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11주차. Compounds
지난강의
• Derivation vs. inflection • Inflection, grammatical words, lexemes • Grammatical meanings of inflection - number, person, tense and aspect,
gender and noun class, case, voice, mood/modality
• Inflection in English • Irregular inflection • Why English has so little inflection?
학습내용
• Compounds, phrasal words, lexicalized phrases
• The internal structure of compounds • The right-hand HEAD rule • Common patterns of compounding
학습내용
• Types of compounds - endocentric, exocentric, copulative
compounds - root (= primary), synthetic
(= verbal or secondary) compounds - compound nouns, compound
adjectives, compound verbs - neoclassical compounds
• Compound stress
11주차. Compounds
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• biology, electroscopy; biochemistry, astrophysics
• parks commissioner, systems analyst • over-the-fence gossip, off-the-rack dress • gossip over the fence, dress off the rack
Which syntactic units comprise a compound?
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- The left-hand member of a compound must be a root, a word, or a phrase.
- The right-hand member must be a root or a word; it cannot be a phrase.
Which syntactic units comprise a compound?
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• A phrasal compounds is a word that is made up of a phrase as its first element and a noun as its second element. - stuff-blowing-up effects - bikini-girls-in-trouble genre - comic-book-and-science-fiction fans
Phrasal compounds
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• It is impossible to insert a modifying word in-between the phrase and the HEAD of the compound. - exciting stuff-blowing-up effects - *stuff-blowing-up exciting effects
(*girl pretty friend)
Phrasal compounds
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• Even a whole sentence can take up the left-hand position. - God-is-dead theology
Phrasal compounds
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(1) jack-in-the-box (cf. book on the shelf) (2) good-for-nothing, dyed-in-the-wool
Phrasal words
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• What are the internal structures of (1) and (2)?
• The right-hand member is a phrase: [[jack] [in the box]], [[good][for nothing]] , [[dyed][in the wool]] → phrase-like
Phrasal words
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• What is the plural form of (1)?
• The plural form is marked on the whole expression: jack-in-the-boxes, not *jacks-in-the-box. (cf. [books on the shelf]NP) → word-like
Phrasal words
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• (2) can act like an adjective: your good-for-nothing husband, a dyed-in-the-wool Republican → word-like
• These are phrasal words.
Phrasal words
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• brother-in-law, grant-in-aid
• What is the internal structure? • The right-hand member is a phrase:
[[brother] [in law]] → phrase-like
Lexicalized phrases
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• What is the plural form?
• The plural form is marked on the head noun, not on the whole expression: brothers-in-law, not *brother-in-laws (cf. [books on the shelf]NP) → phrase-like
Lexicalized phrases
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• But still, brother-in-law is idiosyncratic (or unpredictable) in meaning, and hence, is a lexical item.
• Thus, brother-in-law is a lexicalized phrase.
Lexicalized phrases
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- Exercise 6.1, Plag, p.163 Classify the following words as being products of either inflection, derivation, or compounding. Justify your analysis in the potentially problematic cases.
Exercises
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- blackboard eraser
- unacceptability
- flowerpots
- movie monster
- broad-shouldered
- hard-working
- speaking
- developmental
Exercises
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• Which one is correct? - [bathroom towel designer] - [[bathroom towel]] designer] - [bathroom [towel designer]]
• What is the meaning difference? - [[top hat] rack]] vs. [top [hat rack]]
• We will get back to this next week.
The internal structure of compounds
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• If the right-hand member of a compound is a verb, the compound will be a verb (e.g. deep-fry, proof-read)
• If the right-hand member of a compound is a count noun, the compound will be a count noun (e.g. drophammer, greenhouse)
The right-hand HEAD rule
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• If the right-hand member of a compound has feminine gender, the compound will be feminine (e.g. head waitress)
• If the right-hand member of a compound is plural, the compound will be plural (e.g. parks commissioner vs. parks commissioners).
The right-hand HEAD rule
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• The compound as a whole inherits its syntactic information from its right-hand member.
• Thus, the right-hand member of a compound is its ‘syntactic’ head (=HEAD). → The right-hand HEAD rule
The right-hand HEAD rule
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(V+A compounds are rare.)
Common patterns of compounding
left/right noun verb adjective
noun bathroom brainwash sky-high
verb pickpocket stir-fry (fail-safe)
adjective greenhouse dry-clean grey-green
preposition afterbirth outrun inbuilt
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• Compounds, phrasal words, lexicalized phrases
• The internal structure of compounds • The right-hand HEAD rule • Common patterns of compounding • Types of compounds
- endocentric, exocentric, copulative compounds - root (= primary), synthetic (= verbal or
secondary) compounds - compound nouns, compound adjectives,
compound verbs - neoclassical compounds
• Compound stress
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• Depending on the category of the right-hand member: - compound nouns (= nominal compounds) - compound verbs (= verbal compounds) - compound adjectives
(= adjectival compounds)
Types of compounds
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• Depending on the status of the semantic head: - exocentric compounds - endocentric compounds - copulative compounds (endocentric
compounds with multiple semantic heads)
Types of compounds
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• Depending on whether the right-hand member is derived from a verb: - root (= primary) compounds - synthetic (=verbal or secondary)
compounds
Types of compounds
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• There is a semantic head in an endocentric compound.
• The referent of the compound (= the semantic head) is the same as the referent of the right-hand member of the compound.
Endocentric compounds
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- a laser printer is a kind of printer - a book cover is a kind of cover - a letter head is a kind of head
• semantic head = the right-hand member
Endocentric compounds
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• ‘Exocentric compounds’ literally means that the semantic head is outside the compound (i.e. there is no semantic head in the compound).
• The referent of the compound is not the referent of the right-hand member of the compound.
Exocentric compounds
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• There is no semantic head, but there is a syntactic head, usually the right-hand member, that determines the category of the compound. - turncoat, egghead, highbrow, redskin,
redhead, redneck, bigfoot, loudmouth, greybeard, faintheart
Exocentric compounds
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• But see to pickpocket, to cutthroat, to spoilsport, to killjoy, to cutpurse. → But examples like these are not common.
Exocentric compounds
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• Most exocentric compounds are forms denoting human beings (e.g. loudmouth) or higher animals (e.g. saber tooth).
Exocentric compounds (cont)
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• The productive exocentric compounds are also called possessive compounds, because they denote an entity that is characterized (sometimes metaphorically) by the property expressed by the compound. - a loudmouth is a person that possesses
‘a loud mouth’ - a saber tooth is an animal with a saber-
like tooth
Exocentric compounds
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• Possessive exocentric compounds usually have an adjective as their left-hand element.
Exocentric compounds
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• How do we make plural forms?
• Endocentric compounds - wisdom tooth → wisdom teeth - club foot → club feet - oak leaf → oak leaves
Plural forms of endocentric vs. exocentric compounds
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• Exocentric compounds - saber tooth → saber tooths - bigfoot → bigfoots - Toronto Maple Leafs (an NHL ice
hockey team)
• An exocentric compound inflects regularly even when its right-hand member inflects irregularly.
Plural forms of endocentric vs. exocentric compounds
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• Copulative compounds have multiple semantic heads, neither of them being subordinate to the other. → endocentric compounds with multiple semantic heads - singer-songwriter, scientist-explorer,
poet-translator, hero-martyr, producer-director, fighter-bomber, bitter-sweet,
- the doctor-patient gap, the nature-nurture debate, a modifier-head structure, the mind-body problem
Copulative compounds
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• appositional compounds → denote one entity
• coordinative compounds → denote multiple entities
Copulative compounds
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• What is the plural form of ‘poet-translator’?
• There are two semantics heads, but the syntactic properties of the compound is nonetheless determined by the right-hand member (e.g. poet-translators, *poets-translator, *poets-translators)
Copulative compounds
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• Synthetic (= verbal or secondary) compounds: - The right-hand member is derived
from a verb, and the left-hand member is interpreted as an argument of that verb.
Root vs. synthetic compounds
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- dog walker, slum clearance, crime prevention, home invasion, cost containment → compound nouns
- university-controlled, home made, Washington-based, hand-washing, hair-raising, awe-inspiring → compound adjectives
Root vs. synthetic compounds
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• Root (= primary) compounds: - The right-hand member is not derived
from a verb.
- The interpretation of the semantic relationship between the right-hand member and the left-hand member in root compounds is quite free.
Root vs. synthetic compounds (cont)
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• Root (= primary) compounds: - What are the possible two meanings of
marble museum?
- Also compare the meanings of hairnet, butterfly net, and mosquito net.
Root vs. synthetic compounds (cont)
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- Exercise 6.3, Plag, p.163
Classify the following compounds as exocentric, endocentric, possessive, appositional, or coordinative. frying pan redhead
maidservant author-reader
(exchange)
Exercises
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Classify the following compounds as exocentric, endocentric, possessive, appositional, or coordinative. Austria-Hungary hardtop
silkworm man-machine
(interaction) bootblack German-English
actor-manager gas-light
Exercises
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• Exercise 8, Lieber, pp.56-57 - oil burner
- light house
- blue blood
- hell raiser
- scholar athlete
- blue eyed
- pickpocket
- house-hunting
Exercises
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• Compounds, phrasal words, lexicalized phrases
• The internal structure of compounds • The right-hand HEAD rule • Common patterns of compounding • Types of compounds
- endocentric, exocentric, copulative compounds - root (= primary), synthetic (= verbal or
secondary) compounds - compound nouns, compound adjectives,
compound verbs - neoclassical compounds
• Compound stress
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Common patterns of compounding
left/right noun verb adjective
noun bathroom brainwash sky-high
verb pickpocket stir-fry (fail-safe)
adjective greenhouse dry-clean grey-green
preposition afterbirth outrun inbuilt
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• swearword, drophammer, playtime → V+N
• hairnet, mosquito net, butterfly net, hair restorer → N+N
• blackboard, greenstone, faintheart → A+N • in-group, outpost, overcoat → P+N
Compound nouns
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• knee-deep, dog-lean; university-controlled, Washington-based; sugar-free, girl-crazy → N+A
• fail-safe → V+A (rare) • bitter-sweet, sweet-sour; French-German
(cooperation), public-private (partnership) → A+A
• inbuilt, incoming, outgoing → P+A
Compound adjectives
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• N+A: The left-hand member as a modifier with various interpretations - capital-insensitive → intensive with
respect to capital - knee-deep → deep to the height of
one’s knee - dog-lean → as lean as a dog - blood-red → red like blood
Compound adjectives (cont)
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• N+A: The left-hand member as an argument - university-controlled, Washington-
based, hair-raising → synthetic compounds
- sugar-free, girl-crazy, class-conscious
Compound adjectives (cont)
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• A+A: copulative compounds - bitter-sweet, sweet-sour
appositional - a French-German cooperation, the
high-low alternation, a public-private partnership → coordinative
Compound adjectives (cont)
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• to deep-fry, to shortcut, to blindfold, to broadcast → A+V
• to proof-read, to ghost-write, to chain-smoke → N+V
• to stir-fry, to dry-clean, to freeze-dry, to drink-drive → V+V
• to download, to outsource, to upgrade → P+V
Compound verbs
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• Compounds with a preposition as the right-hand member violate the right-hand HEAD rule. - hanger-on, passer-by, sundown - Preposition is a closed class, which is
reluctant to accepting new members.
Compounds with a preposition
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• pathology, pathogen, psychopath; dermatitis, dermatology, pachyderm, bronchitis; electroscopy, (two combining forms)
• electrometer, electromagnet, electrochemistry; Sino-Korean, Sinophobia, Sino-Japanes (one combining form)
Neoclassical compounds
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• Neoclassical compounds are similar to compounds: Just like a blackboard is a kind of board, pathology is a kind of study and dermatitis is a kind of disease.
Neoclassical compounds
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• Unlike ordinary compounds, neoclassical compounds are nearly all technical terms of scientific vocabulary, coined out of non-English elements (mostly from Latin and Greek) called “combining forms.”
Neoclassical compounds (cont)
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• Combining forms are bound morpheme, more root-like than affix-like, usually of Greek or Latin origin, that occurs only in compounds, usually with other combining forms (e.g. bio, ology in biology).
Neoclassical compounds (cont)
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• If a word made up of combining forms is in common use, the morphemes within it tend to acquire the status of free morphemes (e.g. photo from photograph).
Neoclassical compounds (cont)