從 ESP的學科本質看 ESP的研究內容與方法

Yu-Ying Chang張玉櫻

元智大學應外系yymeichu@gmail.com

北區英語教學資源中心「職場英文的專業英文師資培訓─研究法 」專題

2011.10.21

Why is ESP needed?

1. The trend of English as lingua frança (ELF) (science, technology, academia, business, …)

2. More various purposes of using English in the real-world more varieties of English used

3. English-medium education in non-native English-speaking countries (EAP)

4. Students’ complaints about their required English language courses at tertiary level(Swales, 1988; Dudley-Evans and St John, 1998)

5. Changing perspectives in language teaching (Bhatia, 2007)

Traditional Recent

Context general specific

Target classroom real world

Discourse idealized complex and dynamic

Inspiration text linguistics socio-cognitive

Outcome single literacy multiple literacies

Major issues in language teaching

1. Teaching language for a purpose 2. Text vs. Context -realities of the world of work

-language competence v. professional expertise *understanding of cultures *ethnic culture, professional culture, institutional culture3. Teaching vs. Analysis “Discourse awareness always precedes discourse

acquisition.” (John Swales) *training students as ethnographers and analyzers (Ann Johns)

Classification of ESP 1

Definitions of ESP

ESP Definition 1

Hutchinson and Waters (1987)

● ESP must be seen as an approach rather than a product.

● The foundation of ESP “needs”

- “ Why does this learner need to learn a foreign language?”

-important issues: learners, language required,

the learning context

ESP Definition 1

Hutchinson and Waters (1987)● ESP is not only a matter of teaching “specialized

varieties” of English. -characteristics of special English should not obscure the far larger area of common ground that underlies all English use.

● ESP is not only a matter of special words and grammar.

There is much more to communication than just the surface features.

ESP Definition 1

● ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner’s reason for learning.

● ESP is an approach to language learning which is based on learner need.

ESP Definition 2

Streven (1988)

● absolute characteristics of ESP

● variable characteristics of ESP

ESP Definition 2

●Absolute characteristics of ESP

-designed to meet specified needs of the learner

-related in content (that is, in its themes and topics) to particular disciplines, occupations and activities

-centered on language appropriate to those activities in syntax, lexis, discourse, semantics, and son on, and analysis of the discourse

-in contrast with ‘General English”

ESP Definition 2

● Variable characteristics of ESP

-may be restricted as to the learning skills to be

learned (for example, reading only)

-may not be taught according to any pre-ordained

methodology

ESP Definition 3

Robinson (1991)

● Criterial features

-ESP is normally goal-directed.

-ESP courses develop from a needs analysis, which ‘aims to specify as closely as possible what exactly it is that students have to do through the medium of English (Robinson 1991:3)’.

● ESP courses are often taught to adults in homogeneous classes in terms of the work or specialist studies that the students are involved in.

ESP Definition 3

Robinson (1991)

● Variable features

-ESP courses are generally constrained by limited

time period (with clearly specified time period

for the course)

*This means objectives and their realization

related to the time available should be closely

specified.

*Collaboration and negotiation among all those

involved with the course are important

(organizers, teachers, sponsors, and students)

ESP Definition 4

Dudley-Evans and St John (1998: 4-5)

●Absolute characteristics of ESP

-ESP is designed to meet specific needs of the

learner;

-ESP makes use of the underlying methodology

and activities of the disciplines it serves;

-ESP is centered on the language (grammar, lexis,

register), skills, discourse and genres appropriate

to these activities.

ESP Definition 4Dudley-Evans and St John (1998: 4-5)● Variable characteristics of ESP

-ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines;

-ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of general English;

-ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, whether at a tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation. It could however be used for learners at secondary school level;

ESP Definition 4

-ESP is generally designed for intermediate or

advanced students. Most ESP courses assume

basic knowledge of the language system, but it

can be used with beginners.

Continuum of ELT course types

Classification of ESP 2

TESOL vs. ESP practices

1. Teaching goals:

TESOL Teaching English skills for general communication purposes ESP Teaching English skills for professional, vocational and other specific purposes; very goal-directed (students study English with very specific goals)

“Tell me what you need English for and

I will tell you the English that you need.”

• For example:

-English for Science and Technology (EST)

-English for Academic Purposes (EAP)

-English for Business Purposes (EBP)

-English for Medical Purposes

-English for Legal Purposes

-English for Tourism…

2. Instruction time allowed for the achievement of the teaching goals:

TESOL Several years of instruction based on a long-term curriculum.

ESP “to-the-point” teaching, “quick fix” (often intensive courses)

* objectives should be closely specified * a very clearly specified time period for the course * collaboration and negotiation among all those involved with the course: organizers, teachers, sponsors, students…

3. Commercial teaching materials available

TESOL Abundant

ESP Relatively scarce (Most of the time, none

exists.)

*Within ESP, the largest sector for

published materials is now that of Business

English.

4. ESP courses are based on need analyses

-Needs analysis aims to specify as closely as possible

what exactly it is that students have to do through the

medium of English (Robinson, 1991: 3)

-The important role of expert informants in both ESP

practices and research

*ESP teaching is flexible and tailored to individual or

group needs as they arise.

5. Different emphases in teacher training -Both require basic pedagogical training.

-But, ESP emphasizes more on applied linguistic training, especially different analysis skills of language

6. Target students TESOL from children to adults

ESP adult learners, often in tertiary education

*Threshold debate – learner’s general English proficiency level before ESP courses

ESP research and practices

• 3 cores in ESP research and practices

-Needs analysis

-Analysis of ESP discourse at various levels

-Pedagogical aspects

A cyclic procedure of ESP research and practice

A cyclic procedure of ESP research and practice

A cyclic procedure of ESP research and practice

1. Needs Analysis

2. Construction of special English corpus:

Collecting relevant and useful ESP samples (written and/or spoken)

3. Analysis of ESP discourse at various levels ESP as a multi-disciplinary activity

-Lexico-syntactic analysis -Discourse analysis including text analysis, register analysis, genre analysis, narrative analysis, frame analysis -Sociolinguistics -Functional grammar -Pragmatics -Corpus linguistics -Rhetoric/contrastive rhetoric

• Theories or research methods from other fields might also be relevant:

• For example, in the case of English for Academic Purposes:

-Social studies of science/knowledge

-Rhetoric and composition studies

-Information science

-Higher education

• For example, in the case of English for Business Purposes:

-Professional communication

-Workplace English

-Management

-Organizational theories

-Marketing

4. Teaching materials development:

-Pedagogical aspects

-Applied linguistics aspects

*carrier content vs. real content

*authentic materials vs. authentic tasks (activities)

5. Experimenting teaching methods and teaching materials in ESP classrooms

6. Assessment

-learner performance assessment

-course evaluation

-evaluation of the teaching materials designed

7. Revision

Developments of ESP 1 -- EAP

Trends in English for Academic Purposes

1. Earleir focus (1960s): register analysis

-focus on EAP (starting from English for Science and Technology) written discourse

2. In the early days, the ESP specialist worked like a linguist

-doing detailed linguistic analyses of terminology/vocabulary and sentence grammar (e.g the distribution of different tenses, the use of passive voice)

-then, taught the results to their students

focus only on language form

Developments of ESP Research 1 -- EAP

4. In the 1970s, rhetorical and discourse analysis

-relating language form to language function (use)

-not only what language is used, but also how and why

-making “ use” the main criterion for the selection of ESP teaching materials

5. In the 1970s, analysis of study skills

-In addition to language work, there is a need to address the thought processes that underpin language use.

6. In the 1970s, needs analysis

-Questionnaires about students’ present or future needs were devised.

7. In the 1990s, genre approach to ESP language study and teaching

8. In the 2000s, three major developments:

(a) The socio-cultural, real-world contexts of ESP users have been taken on board:

-different levels of analysis of ESP discourse (in-depth analysis, thick description)

-multiple perspectives and triangulation in needs analysis (vs. earlier only questionnaires)

collabaration with the client is crucial

important role of expert informants

(b) Spoken language has entered ESP

-ESP tradition built around written text:

[Needs of first reading, then writing (especially in

EAP) have taken priority.]

-But in many fields, spoken interaction is central from

the start: aviation, tourism, nursing etc.

-Now in other fields (EAP, business,) speaking has

also become very important.

-Spoken language is not writing converted into

speech.

(c) ESP + (Corpus linguistics) + CALL

Developments of ESP 2 -- EOPTrends in English for Occupational Purposes1. Earleir focus (1960s-early 1970s): -on written discourse -Early commercial correspondence courses taught standard letter

formats for busniess transactions. -underlying construct: (a) model letters to copy, (b) specialized vocabulary (c) the standard, formal cliched phrases -underlying assumption: Learners had a good grasp of language forms; what was needed

were words and epressions that occurred in work situations. -using authentic texts

Developments of ESP 2 -- EOP

2. Mid-1970s to the 1980s: -switched more and more to spoken interactions -grammatical construct functional construct -teaching materials based on language functions (e.g.,

greeting, making arrangements, agreeing and disagreeing)

3. The Bellcrest File (a video-based course book by Andy Drummond first published in 1972) marked the beginning of approaches to the four skills.

4. Early1980s: materials that adopted the business studies approach of case studies (Agenda by Cotton and Owen, 1980)

5. Mid-1980s: materials based on business communication situations (e.g., meetings, telephone conversations, presentations)

--Longman Business English Skills Series

Up to the mid-1980s, attention was primarily on language and the teaching of language.

6. Starting from late 1980s, the focus began to shift to adopt tenets of business world

-interface between language and behavioral skills

-language teaching needs to take on board the

business context within which communication

takes place.

-technology development

ESBP research in the last two decades

1. Two trends have become increasingly important in the area of English for Specific Business Purposes (ESBP):

(a) from the de-contextualized analysis of the language

used in isolated written texts or speech events

to contextualized analysis of communicative genres

(b) a shift in focus from language skills as the driving force

behind ESBP research to an increasing concern with

identifying communication strategies that can be associated

with effective communication in business, regardless of

whether the speaker/writer is a native or non-native speaker

( English as a lingua franca, ELF)

ESBP research in the last two decades

2. Four major communicative genres investigated

-negotiations

-meetings

-e-mails

-business letters

3. Mismatch between research and materials development in business discourse

ESP teachers

● What kind of person?

● There is no single model for ESP teacher.

● Conflicting viewpoints about the qualifications and capabilities needed by the ESP teacher and the tasks which the teacher is expected to perform:

- How much should the ESP teacher know of

the students’ specialism?

The roles of ESP teachers

1. The ESP practitioner as teacher

a. Mediator

b. classroom organizer

c. Consultant

d. facilitator – guiding observation

2. The ESP practitioner as course designer and materials provider

3. The ESP practitioner as researcher

4. The ESP practitioner as collaborator

--cooperation, collaboration, team teaching

5. The ESP practitioner as evaluator

Major Teaching Methods for ESP

1. Skill-based approach

2. Task-based approach

3. Content-based approach

4. Project-based approach

5. Case studies

6. Genre approach