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Hayes, N.. (2000) Doing Psychological ResearchBuckingham: Open University Press. Pages 209-12 consider reliability in discourse analysis; pages 98-101 in psychometric tests and page 169 in qualitative research. Validity is examined throughout the book, so consult the index.

Oppenheim, AN. (1992) QuestionnaiTe Desig InteTviewing and Attitude MeasuTement, new edition. London: CasselL Oppenheim discusses the reliability of attitude questions, pages 147-8; of attitude scales, pages 163-6; of coding, pages 268; of questions, pages 144-8; and of scaled measures, pages 159-60, pages 162, 188 and 283. Validity is dealt with in even more detail, from pages 14763.. However, there is more, so once again, best to consult the index. mch K.F. (1998) lntroduction to Sodal Research: Quantitative and Qualita-

tive Approaches. London: Sage. In four pages (99-102), Punch provides a briefb\ery sound introduction to reliability and validity. Well wohreading.

Sapsford, R. and .Jupp, (1996) Data Collection and Analysis. London: Sage.

Scaife, .1. (24) 'Reliability, validity and credibility', Chapter 4 in C. Opie (ed.) Doing Educational Research: A Guide to First-time Researchers. Indon:Sage.

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(Questionnaires), which deals with general principles of desi.queson content, question wording, open and pre-coded questions and question order. This book is now more than 30 years old, but it is sIone of e best of its kind 1 have seen. If your library still has a copy, make a point of consulng

Oppenheim, A.N.. (1992) Que.stionnaire Design, Interviewing and Attitude Measurement (new edition). London: Cassell. Chapters 1, 2 and 3 pro-vide guidance about survey design and Chapters 7, 8 and 9 cover questionnaire planning, quesonwording, basic measurement theory-and much more. An excellent book to keep for reference.

Rose, D. and Sullivan, O. (1996) lntroducing Data Analysis for Social Scientis 2nd edn. Buckingham: Open University Press Chapter 3 (Preparing the data) considers operationalization, data preparation, coding for analysis, using 'open' and 'closed' questions and the principles of entering numeric data into a computer. Another very useful book to keep on hand for reference.

Youngman, M.B.. (1994) 'Designing and using questionnaires', in N. Bennett, R. Glatter and R. LevaCi (eds) (1994) lmproving Educational Management through Research and Consultancy. London: Paul Chapman Publishing, in association with The Open University. This is a revised version of M.B. Youngman (1982) Analysing Questionnaires, Rediguide 12, Guides in Educational Research, University of Nottingham, Redigu-ides. The author covers the impOItance of planning, question specifica-tion, questionnaire design, distribution and return. This is an excellent chapter and worth keeping as a permanent record and checklist. During his career at the University of Nottingham, Michael Youngman gave generous support to struggling research students, of which 1 was one. 1 believe few of us would have survived without him.

Bell, ]. (2 'Questionnaires' Chapter 10 in M. Coleman and A.R.].

Briggs (eds) Research Method in Educational Leadership and Management. London: Paul Chapman Publishing.

Bell, J. and Opie, C. (22) Learning from Research: GengMore from your Data. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Chapters 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4 discuss the planning and preparation involved in the production of 1e questionnaire carried out by Chan (2000) in his doctoral study of student evaluation of teaching etfectiveness. Part 2, incorporating Chapters 2.1-2.6 consider the preparation carried out by Fan (1998) as part of his Master's study of nursing students' perceptions of nursing education. Both are well worth consulting as examples of the way two very ditferent students approached the task of planning and designing questionnaires.

Blaxter, L., Hughes, C. and Tight, M. (2001) How Research; 2nd edn. Buckingham: Open University Press. Pages 161-6 give useful adceabout sampling.

Bowling, A. (2002) Research Methods in Health: Investigating Health and Health Services, 2nd edn. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Chapter 7

concenates on methods of sampling. Chapters 11 and 12 conideraspects of questionnaire design such as planning, piloting, question-naire layout, the covering letter, order of wording and checking the accuracy of responses. Chapter 14 introduces issues relating to the preparation of quantitative data for coding and analysis, all of which is useful.

Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2000) Research MeEducation, 5th edn. London and New York: Routledge Falmer. Chapter 4 (Sampling) and Chapter 5 (Validity and reliability) are well worth consulting.

Laws, S. with Harper, C. and Marcus, R. (2003) Research for Development: A Practical Guide. London: Sage. This book deals with sampling (pages 356-75) and quesonnaires (pages 30 10).

Moser, C.A. and Kalton, G. (1971) Survey Method in Social lnvestigation, 2nd e1. London: Heinemann.. In particul see Chapter 4 (Basic ideas of sampling), Chapter 11 (Mail questionnaires) and Chapter 13

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Bowling, A. (22) Research Methods in Health: lnvestigating Health and Health Services, 2nd edn.. Maidenhead: Open University Press.. Chapters 11 and 13 in Section IV discuss interviews and their response rates in quantitative research, including techniques of survey interviewing. Chapter 16 in Section V deals with unstructured interviews and focus groups in qualitative research.

Darlington, Y. and Scott, D.. (2002) Qualitative Research in Practice: Stories from the Field. Buckingham: Open University Press (originally published by Allen and Unwin Australia, 2002). Chapter 3 considers the various stages of in-depth interviewing.. It is perhaps unlikely you will have the time to become involved in such interviews but time is not the only pre-condition. As Darlington and Scott make clear, considerable skil1, experience and training are required. If you have these attributes and feel you would be interested in considering this approach, it would be advisable to consu1t your supervisor and to read this chapter before making up your mind..

Denscombe, M. (1998) le Good Research Guide (01 Small-scale Social Research Projects.. Buckingham: Open University Press. Chapter 7 'Inter-views' is an excellent chapter, including when it is appropriate to use interviews for researchrpes of research interview, group and focus interviews, interviewer effect, planning and recording the interview -and much more. Helpful checklists are provided. If you have very limited time, this is the chapter 1 would suggest you might wish to consult.

Hayes, N. (2000) Doing Psychological Research: Gathering and Analysing Data.. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Chapter 7 deals with inter-viewer effects, conducting interviews, stages of interview research and ethical issues in interview research.

152

Keats, D.M. (20) Interviewing: A Practical Guide for Students and Prsonals. Buckingham: Open University Press. Keats considers the use of interviews in research, and in partilar issues involved in interviewing young children, the elderly and people from ethnic communities.

Kitzinger, .1. and Barbour, R.S. (1999) 'Introduction to the challenge and promise of focus groups', in R.S" Barbour and J. Kitzinger )Developing Focus Group Research: Politics, Theory and Practice. London: Sage.

May, T. (2001) Social Research: Issues, Methods and Process, 3rd edn. Buck-ingham: Open University Press.ls book is Pticularly useful in a number of ways, pailarly Chapter 6 'Interviewing: methods and process' which provides a review of different types of interview in social research, issues in interviewing and the analysis of intervie\vs. The section on group and focus interviews is also helpful. Oliver (2003) le Student~s Guide to Research Ethics. Maidenhead: Open

University Press. Pages 12-16 discuss informed consent and situations where engaging in research may be ethically undesirable. Chapter 3 'Research and the respondent: ethical issues during e research' con-siders the ethics of tape-recording interviews and the right of respond-ents to end involvement in the research. These few exacts (and much more) are well worth consulting.

Wellington, .J,J. (1996) Methods and Issues in Educational Research. Uni-versity of Sheffield Division of Education: USDE papers in Education. Pages 59-63 deal with focus groups, consider what makes them rather different from group interviews and gives three short examples of various uses of focus groups.

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Bowling, A. (20.0.2) Research Methods in Health: Investigating Health and Health Servi5 2nd edn. Maidenhead: Open University Press.. Ann Bowling, writing about the use of diaries with patients, refers to two major diary exercises relating to a trial of asthma treatments. See Hyland, M..E and Crocker, GR. (1995) 'Validation of an asthma q).lality of ife diary in a clinical tria l'.. Thorax , 50.: 724-30.. AIso, Hyland, M..E (1996) 'Diary assessments of quality of life', Quality of Life New51etter, 16:8-9

Burgess, R. G.. (1994) Chapter 21, 'On diaries and diary keeping', in N.. Bennett, R Glatter and R LevaCi (eds) Improving Edutional Management through Research and COn5ultancy.. London: Paul Chapman Publishing, in association with The Open University ln this chapter, Burgess discusses the use of logs, diaries and journals, and includes examples of the supply teacher project considered in this chapter and also of an interactive video use diary.. He includes ethical questions relating to intrusion into the lives of respondents

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HaIt, E" and Bond, M., (1995) Action Research for Health and Social Care: A Guide to Practice.. Buckingham: Open University Press , Pages 201-4 give two extracts from diary studies, one relating to outpatients' clinic experiences; the second an extract from a log

Hayes, N (2000) Doir Psychological Research: Gathering and Analysing Data.. Buckingham: Open University Press. Chapter 9, 'Analysing documents' (pp" 147-55), gives useful guidance about the advantages, disadvantages, design and analysis of diary studies. Worth consulting.

Morrison, M., (2002) Chapter 13, 'Using diaries in research', in M Colemanand AR.J Briggs (eds) Research Methods in Educational Leadership and Managemen t. London: Paul Chapman Pub1ishing. This chapter provides examples of extracts from several diaries and includes sections on researchers' and research informants' diaries, the design and analysis of diaries and combining diaries with interviews. Sutherland and Cooper~ C.L (2003) De-stressing Doctors: A Sel

management Guide. London: Butterworth Heinemann ..

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Bowling, A,. (2002) Research Methods in Health: lnvestigating Health and Health Servi5 2nd edu.. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Chapter 25, 'Unstructured and structured observational studies', provides useful information about paicipant obseIvation; gaining access; establishing validity and reliability (reducing observer bias); structured and unstructured observations; and analysis and categorization of data.

174

Page 375 gives a useful summary of e main points covered in the chapter.

Darlington, Y. and Scott, D. (2002) Qualitative Research n actce: Stories from the Feld. Maidenhead: Open University Press. First published in 2002 by Allen and Unwin in Australia. Chapter 4, 'Observation', is helpful and well worth consulting. The authors provide guidance about the observation process, including useful reminders about the ethics of observation. This chapter also includes discussions with two researchers who used observation in conjunction with various other methods of data collection.

Denscombe, M. (2003) le Good Research Guide, 2nd edn. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Chapter 11, 'Observation', of the second edition of this excellent book is well worth consulting. Denscombe covers the advantages and disadvantages of systematic observationi observation schedulesi rpes of events and behaviour to be recordedi suitability for observationi samplingi the advantages and disadvantages of participant observationi making field notes (and the dangers of field work) and ethics. Two useful checklists are provided, one concerned with observation schedules and the other a general checklist dealing withpaicipant observation.

May, T.. (2001) Sodal Research: Issues, Methods and Process, 3rd edn. Buck-ingham: Open University Press.. Chapter 7, 'Pacipant obseon:perspectives and practice', pages 146-74, deals with the practice of social research (the researcher's IOle, access, field notes)i the analysis of observationsi and issues in participant observation.

Moyles, .J. (2'2) 'Observation as a research tool', in M. Coleman and R.E Briggs (eds) Research Methods in Educatonal Leadershp and Manage-ment. London: Paul Chapman Publishing.

Punch, K.F. (1998) Introducton to Sodal Research: Quantitative and Qualita-tive Approaches. London: Sage Publishing. Pages 184-90 consider struc-tured and unstructured observation, recording observational data, ethnographic observation and participant observation.

Williams, G.L. (1994) 'ObseIring and recording meetings', in N. Bennett, R. Glaer and R. Levaci (eds) lmproving Educational Management through Research and Consultancy. London: Paul Chapman Publishing. Chapter 22 is thorough and helpful. Williams discusses content and process observations, decision-making processes and problem solving. He also includes several obselvation forms whic