase of the Iranian forest management information system (IFMIS)
database is expected to be provided by the GNROs, by the supervisor reports in particular.
The implementation of IFMIS will not alter the hierarchy of data flow, from the control
offices to the organisational level. What will change, however, is the speed of data flow, and
the ready accessibility and retrieval of the required information.
Summary 153
The proposed IFMIS will improve the efficiency and effectiveness of decision making by top
management and the planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation activities of
middle and operational level management of the FRWOI through:
• Introducing flexibility to the information structure, including reporting forms and formats.
• Providing the possibility to ‘navigate’ the layers of the information hierarchy (drill-down
effects). This allows users to determine the underlying contents of the information and to
analyse any deviations from the management plan, to draw on data from a wide range of
internal and external databases, to re-group them and to run different types of analyses on
the spot. Users can utilise this capability to pre-programme analytical routines which can
perform ad hoc comparisons of actual results with plan data, of current results with those
of the previous year, etc.
• Increasing the efficiency of data communication and monitoring. This will improve the
overall productivity in the organisation and reduce the costs of communication, such as
the cost of phone calls, paper and so on. This is due to the electronic nature of data
processing and the online transfer mechanism provided by the system and intranet
facilities on which the system can be based.
• Promoting a ‘culture’ of shared attention to key areas of the success or failure of forestry
projects and other information. It enables all departments to access the same data
concurrently.
Zusammenfassung 154
Zusammenfassung
Der Umfang und die Vielfalt der Aktivitäten der iranischen Organisation für Forst, Weide- &
Wassereinzugsgebiete führt zur Erzeugung und Wiedererzeugung äußerst großer
Datenmengen und unzähliger Dokumente. Es ist schwierig, Berichte bereit zu stellen, welche
speziell die Anforderungen eines bestimmten Nutzers erfüllen, was es diesem Nutzer
wiederum erschwert, die für Entscheidungsprozesse, Forschung und andere Zwecke
benötigten Informationen aus den Berichten zu ziehen. Im iranischen Forstsektor mangelt es
weniger an forstlichen Informationen, sondern vielmehr an Informationsverwaltung (die
Fähigkeit forstliche Daten systematisch zu bearbeiten, zu speichern, abzurufen,
weiterzuverteilen und zu dokumentieren) und der entsprechenden Kapazität, die vorhandenen
Informationen effizient zu nutzen.
Folglich besteht im iranischen Forstsektor der dringende Bedarf, die große Datenansammlung
und die Informationsverteilung zentral zu verwalten und Mechanismen für den
Informationsaustausch und die Datengenerierung auszuarbeiten. Ohne dies kann das
Zusammentragen und die Nutzung von Daten keinen Beitrag zu spezifischen Planungs- und
Bewirtschaftungszielen im Forstsektor leisten. Die bestmögliche Lösung dieser Probleme ist
ein elektronisches Datenbank- und Informationssystem.
Ziel der vorliegenden Studie war es ein Computergestütztes Informationssystem auf
Provinzebene speziell für das Generalbüro für natürliche Ressourcen (GNRO) in Noo-shahr
ebenso wie für die Organisation für Forst, Weide- & Wassereinzugsgebiete (FRWOI)
allgemein zu entwickeln. Die zwei übergeordneten Ziele waren:
Die Evaluierung des aktuellen Informationsflusses innerhalb des Forstsektors in der
iranischen Provinz Mazandaran und die Identifizierung von Informationslücken und
Schwachstellen beim Datenaustausch.
Die Entwicklung einer modularen Datenbank und eines Forstinformationssystems für die
Informationsverwaltung auf regionaler Ebene.
Der erste Schritt in der Entwicklung eines Forstinformationssystems ist die Analyse der
Informationen, die für ein solches System erforderlich sind. Hierfür wurden Inhaltsanalysen
Zusammenfassung 155
sowie mündliche und schriftliche Befragungen durchgeführt. Die Vorgehensweise beinhaltete
die folgenden Arbeitsschritte:
• Situationsanalyse zur Bestimmung der Ziele und Strategien der FRWOI, was
dabei half, die Zielsetzung und den Rahmen der Studie festzulegen
(Problemanalyse). Für die Situationsanalyse wurden Literaturrecherche,
Expertengespräche, Interviews und Beobachtungen eingesetzt,
• Untersuchung der Systemumgebung, inklusive der Informationsquellen und –
Nutzer, aktuelle Berichterstattungsmethoden sowie unterstützende
Gegebenheiten und Faktoren, welche die Umsetzung und den fließenden
Übergang vom bestehenden zum neu vorgeschlagenen System beeinflussen,
• Feststellung der erforderlichen Informationen (Integration der gewonnenen
Daten) und Erlangung der Akzeptanz potentieller Nutzer.
Die einleitenden Gespräche und Treffen dienten dazu, potentielle Nutzer für die Teilnahme
zu gewinnen sowie zur Erläuterung der Forschungsziele. Die Literaturrecherche stellt eine
weiterführende Problemanalyse dar, um Problempunkte, welche während der Gespräche nicht
genannt wurden, zu identifizieren und mehr Details über die genannten Probleme zu erfahren.
Die Untersuchung vorliegender Dokumente half darüber hinaus, laufende Tätigkeiten und
Angelegenheiten bezüglich des bestehenden Informationssystems besser zu verstehen. Für die
Formulierung der Fragebogen- und Interviewfragen war es notwendig, die
Informationslücken und die Schwachstellen des Informationsaustausches zu kennen. Die
Identifizierung von Schwachstellen im bestehenden System wurde außerdem durch eigene
Beobachtungen unterstützt.
Die Ergebnisse der Literaturrecherche und der Befragungen wurden zusammengefasst und
flossen in eine umfassende Analyse der Informationen ein, welche für die FRWOI notwendig
sind. Potentielle Nutzer und die Verwaltungsspitze wurden daraufhin befragt, ob die
ermittelten Inhalte Ihren Informationsanforderungen entsprechen, was ein deutliches
Spiegelbild der Informationen, die für die Organisation erforderlich sind, hervorbrachte.
Zusammenfassung 156
Der nächste Schritt in der Entwicklung des integrativen Forstinformationssystems war der
Aufbau der Datenbank. Die Ergebnisse der Systemanforderungsanalyse wurden dazu genutzt,
einen Prototyp für das geplante System zu empfehlen. Für die Entwicklung und Verwaltung
der Datenbank wurde MS Access 2000 eingesetzt. Informationsdaten wurden in der
Datenbank gespeichert, aktualisiert und verändert. Der Prototyp des Forstinformationssystems
für die GNRO in Noo-shahr setzt sich aus vier Systemkomponenten zusammen. Diese vier
Komponenten (Inventur, Ernte, Pflanzung und gesetzliche Verstöße) beinhalteten mehr als
dreißig miteinander verbundene Module, die als Elemente in einem integrativen System
fungierten.
Das Hauptziel der Erfassung ist es, die Forstinventurdaten, welche als Basisinformation für
die Forstbewirtschaftungspläne dienen, festzuhalten. In Verbindung mit GIS gibt es
verschiedene Möglichkeiten und Fähigkeiten dieser Systemkomponente; diverse notwendige
Forstkarten, welche Aufschluss über die Artenzusammensetzung, den Waldtyp,
Bestandesschäden oder den Bestandesvorrat geben, können mit GIS hergestellt werden.
Die Erntekomponente spiegelt die Forstplanungsinformationen wider (Umsetzung der
Forstplanung, Ertragsinformationen, erwartete Produkte, gekennzeichnete Bäume,
Einschlagslizenzen, Wiedervermessung von Bäumen, Holzsortimente, Nutzungsbedingungen
für Holzprodukte, ausführende Firmen).
Das Pflanzungsmodul ist so konzipiert, dass es die Aufnahme, Bearbeitung, Nutzung und das
Abfragen von Pflanzdaten ermöglicht. Die räumlichen Informationen in einem
untergeordneten Modul eröffnen die Möglichkeit, gespeicherte Daten ins GIS zu übertragen.
Mit der Hilfe von GIS können diverse Karten hergestellt werden, zum Beispiel über die
Artenzusammensetzung innerhalb der Plantage oder über die Pflanzverteilung.
Der Zweck des vierten Moduls, das sich mit gesetzlichen Verstößen beschäftigt, ist das
Zusammentragen umfassender Informationen über Verstöße, da diese ein gravierendes
Problem für den Waldschutz und die für den Schutz zuständige Abteilung der iranischen
FRWOI darstellen. Die Abteilung ist darum bemüht, gesetzliche Verstöße in Bezug auf den
Wald und andere natürliche Ressourcen zu verhindern. Wenn ausführliche Informationen zu
Verstößen vorliegen, kann dieses Modul für die Verwaltungsspitze ein nützliches Instrument
sein, um Verstöße besser kontrollieren und bekämpfen zu können.
Zusammenfassung 157
Unter Berücksichtigung der aktuellen Situation der FRWOI kann zunächst ein Batch System
vorgeschlagen werden. Wenn genügend Erfahrung gesammelt worden ist, sollte jedoch ein
Online-System eingeführt werden. Im Hinblick auf den Datenfluss muss erwähnt werden,
dass die meisten Daten in der Startphase der (Iranische Forstmanagement
Informationssystem) IFMIS -Datenbank von den GNROs übernommen werden und ein
beachtlicher Teil zudem aus Berichten der zuständigen Aufsichtsperson für Forstliche
Planung stammen wird. Tatsächlich wird es so sein, dass sich die Hierarchie des Datenflusses
von der Kontrollebene zur ausführenden Ebene nicht ändern wird. Was sich ändern kann ist
die zeitliche Variable des Datenflusses, der schnelle Zugang und die rasche Abrufbarkeit
benötigter Informationen.
IFMIS wird die Effizienz und Effektivität von Entscheidungen seitens der FRWOI
Verwaltungsspitze ebenso wie die Planung, die Umsetzung, die Monitoring und die
Auswertungsaktivitäten auf mittlerer und ausführender Ebene folgendermaßen verbessern:
• größere Flexibilität hinsichtlich der Informationsstruktur, inklusive
Berichtsformulare und Formate.
• Die Möglichkeit, die verschiedenen Informationsebenen durchzugehen (sich
sozusagen nach unten durchzubohren). Den Nutzern wird somit ermöglicht, die zu
Grunde liegenden Informationsgehalte auszumachen und jegliche Abweichungen
vom Bewirtschaftungsplan zu analysieren, Daten aus internen und externen
Datenbanken zu ziehen, sie umzugruppieren und verschiedene Analysen
umgehend durchzuführen. Nutzer sind in der Lage, analytische Vorgänge vorab
zu programmieren, so dass Vergleiche zwischen aktuellen Daten und denen aus
dem Vorjahr möglich sind, etc.
• Verbesserte Effizienz des Datenaustausches und der Monitoring. Dies wird auf
Grund der elektronischen Datenübertragung und -verarbeitung innerhalb des
Systems und der Intranet-Infrastruktur die allgemeine Produktivität der
Organisation verbessern und Kommunikationskosten für Telefonate oder
Schreiben verringern.
• Unterstützung einer „Kultur“ gemeinsamen Interesses für Schlüsselbereiche, die
den Erfolg oder das Scheitern forstlicher Projekte und anderer Informationen
Zusammenfassung 158
ausmachen. Es ermöglicht allen Abteilungen simultanen Zugang zu den gleichen
Daten.
References 159
References
Amaro A, Soares P and Reed D. 2003,’Modelling Forest Systems’, CABI Publishing, ISBN 0851996930
Aoumeur N. 2001,’Specifying and validating consistent and dynamically evolving concurrent information systems: An object Petri-net based approach’, Dissertation. University of Magdeburg, Shaker Verlag.2002
Ashbindu Singh. 1987,’Technologies for forest resources information system’, MY FOREST, Vol.23 (4), Page No. 207-216
Avison D.E., Fitzgerald G. 1995,’Information systems development: Methodologies, Techniques and Tools’, 2th Edition. McGraw-Hill, England
Chandurkar D, Venny Sudeshna. 2003,’A case study on computerized forest management control and forest information management system in India: An application to Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest management’, Working Paper FM/23, FAO Rome (Italy)
Connolly Thomas M., Carolyn E. Begg. 2001,’Database systems (a practical approach to design, implementation and management ’, Addison wesley,Third edition
Customhouse. 2002,’Annual statistical reports of the customhouse of Iran’
Duerr, William A., Dennis E. Teeguarden, Neils B. Christiansen and Sam Guttenberg. 1979,’Forest resource management (decision-making principles and cases)’, W.B. Saunders Company, ISBN 0-7216-3223-8, page 147-155
Durst Patrick, Thomas Enters. 2002,’The reasons why we know less about forestry in Asia than we should’, proceeding of the forest policy workshop kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Dykstra D.P. 1997,’Information systems in forestry’, Unasylva-No.189, Vol. 48 - 1997/2
Ehrlenspiel G, Christoph, Kleinn. 1992,’Implementing a forest information system’ a case study in Cyprus- Albert – Ludwigs – Universität Freiburg, Mitteilungen der Abteilung für Forstliche Biometrie 92-1
Feghhi J. 1998‚’Informations- und Metainformationsbedarf für die forstliche Planung im Hinblick auf ein Wald-Informationssystem’’, Diss. ETH Nr. 12501, Beih.Nr.85 Schweiz. Z. Forstwes
Fong J, Hung S.M. 1997,’Information systems reengineering’ Springer Verlag, Singapore
FRWOI. 2002, Annual operational report
FRWOI. 2003, Documents and information of Forestry Technical Office (FTO)
FRWOI. 2004, Documents and information of computer centre (GNRO of Noo-shahr)
FRWOI. 2004, Documents and information of Conservation and Protection Office (CPO)
References 160
FRWOI.2004, Documents and information of Harvesting and Timber Industries Office (HIIO)
FRWOI.2004,Documents and information of Plantation and Parks Office (PPO)
Garg R.K. 2002a,’Forest information systems in the state of Uttar Pradesh India’, the international forestry review, Vol 4(3), page (206-213)
Garg, R.K. 2002b,’Forest management information systems’, microdot systems (p) Ltd. New Delhi – 110019
Ghiassallhossini, A. 2000,’Evaluation of the effects of the organizing plan to sending out domesticated animals from the north forests in Iran’, centre of science and research of Free University of Ahvaz
Hawaryszkiewycz Igor. 2001,’Introduction to systems analysis & design’ Fifth edition, Prentice Hall, 503pp
Hedayati, M.A. 2003,’Plantation in north of Iran (purposes, policies, and future plans)’ Plantations and parks office
Hitrec V, Tomanic S. 1988,’Development of the information system in forestry: needs and practical issues’, information systems for forestry related subjects, Proceedings IUFRO subject group S6.03, 21-24 June 1988, Birmensdorf and Zurich, p. 145-152
IUFRO Secretariat. 2003,’Global forest information service handbook’, www.iufro-gfis.net/handbook/
Iwarsson M, Johansson Sverker. 2001,’Interactive knowledge system for family enterprise forestry’ SkogForsk, Uppsala, Sweden, http://www.regional.org.au/au/iufro/2001/iwarsson.htm
Kanter Jerome. 1972, ‘Management – oriented management information systems’, Prentice –Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. USA
Koreimann D.S. 1974,’Methoden der Informationsbedarfs – Analyse als Grundlage für die Gestaltung von Management – Informationssystemen’’, Dissertation, Wirtschaftswissenschaftlichen Fakultät, Universität Freiburg
Kroll Per, Philippe Kruchten .2004,’The rational unified process made easy’, a practitioner’s guide to the RUP. Addision-Wesley.416 pp
Kuron, U.H. 1993,’Warenwirtschaftssysteme im Landhandel: Analyse und Konzept für ein integriertes Management- Informationssystem’, Witterschlich/Bonn, Wehle
Ma Qiang. 2000,’Regional overview on strengthening national forestry information systems’, Information and analysis for sustainable forest management, workshop for the EC-FAO Partnership Programme, Bangkok, Thailand on 10-12 July 2000
Mirsadeghi Mohamad. 1999,’Country submission to FRA 2000’ unpublished
Mohamadi fazel A. 2001,’Thematic report on forest ecosystems’, NBSAP Secretariat
References 161
Monserud R.A. 2003,’Evaluating forest models in a sustainable forest management context’, FMBIS, volume1 35-47. 2003
Najaran. 1988,’Integrative plan of northern forests’, Forestry Technical Office, FRWOI
Nathaniel C. Bantayan, Richievel V. Arche. 2002,’Evaluation of forest and natural resources data and information flow in the Philippines’, EC_FAO PARTNERSHIP PROGRAMME (2000-2002) Tropical Forestry Budget Line B7-6201/1B/98/0531 PROJECT GCP/RAS/173/EC
Nazmavaran consultant engineers firm. 2004,’A proposed plan for designing and construction of database in forest deputy’, FRWOI, unpublished
Novak N., S. Tomanić. 1988,’Development of the information system in forestry, System approach to forestry operations planning and control’, Forestry Commission, Bulletin 82, Symposium held at Heriot Watt University, Edinburgh, 25-29 July 1988.
Päivinen R, Burley J, Landis E, Mills R Petrokofsky G, Reynolds J, Richards T and Schuck, 1999,’A global forest information service - creating a common vision’, IUFRO occasional paper No.12, ISSN 1024-414 X
Päivinen R, Iremonger R, kapos S .et al. 1998,’Better access to information on forests’, international consultation on research and information systems in forestry, Gmunden, Austria
Päivinen R, Mills R, Hailu M and Saarikko J. 2001,’The forest of information beating paths through the jungle’, Unasylva, Issue number: 204 http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/X8820E/x8820e04.htm
Rajerz. 1964,’Statistic of Caspian forests’, Forestry Technical Office, Ministry of Natural Resources
Rassaneh, Yadollah. 2003,’Forest typology’, Forestry Technical Office, FRWOI
Rational the software development company. 1998,’Rational unified process (best practices for software development teams)’, rational software white paper TP026B, Rev 11/01
Reynolds J, John Busby. 1996,’Guide to information management- in the context of the convention on biological diversity’, world conservation monitoring centre, UNEP, ISBN 92-807-1591-5
Richards T, Reynolds J. 1999,’Global forest information service’ - Technical Options Paper, IUFRO occasional paper No.12, ISSN 1024-414 X
Ribeiro R.P, Jose Guilherme Borges, Vanda Oliveira. 2003,’A framework for data quality for mediterranean sustainable ecosystem management’, Department de engenharia florestal, University tecnica de Lisboa, Portugal
Roessel J.W.Van. 1986,’Guidelines for forestry information processing (with particular reference to developing countries)’, FAO, Forestry paper 74
162
Rondeux Jacques. 1991,’Management information systems: emerging tools for integrated forest’, international IUFRO Symposium on Integrated forest management information systems. October 1991, Tsukuba, Japan.
Sabeti, H. 1993,’Forest, trees and shrubs of Iran’, Yazd University, Iran
Selassie, S. G. 2001,’The development of integrated management information systems for agricultural extension institutions of developing countries, the case of Oromia agricultural development bureau of Ethiopia’, Dissertation .University of Bonn, Shaker Verlag, 165pp.
Schmoldt Daniel L, Rauscher H. Michael. 1996,’Building knowledge–based system for natural resource management’ Springer-Verlag US ISBN: 0412019213 PGS: 408
Sinan Si Alhir. 2002,’Understanding the unified process (UP)’, methods & tools, an international software engineering digital newsletter published by Martining & Associates
Solvberg, A., Kung D.C. 1993,’Information systems engineering’, Springer Verlag, Berlin, Germany
Susallek, W. 1998,’Management Informationssysteme in der ARD als Instrumente Rationaler Willensbildung’, Arbeitspapiere des Instituts für Rundfunkökonomie, Köln Universität.
Thiel S, Heilbig R and Schiefer G. 1999,’Executive control center: integrated information management in medium sized enterprise’, volume B, University of Bonn-ILB, Germany
Yaakko Pöyry. 1974,’Integrative plan of Caspian forests’, Forests Rangelands Organization, Ministry of Agriculture
http://www.course.com/downloads/computerscience/invitationcpp/keyterms12.htm http://www.irandoe.org/en/about.htm
http://iufro.boku.ac.at/iufro/publications/op12.pdf
http://www.mcrit.com/ASSEMBLING/assemb_central/WhatESS.htm www.rational.com http://www.regional.org.au/au/iufro/2001/iwarsson.htm http://www.rst2.edu/ties/GENTOOLS/comp_gis.html http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/m/metadata.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expert_system#Types_of_problems_solved_by_expert_systems
Appendix 1: Questionnaire 163
Appendix 1: Questionnaire
Overview of National Statistics Collection Processes
Agency with primary responsibility for collecting/collating forestry statistics:
Forest, Range &Watershed Organisation of Iran
Data collection/collation responsibilities: (check topics as appropriate):
Collect
Collate
not collected
don't know
National forest inventory
*
Separate plantation forest inventory
*
Round-wood removals
*
Production of wood products
*
Import/Export of wood products (volume)
*
Value statistics for imports/exports
*
Production/consumption of fire-wood/charcoal
*
Production of national wood supply forecasts
*
Forestry employment statistics
*
Forest product price statistics
*
Non-wood forest products
*
Others:
Remarks:
Appendix 1: Questionnaire 164
No. staff employed in collection/collation of statistics: Other principal agencies involved in forestry statistics collection: Agency(ies): Collects:
Forestry technichal office 1996
Forestry technichal office 1985
Yakko Pöyry Firm 1974
Description of forest inventories/surveys
Country: Iran Reference year: 1958,1973,1974,1985,1996
Title of inventory: National forest inventory
Type of inventory: Field and aerial photos
Field / aerial photos / satellite images / ... Brief summary of methodologies used
Reporting level
Country coverage North Forests (partial)
National / sub-national Complete / partial
Map output No , Only statistical information
yes / no (also indicate format: analogue /digital)
Appendix 1: Questionnaire 165
Vegetation types included Yes / No Natural forests * Plantations * All forests * Other wooded land * Forest biodiversity * Forest ownership * Wood supply potential * Additional information included Yes / No Area by forest formation * Volume * Biomass * Forest naturalness * Remarks:
Principal deficiencies and gaps in national forest inventory system:
Appendix 1: Questionnaire 166
Other forest resources and land-use data
National, Sub- natl. Not collected, don't know
Extent of forest type in protected area * Classification (e.g. IUCN) * Forest health surveys completed * Data compiled on annual forest fire damage * Data compiled on other annual forestland * clearing Remarks:
Principal deficiencies and gaps in forest resources and land-use change:
Trees outside forests Data surveyed for trees outside forests: National, Sub- natl., not collected, don't know
Inventory of trees outside forests * Wood production from trees outside forests * Studies of urban trees *
Appendix 1: Questionnaire 167
Remarks:
Principal deficiencies and gaps in trees outside forests data collection:
Wood energy Data available/surveyed for wood energy:
National, Sub- natl, not collected, don't know
Wood-fuel consumption Sources/availability of wood-fuels Forests * Trees outside forests * Wood processing residues * Other (specify) Charcoal Production * Agencies collecting wood-fuels data: Agency Data
Appendix 1: Questionnaire 168
Methodologies for estimating national consumption:
Methodologies for estimating fuelwood availability:
Principal deficiencies and gaps in Wood Energy data collection:
Non-wood forest products
PLANTS: FOOD: Fruits, fresh, dried, preserved, prepared: Edible seeds/nuts: Culinary, aromatic herbs: Mushrooms (fresh or preserved): Ecotourism
There is no data or information about non-timber forest products for northern forest of Iran except one study to introduce the potential of NTFPs in this forests
Data collected
Appendix 1: Questionnaire 169
Forest plantations Data available/surveyed for forest plantations: National, Sub- national, not collected, don't know
Total area of plantations * Total area by species * Total area by age-class * Total area by ownership All the forest plantation are national Annual new planting * Seedling production * Annual plantation harvest (volume) * Mortality rates * Survey of diseases and pests * Survey of aerial impacts of fire * Plantation wood flow forecasts * Wood flows predict saw log/pulpwood diff. * Yield tables for major species * Surveys of non-forest species * Other plantation data collected:
Principal deficiencies and gaps in plantation information systems:
Appendix 1: Questionnaire 170
Wood supply potential Data available/surveyed necessary to assess wood supply:
National, Sub- natl., not collected, don't know
Natural forest area available for wood supply * Legally protected areas * Inaccessible areas (physical) * Uneconomic areas (location or yields) * Information differentiated by forest type? YES / NO Harvesting intensity by forest type * Cutting cycles by forest type * Recovered fibre production * Non-wood fibre production * Total annual harvest (volume) * Annual harvest by species (volume) * Forest impact assessments * Future wood supply modeling completed * Remarks:
Key deficiencies and gaps in assessing potential wood supplies:
Appendix 1: Questionnaire 171
Other data supporting sustainable forest management (from Criteria & Indicators Processes) Indicate whether data are collected in any form:
National, Sub- natl., not collected, don't know
Monitoring of population levels of rare or * endangered forest-dependent species Area of land with significant soil erosion * Area of forestland managed for protective functions * Monitoring of stream flow in forested * catchments Monitoring of levels of forest organic matter * Monitoring of water quality in forest areas * (pH, dissolved oxygen, etc) Preliminary work on estimating forest contribution * to carbon budgets Area of forestland managed for tourism * Area of forest land used for subsistence or * by forest dwellers Other data...................... Other data...................... Other data...................... Databases and referencing systems Forestry data handling capacities: Yes / No Formalised national Forest Information System * Centralised database for national forestry statistics * Integrated set of databases containing national forestry statistics * Discrete and unlinked set of databases *
Appendix 1: Questionnaire 172
Other
GIS based forest-mapping system * Formal information sharing network between institutions * Data collection processes standardised between states / provinces * Means of information dissemination: National Other Forestry Agency Agencies Publications * Website Other Remarks:
Key deficiencies and gaps in databases and referencing systems:
Appendix 1: Questionnaire 173
Analysis of forest data and information flow in forestry sector of Iran Name: Office: Position: Date:
1- What are the data on forest and natural resources that the office collects?
- What survey instruments are being used to collect such data? - Who collects the data? - After data gathering, where does the data go? - Do the recipients refer to the data from time to time? - Are there data and information gathered in the field that the recipients consider to be unnecessary / insignificant? If so, what are these data?
2- What are the types of report that department requires from the office? - What are the reports that the office prepares? - Who makes the report?
Appendix 1: Questionnaire 174
- When and where are the reports submitted? - Does the office submit the reports on time? If not, why? - How does the office communicate with other offices? 3- Has a system of communications been adapted? If so what are the advantages of the system? - With regard to forest and natural resources is there a database that the office maintains? - What are the problems encountered in terms of data and information management? How are these problems managed? - In terms of data and information management, what activities are conducted by the office? - How can other agencies / offices, institutions have access to the data and information? 4- Are any refresher courses / training events conducted for the technical employees of the office?
Appendix 1: Questionnaire 175
5- Are the current policies that the central office implements reflective of the state of the forest? - Does the office strictly implement / follow all policies of the organisation? Please furnish suggestions to improve the current situation in data and information flow in the Organisation Different staff and officers that could be interviewed from different units Forestry technical office Supervisors of forest management plans (control office) Forest harvesting and wood industry office Forest protection and conservation office Plantation and parks office Planning officers at different offices
List of those were interviewed Name Position Office
1 Ahi Supervisor of Forest management plan Provincial Forestry Technical Office (control
office)
2 J.Eshagh Supervisor of Forest management plan Provincial Forestry Technical Office(control
office)
3 Ahangaran Deputy of forest coservation and
protection office Provincial Conservation and Protection Office
4 Rezaii Forestry technical officer Provincial Forestry Technical office
5 M.Nazari Forest plantation and parks officer Provincial Forest Plantation and Parks Office
6 J.alikhah Forestry technical officer Provincial Forestry Technichal Office
7 M.Vahid Forestry technical officer Provincial Forestry Technichal Office
8 Gholizade Statistics and Planning officer Harvesting and Timber Industries Office
,Organizational Office
9 Ahlaii Harvesting and Timber industries
officer Harvesting and Timber Industries Office
,Organizational Office
10 J.latifi Harvesting and Timber industries
officer Harvesting and Timber Industries Office
,Organizational Office
11 Hosseinpor Statistics and planning officer Harvesting and Timber industries office,
Organizational office
12 Resaneh GIS officer Forestry Technichal Office , Organizational Office
13 Naiimhasani Statistics and Planning officer Plantation and Parks Office , Organizational Office
14 Hedayati Head of plantation and parks office Plantation and Parks Office, Organizational Office
Appendix 1: Questionnaire 176
These questions refer to policy and implementing and regulation on forest and natural resources, What are the responsibilities and accountabilities of each responsible office / unit? What, if any, are the conflicts in terms of responsibilities? Do assignments / reassignments of personnel occur? What is the reporting procedure? Is there an aggregation and disaggregation of data and information from the field offices to the higher levels of management and vice versa? These questions refer to data and information being surveyed / collected / monitored What are the key result areas or priority activities in your area of jurisdiction? What is the format of reports? Is there a central repository of files in the region, province or FRWO offices? These questions refer to direction of file along the processes concerned. What are the lines of communication in terms of reporting? What are the reporting procedures? What is the frequency of reporting? What is the general route of reports? How would you rate the present information system (in organization wide) in terms of: - Organizational set-up ----------------------------------- ( 1,2,3,4,5) - Accuracy-------------------------------------------------- ( 1,2,3,4,5) - Relevancy--------------------------------------------- --- ( 1,2,3,4,5) - Timeliness------------------------------------------- ---- ( 1,2,3,4,5) - Consistency--------------------------------------------- ( 1,2,3,4,5) - Ease of use ------------------------------------------------ ( 1,2,3,4,5) 1= very good 2= Good 3= Satisfactory 4= Fair 5= Not good
Appendix 2: Data dictionary 177
Appendix 2: Data dictionary
• In the Appendix2 are shown some examples of data dictionary to see complete data dictionary and entities of each table please see the database CD
List of variables (Data Dictionary) The list contains a description, where the data come from, where and how often they are used, how long it should be kept or updated, etc. A list like this is usually called a data dictionary.
In the data dictionary each variable is represented by: Fieldname (short name of variable or suggested systematic abbreviation for the variable, could be used in programming. Full name of variable as now used in the forms. Frequency at: variable can be processed by /at the following places/levels:
GNRO= GENERAL NATURAL RESOURCE OFFICE NRO = NATURAL RESOURCE OFFICE UNR = NATURAL RESOURCE UNITE CO = CONTROL OFFICE of FORESTRY PLAN PFO = PROVINCIAL FOREST OFFICER FS = FOREST SURVEYER OFO = ORGANIZATIONAL FOREST OFFICER OFCO= ORGANIZATIONAL FOREST CONSERVATION OFFICE
The places /levels where the variable is produced or used are marked by one of the following letters. The letters says at the same time how often this variable can occur: d = can occur every day w = can occur every week f = can occur every fortnight m = can occur every month q = can occur every quarter y = can occur every year o = once a year but immediately after completion of work t = two or more times per year, but immediately after completion of work p = permanent. This data normally doesn’t change. Years: the information should be kept ….years
Information occurs in forms: the variable is used or summed up in the forms mentioned. When no form is mentioned this is a suggested additional variable.
Type: type of variable N = Numeric
TE = TEXT
D = Date
Length: length of variable (field) in bytes. The first column gives the total length. Length should be calculated sparingly. But big enough to hold the longest number possible after having summed up all forests. Remarks are given for each group of variables if necessary.
Appendix 2: Data dictionary 178
Table: SURVEY
Table: SURV_PLOT
Table: SURV_REGENERATION
Table: SURV_SPECIES
Appendix 2: Data dictionary 179
Beziehungen
SURV_SPECIESSURV_REGENERATION
SURV_SPECIES SURV_REGENERATIO
SP_CD SURV_SPCD
Attributes: Nicht Erzwungen RelationshipType: 1:n
SURV_SPECIESSURV_TREE
SURV_SPECIES SURV_TREE SP_CD 1 ∞ SURV_SPCD
Attributes: Erzwungen RelationshipType: 1:n
SURV_SPECIESSURV_WITNESS TREES
SURV_SPECIES SURV_WITNESS SP_CD 1 ∞ SURV_SPCD
Attributes: Erzwungen RelationshipType: 1:n
Appendix 2: Data dictionary 180
Table: SURV_STAND STATUS
Table: SURV_TREE
Table: SURV_ WITNESS TREES
Appendix 2: Data dictionary 181
TABLE: FP_FELL_LICENCE GENERAL INFO
TABLE: FP_FELL_ LICENCE SPECIES INFO
Appendix 2: Data dictionary 182
TABLE: FP_PROCESS MARKING TREES GENERAL INFO
TABLE: FP_PROCESS MARKING TREES SPECIES INFO
Appendix 2: Data dictionary 183
TABLE: FP_PROCESS _RE_MEASURING GENERAL INFO
TABLE; FP_PROCESS _RE_MEASURING TREES SPECIES INFO