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( = crossed the bridge by running) (VERB + PREPOSITION)b. They run ov er the cat.( = knocked down and passed over) (PHRASAL VERB) (Leech andSvartvik 1975: 264)

4 Since teachers and/or course books usually give definitions of phrasalverbs, students will stick to and use the latinate definition rather than theAnglo-Saxon phrasal verb, especially if it is a one-word definition (e.g.pick up = receive). The latinate word is easier to learn, particularly if it isrelated to a word in the students own language, and seems to make moresense.5 The particle seems random. A teacher recycling recently learnedvocabulary is quite likely to ask Can anyone give me a phrasal verbmeaning arr ive starting with turn? Students may then shout out the firstparticle which comes into their heads and this will continue until one ofthem hits the jackpot with up.In addition, the following problems may also arise:6 There is often some confusion, despite the example sentences given inthe exercises, as to whether the verb is intransitive (die away) or transitive(take up). With transitive phrasal verbs it is necessary to ascertainwhether the particle can be separated from the verb (call your dog off) ornot (tak e i n lodgers).7 Register/appropriacy. With reference to point 4 above, students shouldbe aware of the fact that direct equivalents of phrasal verbs do not alwaysexist. Im done i n would be used in a different social context from Imexhausted. The British Government recently distr ibuted leaflets onAIDS to houses throughout the country. It is unlikely to have beenreported as having given them out (the equivalent given in Coles andLord). Similarly, My radio picks up America has connotations of diffi-culty which the equivalent receive lacks.8 The students ability to understand and use phrasal verbs is, of course,heavily influenced by their knowledge of their own language. The impli-cations of L1 interference with regard to prepositions and particles are farreaching. It is an enormous area which space allows me to mention onlybriefly, though it is a consideration hovering in the background through-out this article. The problem is that interference is not merely linguistic,but conceptual. Concepts like up and down, to and from, are cultur-ally variable. To give two brief and simple examples, the Modern Greekpreposition sto could mean in, on, at, or to, depending on the con-text. In Greece, radios are not turned up or down as in England andother English-speaking countries. Instead they are opened orclosed - a different concept altogether. Teachers should always beaware that what is obviously up, for example, to them may not be soobviously up to their students,

How are phrasal Learners, then, often see phrasal verbs as comprising a verb and averbs formed? randomly interchangeable particle. But this is clearly not how language

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functions. New phrasal verbs are constantly being invented, especially inslang (e.g. boogie on down) and in scientific and technical areas (e.g. spindown a sample) and obviously they are not invented randomly. It is farmore probable that whichever person or group of persons first coins thenew combination of verb and particle does so by drawing on their ownunconscious knowledge of how such combinations are used.Often, if not always, it seems that new combinations are formed byanalogy with existing phrasal verbs. When this is the case, it is interestingthat it is often the verb which is new while the particle remainsunchanged. For example, hold on and hang on ( = wait a minute) seeman obvious pair. If we add the American wa i t n we can see the analogousrelationship clearly, though which verb came first is, of course, debatable.

Relevance of the That the particle is integral to the meaning of the phrasal verb and in someparticle cases carries more weight of meaning than the verb can be seen from a

slightly more earthy example, if I tell somebody to bog off, that person iswell aware that what I am saying has nothing to do with bogs and every-thing to do with beating a retreat. In other words, the main communi-cative function of this particular phrasal verb is carried by the particle.Whatever verb I put before it merely conveys the depth of my feelings (ordepravity).In other examples, the particle adds little to the communicative value ofthe verb. You can hang your coat here is only marginally different fromYou can hang your coat up here. But this is not to say that up is totallyirrelevant - it still carries some meaning. (The difference between hangand hang up may be argued over, but nobody could deny that there is adifference - conceptual and situational - however slight. Consider whichyou would use when hanging (up) a coat on a hanger, a clothes line, theback of a chair, a hook, etc.) The point is that in all phrasal verbs the par-ticle carries some meaning. In many, it carries most of the meaning.

Meaning of the That said, it is legitimate to ask what exactly the particle means. If phrasalparticle verbs are formed by analogy with each other or with other adverbial orprepositional phrases, then it should be possible to isolate areas of mean-

ing by finding the connections between them.Warnings Some warnings should be heeded at this point. Firstly, the meaning of the

adverbial particle is not always synonymous with the corresponding pre-position. Up does not always mean in an upward direction as in I u t myhand up. Secondly, some phrasal verbs have through the passage of timebecome specialized. Get up is used largely to refer to getting out of bed.Following the usual pattern of semantic change, it is often the most com-monly used verbs which become most localized, and therefore most idio-matic, in their meaning. This need not pose a problem when it comes toisolating the meaning of the particle. Thirdly, however, some havebecome so specialized that it is difficult or impossible to identify theirorigin. Put up w i t h ( = tolerate) would be an example of this. Neverthe-less, these highly idiomatic examples form a small minority, and thoseRi chard Si de

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where the particle apparently fits no category at all are thankfully few andfar between.

Dictionary Initially, the task of finding the meaning of a particle can be done simplydefinitions by looking it up in a dictionary. A critical approach, however, is needed if

we are not to get bogged down in unnecessary detail.The Oxford Adv anced Learner s Di ct ionary (OA LD ) third edition(1974), which is good in this area, lists six main definitions of off as anadverbial particle. Alexanders Longman Engl ish Grammar (1988), alsovery good on phrasal verbs, lists four. Col l i ns Cobui l d Di ct ionary (1987)gets confused or confusing, muddling prepositions and adverbial particlestogether and coming up with 10 or 11 different meanings. All three booksinstruct the user to look under verb for special meanings. They can alsoget very specific. OALD for off gives one meaning as behind or at theside(s) of a stage: Noises off, e.g. as a stage direction in a printed play.Obviously dictionaries and practising teachers often have different prior-ities and it is unfair to criticize dictionaries for not doing something whichis not their purpose in the first place. But there is one particular weaknessI would draw attention to. Cobui ld gives one definition of off as to indi-cate that something which has moved towards a surface and touched itmoves away from it again. As examples, it gives bounced off and reflectedoff. Now surely much, if not all, of this definition is performed by the verbrather than the particle. Omit off from both examples and the definitionstill stands. Getting distracted by the verb like this when trying to definethe particle is easily done. Alexander too, it seems, has fallen into thetrap. For up he gives confining/fastening/mending etc. e.g. board (a w i n-dow ) up, but t on (a coat) up, close sth up, l ock sth up, st ick st h up, pack sthup. Again, omit up from the examples and the definition remains valid.

Meanings of off, The following sections give some indication of how these particles work.out, and up I should add that it is sometimes necessary to think laterally, meta-

phorically, or even pictorially: this, it seems to me, is often the way inwhich phrasal verbs work.

Off General definition: i ndi cati ng di stance i n t ime or space, depart ure,removal, disconnection, separation. (Although this definition may seemlong-winded, in fact all the words belong to the same lexical field and dif-fer only in collocation and connotation.)The following examples should make this clear:

Strain off the liquid = removal, separationThe area was fenced off = separation (from surrounding area)The plane took off = departureIve been cut off = disconnection (telephone)Its time to knock off= departure (from work)Warn sb off = distance in spaceThe meeting was put off= distance in timeCome and see me off = departure, separation

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This a small sample taken from a much longer list but it illustrates thebasic principle. Most phrasal verbs with off fit into this pattern. Cut off forexample works in the same way as ring off and sw it ch off . Knock off , layoff , tak e some time off, ease off, also form a set, and so on.Some ambiguous or (initially) obscure examples highlight the nature ofthese phrasal verbs:- You shoul d ease off a bit could be by analogy with taking ones foot off a

car accelerator.- He w as et off ( = allowed to go free) becomes clear when one remem-

bers the idiom to be let off the hook.- Cheesed off, brow ned off, etc. perhaps indicate a feeling of emotional

separation from the immediate environment.- One common set (br ing sth off, they pulled off the deal, my plan cameoff, etc.) have the general meaning of succeed. However, the patternbecomes clear if we consider the removal from a planning stage into thearea of actual events. Moreover, the phrase his busi ness reall y t ook of fcould be by analogy with an aeroplane taking off.From the lists I have compiled, only four examples do not fit easily intothis pattern (though there may be some others I have missed).

He tried to buy me offStop show ing offYou are always te l l ing me offI must dash off a letter

Personally I can find no convincing place for these within the overall defi-nition, though I know others who have tried and explained them to theirown satisfaction (see below).

Ou t Ou t as a particle is less straightforward than off, in that a single overallmeaning cannot be formulated. Instead, there are two different areas ofmeaning. On the other hand, it seems that there are no exceptions to thetwo categories.1 General definition: i nt o he open, aw ay rom, not n or at a l ace, remo-va l ; (often contrasted with in). This first category may become clearer ifwe split it into two sub-categories: obvious and metaphorical. Obviousexamples would include:

The prisoners broke outThe union members w alk ed out ( = went on strike)They let the secret outIve put my hip outYouve mi ssed out my name

More metaphorical examples would include:Theyve fal len outLook/mind/watch outHe passed out ( = fainted)Speak out ( = make views public)

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His work stands out ( = is above average)Ive la id out a lot of money ( = spent)I can just make him out ( = distinguish him)Lets act out the sceneHave I to spell it out?

Some further connections can be made from this list.- all en out can be contrasted with fal len in ove;- peak out forms an instructive contrast with speak up (see below);- aid out could be connected with the phrase out of pocket;- mak e out, stand out, and poin t out obviously form a set, the idea being

that a particular person or thing is distinguished (set apart from) thesurroundings. I cant make him out ( = understand him) is a psycho-logical extension of this idea: a metaphor of a metaphor, as it were;

- ct out seems to indicate move from the dark area of imagination intothe open area of action.

2 General definition: t horoughly l t o complet ion (often indicating exhaus-tion/extinction). Examples of the second category of meaning wouldinclude:

Prices bottomed outThe fire burned outWeve run out of sugarHow did things tu rn out? ( = finish)Well carry out a testHe cleaned me out (= took all my money)Fi l l this form out ( = complete it)Argue it out ( = reach a conclusion)Im t ir ed outHear me outTurn the lights out

Some examples may belong to both categories:- ot t om out could indicate, graphically, that prices have come out of

their nose dive;- l eaned me out can be compared with la id out (and paid out) ;- rgue out (and work out a problem) could be in the same area as act outabove - in this case, from confusion into clarity.

Up Up, being one of the most commonly used particles, is also one of themost complex. Its areas of meaning can be defined as follows:1 General definition: i n an upw ards dir ect ion. I ncreasing, grow i ng,improv i ng, (orpreventi ng from doi ng t he opposi t e of t hese). The first partof this definition may be viewed as more literal, the second part as a moremetaphorical extension. Examples would include the following:

B low up a balloonI was born and brought up hereCheer up!

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She hung up ( = put the phone down)I cant keep upBusiness is look i ng up ( = improving)Youd better cough up ( = pay)

- ung up at first seems strange until one remembers what old fashionedtelephones looked like;- cough up is highly idiomatic. As a child, if I choked on my food, myfather would thump me on the back and cheerfully cry Cough it up, itmay be half a dollar! A peculiar admonition to be sure but doubtlessthe origin of this phrasal verb.

2 General definition: st opping/complet ion of act; f inal i t y. Exampleswould include the following:

We ended up in a fieldWere sell i ng up ( = sell everything)We must set t l e up ( = pay the bill)Shut up!The building was b lown up ( = destroyed by explosion)Hes been la i d up this week ( = in bed)They beat him up

- low up and l ay up may also be categorized under the first definition.Explosive blasts usually go upwards. If you are laid up, you are puttingyour feet up in bed.

3 General definition: for a purpose. This definition is Alexanders (1988:339). I must confess I dont like it much as, instinctively, it doesnt seem tofit into the general idea of up. However, I cannot think of any alternativefor these examples:

Start a car upM easure sb up (for a dress)Learn sth up (for a test)Cal l up your mother ( = phone her)

With up there are also a number of awkward examples which can only becategorized, if at all, with difficulty. While some people may be happywith draw up (a document), bring up (a topic for discussion), or act up( = behave badly), other examples such as turn up ( = arrive), look sth up(in a dictionary), fo l low up ( = investigate), and ow n up ( = confess)seem like square pegs in round holes. At least we can say that suchexamples form only a small minority.

Implications for I think enough has been said to indicate that the traditional approach out-the classroom lined at the beginning of this article is inadequate, either in that it fails to

create learnable patterns, or in that it creates patterns of the wrong kind.The analogous nature of phrasal verbs means that single examples shouldnever be taught in isolation if it can possibly be avoided. Connectionsshould always be made in order to establish their context within the lan-guage, to show they are meaningfully idiomatic rather than meaninglessly

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random. And, more often than not, this means grouping phrasal verbstogether according to the particle rather than the verb. Teachers mightconsider, for example, presenting these groupings together:- elt up, shut up, cl am up, hush up, dry up.- et up, ease up, pul l up, draw up, gi ve up.- i x up, square up, pal up, set t l e up.- at up, dr ink up, f in i sh up.- i l l out, pad out, r esh out.- l ack out, pass out .- sk out , go out, come out.- ag out, lak e out, give out.

Contextualization A word needs to be added here on contextualization. It has long beenrecognized that the learning of vocabulary is far more effective, not tomention meaningful, if it is seen and understood in context and not just inlong lists of unrelated words. Phrasal verbs are no exception to this rule;indeed, contextualization is especially important when considering theproblem of word order. Ttofi (1983) has at least taken this to heart, look-ing at each phrasal verb as it arises naturally within a text. The problem isthat all his examples together make a very mixed bag indeed, having onthe whole no semantic connection with each other. This, of course, is to acertain extent inevitable if authentic texts are used, but it doesnt meanthat one has to settle for chaos. Just as we try to group other items ofvocabulary together into semantic fields (walk, stagger, stumble, etc.) sowe must try to find groups for phrasal verbs. A balance must be struckbetween presenting phrasal verbs in their context within a text on the onehand, and on the other in presenting them in their overall linguistic con-text with each other: in other words, in lists.

What students Students could perhaps preserve a section of their vocabulary notebookscan do for phrasal verbs, a page for each particle, say, to which each newexample could be added as it occurs during the course. Much profitable

discussion can arise from students making a decision as to which categoryof each particle a particular phrasal verb belongs, especially with suchambiguous examples as bl ow up (see above).To a certain extent, it may not matter how the students categorize as longas connections are made. While some of the discussion in this article maybe linguistically suspect in that it contains an element of speculation,pedagogically this does not matter, since the students own efforts tocreate meaningful patterns are in themselves aids to memory. In manycases, the connections may be personal or idiosyncratic, but as long as thestudent does not wander too far away from the basic meanings, this againdoes not matter very much.Finally, let me mention two students books currently available which gosome way towards this approach. Hugh Gethins Grammar in Context(1983) lists phrasal verbs according to the particle but does not differen-tiate between different meanings of each one. Roy Kingsburys LongmanFirst Cert i fi cat e Coursehook (1983) starts off listing meanings of particles,Phr asal erbs: sort i ng hem out 151

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but soon reverts to the old method. I have not found any other commonlyavailable teaching materials which concentrate on the particle. Theassumption that they are random seems to be widespread. I hope that it issoon realized that this assumption is false.Received February 1989

ReferencesAlexander, L. G. 1988. Longman English Grammar.London: Longman.Coles, D. and B. Lord. 1976. Open Road (Book 4 inthe Access to English series). Oxford: Oxford Uni-

versity Press.Collins Cobuild English Language Dictionary. 1987.

London: Collins.Gethin, H. 1983. Grammar in Context. London:

Collins.Kingsbury, R. 1983. Longman First CertificateCoursebook. London: Longman.Leech, G. and J. Svartvik. 1975. A Communicative

Grammar of English. London: Longman.OConnell, S. 1987. Focus on First Certificate.

London: Collins.

Hornby, A. S. 1974. (3rd edn) Oxford AdvancedLearners Dictionary of Current English. Oxford:Oxford University Press.

Ttofi, C. 1983. Reading comprehension. London:Macmillan.

The authorRichard Side holds a postgraduate Certificate inEnglish and Drama, and the Royal Society of ArtsDiploma in the Teaching of English as a Foreign Lan-guage to Adults. He has taught in Africa, the UK,and Greece, where he was involved with teachertraining and materials writing. He now works at theEckersley School of English in Oxford, England, andis currently writing materials for advanced students.

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