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Univ.-Doz.Ing.Mag.Mag.Dr. Andreas HOLZINGER
www.basiswissen-multimedia.at
Applying User-Centered Design
706.046
Vorlesung-Übung (3 SE, 5 ECTS)
Interdisziplinäre Zusammenführung von Erkenntnissen aus Psychologie und Informatik zum
User-Centered Design und Development von Medienobjekten. [email protected]
Mo, 26.02.2007
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Welcome
Our aim
Bridging the gap betweenPsychology and Computer Science
Psychology Informatics
Human-Computer Interaction
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Hardware
Software Application
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Human ̶Computer
Human
Computer
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Grading
Doing a project work in groups of 3 people and proceed in conference contribution style
Select a project ideaWork on the project togetherWrite a paper together (max. 3 authors)Submit to Committee (peer review)Presenting the paper in plenumDiscuss
How to get a (positive) gradingPart 1+2 (70 %): Project Presentation + Paper
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Grading
Answering questions of UCD TheoryDichotomy YES/NO DecisionsMultiple ChoiceOpen Ended Questions
How to get a (positive) gradingPart 3 (30%): Written Examination
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Technological Performance
Gordon E. Moore (1965, 1989, 1997)
Holzinger (2002), p. 69
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Vast
redu
ctio
n in
cos
t, bu
t en
orm
ous
cap
abili
ty
Vgl. Moore (1965), Holzinger (2002), Scholtz & Consolvo (2004), Intel (2007)
.
Computer Cost/Size versus Performance
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What is Performance?
Response time: the time between the start and completion of a task.Throughput: the total amount of work done in a given time.Some performance measures:
MIPS (million instructions per second)MFLOPS (million floating point operations per second), also GFLOPS, TFLOPS (1012), etc.SPEC (System Performance Evaluation Corporation) benchmarksSynthetic benchmarks
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Small and Large Numbers
P
T
G
M
k
f
p
n
μ
m
yotta1024yocto10-24zetta1021zepto10-21exa1018atto10-18peta1015femto10-15tera1012pico10-12giga109nano10-9mega106micro10-6kilo103milli10-3
LargeSmall
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Computer Memory Size
TBTbT1,099,511,627,776240
GBGbG1,073,741,824230
MBMbM1,048,576220
KBKbK1,024210
bytesbitsNumber
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Components of Performance
Time period of clock (seconds, etc.)
Clock cycle time
Average number of clock cycles per instruction
CPI
Instructions executed by the program
Instruction count
Time (seconds, etc.)CPU time for a program
UnitsComponents of Performance
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Units for Measuring Performance
Time in seconds (s), microseconds (μs), nanoseconds (ns), or picoseconds (ps).Clock cycle
Period of the hardware clockExample: one clock cycle means 1 nanosecond for a 1GHz clock frequency (or clock rate)CPU time = (CPU clock cycles)/(clock rate)
Cycles per instruction (CPI): average number of clock cycles used to execute a computer instruction.
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Computer Performance
MetricsPopular measures
MIPS• Depends on inst. Set | Varies between progs
Can vary inversely with performanceGFLOPS• Better, perhaps, as instructions are similar• FLOPS can differ across machines
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Top MachineBlueGene/L
first supercomputer in the Blue Gene projectSpecialised systems based on the Power architecture.
• Individual power 400 processors at 700Mhz
• Two processors reside in a single chip.• Two chips reside on a “compute card” with
512MB memory.• 16 of these compute cards are placed on a
node board.• 32 node boards fit into one cabinet, and
there are 64 cabinets.• 130,712 CPUs with theoretical peak of
183.5 TFLOPS/s• Multiple network topologies available,
which can be selected depending on the application.
High density of processors in a small area:• Low power and (comparatively) slow
processors - just lots of them!• Fast interconnects and low-latency.
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Computer: Moore’s Law
MemorySpeed
PortabilityAffordabilityPerformance
1950 1990 2030
Computer "capabilities"
Moore (1997), and cf. Holzinger (2002), 69
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Human versus Computer
Computers
Human Abilities
1950 1990 203010.000 BCAtkinson (1965), Hall (1988), Buxton (2001)
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End-User in the Sixties (IBM 7030)
Bloch (1959), http://archive.computerhistory.org/stretch
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Pictures removed
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Difference?
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How many "zeros" do you see?
3 1 4 1 5 9 2 6 5 3 5 8 9 7 9 3 2 3 8 4 6 2 6 4 3 3 8 3 2 7 9 5 0 2 8 8 4 1 9 7 1 6 9 3 9 9 3 7 5 1 0 5 8 2 0 9 7 4 9 4 4 5 9 2 3 0 7 8 1 6 4 0 6 2 8 6 2 0 8 9 9 8 6 2 8 0 3 4 8 2 5 3 4 2 1 1 7 0 6 7 9 8 2 1 4
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How many red objects?
3 1 4 1 5 9 2 6 5 3 5 8 9 7 9 3 2 3 8 4 6 2 6 4 3 3 8 3 2 7 9 5 0 2 8 8 4 1 9 7 1 6 9 3 9 9 3 7 5 1 0 5 8 2 0 9 7 4 9 4 4 5 9 2 3 0 7 8 1 6 4 0 6 2 8 6 2 0 8 9 9 8 6 2 8 0 3 4 8 2 5 3 4 2 1 1 7 0 6 7 9 8 2 1 4
Bertin (1977), Card., Mackinlay & Shneiderman (1999), Holzinger (2001)
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Fundamental Idea of a LO
Theory of atoms (Democrit, 400 B.C.)
Information Chunk (Miller, 1956)
OO-Theory (Dahl & Nygaard, 1966)
“…. a fundamental idea to create interoperable and reusable LEARNING OBJECTS.”
Reigeluth & Nelson (1997), Saddik et al. (2000), Holzinger (2001)
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Learning is a basic cognitive & social process …not an object...
Knowledge
Proficiency
declarative
conceptual
skill
ability
Glasersfeld (1987), Knuth & Cunningham (1993), Holzinger (1997, 2000)
... it is an construction within every individual human memory.
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Two different design approaches
Technology Centered DesignFeature driven:What can be realized on our platform?Tool driven: What can be created by using available tools?Interest Driven: What do the programmer find interesting?
Learner Centered DesignTask based:What do the learners really need?Ability based: What abilities/knowledge do the learners have?Domain based: In what context do the learners learn?
Norman & Draper (1986); Soloway, Guzdial, Hay (1994); Holzinger & Motschnig (2005)
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Using Computers for learning purposes
Pedagogy Technology
extremely critical
"Replacement" for Teachers
"behavioristical" use only
social isolation
Examples: Neil Postman, Hartmut v. Hentig, …
uncritical, naive
euphorically
exaggerated expectations
Technology in foreground
Examples: Bill Gates, John Chambers, …
Baumgartner & Payr (1994), Holzinger (2000)
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Research in e-Education on 3 Levels
Macro Level (Educational Systems and their framework and structures),Meso Level (Impact and comparison of institutional conditions) and onMicro Level (Research of technology enhanced educational processes)
Bronfenbrenner (1978, 81, 90)
Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917 – 25.Sept. 2005)
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Attention!
Given the range of ways computers can represent feedback in a simulation, research is needed to ensure that design decisions are made based on the psychological needs of the individual end-user and not simply on what the computer is capable of doing!
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Reading:A 34. Holzinger A. (2005): Usability Engineering for Software Developers. Communications of the ACM (CACM), 2005, Vol 48, Issue 1, 71-74A 25. Holzinger, A. (2004): Application of Rapid Prototyping to the User Interface Development for a Virtual Medical Campus. IEEE Software. Vol. 21, Iss. 1, January 2004, 92-99.
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What is Usability?
Social acceptability Practical acceptability
Reliability Compatibility AffordabilityUsefulness
UtilityUsability
Learnability
Efficiency Memorability Errors
Satisfaction
System acceptability
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Complexity! Technical knowledge required, regular software installation, updates & maintenance, usability of hardware, software & manuals, loads of unwanted features, crashes, ...
Ζ∈≥= fff
nnn
u ,11
Complexity as a barrier …
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Definition of Usability
Dimension Description, e.g. … Benchmark
(1) LEARNABILITY
(2) EFFICIENCY
(3) MEMORABILITY
(4) FAULT-TOLERABILITY
(5) SATISFACTION
Low start-up overhead …
Easy to remember …
Time to repeat task
Time to perform task
Nielsen (1993), Nielsen & Levy (1994), Nielsen (1996)
Achieving high productivity …
Easy to recover from errors …
Measuring task performance
Numberof errors
Pleasant to use … Users subjective opinion
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Metrics ISO 9241, ISO 13407
Objective Effectiveness Efficiency Satisfaction
Suitability % of goalsachieved
Time toComplete
SubjectiveRating
Appro-priateness
# of powerfeatures used
Relative toexpert
Rating ofpower
Learnability % learned Time tolearn
Rating oflearning
Error % errorscorrected
Time tocorrect
Rating oferror handling
Dix et al. (1998), ISO 9241, ISO 13407
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1977: Release of Apple II with graphical interface1985: Gould and Lewis promote User-centered Design1988: Norman and Draper, User-centered System Design[1990’s] –
Interest in field methods, Rapid increases in computing power and options, Emergence of prototyping tools, Global marketplace, Internet…
1999: ISO standards for human-centered design2001: FIRST Special issue IJHCI, Human-centered design
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Usability is the typical way a product is evaluated
Usability Engineering (UE) is all encompassing to enable good Usability
User-centered design (UCD) is one approach of UE to incorporate the end-user in design and development (User-centered development)
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Standard ISO HCI (1)
1Design for quality in useISO 9241-11, ISO 9126-4: effectiveness, efficiency, (safety), satisfactionISO 20282-2 Usability of everyday products
2Design the user interfaceISO 9241 parts 12 to 17 Ergonomic principles
3Use user-centred methods in developmentISO 13407 Human centred design processes
4Establish organisational processesISO TR 18529 Human-centred lifecycle process descriptions
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Standard ISO HCI (2)
process quality product quality quality in use
usability in context
development process
product effect of the product
user centred process
interface and interaction
ISO 13407 ISO 9241-11ISO 14598-1
ISO/IEC 9126-1ISO/IEC 9126-4
ISO 20282-2
organisational capability
life cycle processes
usability capability
ISOTR 18529 ISO 9241 parts 10, 12-17ISO/IEC 9126-2/3
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User-Centered Design
Other standards:ISO 10741
• cursor control in text systemsISO 11581
• appropriate icon symbols and functionsISO 13407
• user-centered design for interactive systemsISO 14754
• basic gesture commands for text editingetc.
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Again: How usability is defined: Items in four different usabilityconstructs
•Understandability•Learnability•Operability•Attractiveness
“The capability of the software product to be understood, learned, used and attractive to the user, when used under specified conditions.”
•Effectiveness•Efficiency•Satisfaction
"The extent to which a product can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction in a specified context of use."
•Learnability•Memorability•Efficiency•Subjective satisfaction•Low rate of errors
•Effectiveness:performance in accomplishment of tasks and the access to potential utility.•Learnability:degree of learning needed to accomplish tasks.•Flexibility:adaptation to variation in tasks.•Attitude: user satisfaction with system.
ISO 9126-1 (2000)
ISO 9241-11(1998)
Nielsen (1993)Shackel (1986)
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UCDev, Marcus (2002), Holzinger (2003)
Requirements > User Analysis > Task Analysis > Lo-Fi Prototype > Evaluation > Reengineering > Prototype > Evaluation > Reengineering
cf. Boehm (1988)
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Holzinger (2004)
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Audience Analysis
“Know thy end-users”
Common dimensions includeRole – Dominant persona of users (job, affiliation)Goals – Reason for the interactionCircumstances of Use – Setting, resources, strategy, timing Culture – Group level beliefs, language, preferencesErgonomics – Relevant perceptual & motor abilities, skills
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User Centered Design
Know thy end-users!Cognitive abilitiesPhysical abilitiesMotivational backgroundPrevious knowledge and skills!
Keep users involved throughout the development process …
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Ergonomics (examples)
Physical ergonomics human anatomical, anthropometric, physiological and biomechanical characteristics as they relate to physical activity::
postures, materials handling, repetitive movements, work relatedmusculoskeletal disorders, workplace layout, safety and health.
Cognitive Ergonomics mental processes:perception, memory, reasoning, and responses:
mental workload, decision-making, skilled performance, human-computer interaction, human reliability, work stress and training.
Social Ergonomics implies to consider more than one person and information technology is made for people to communicate and to work together CSCW (computer supported collaborative work)
communication, resource management, teamwork, participatory design, cooperative work.
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Organizational goal
Eason’s Socio-technical systems: Levels of analysis
OrganizationalgoalSocial system
Technicalsystem
Work
People Technology
LEVEL 3 Society
LEVEL 2Organization
LEVEL 1Individual
Eason (1991)
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Methods used
cf. Nielsen (1994), Andrews (2002), Holzinger (2003), Holzinger (2005)
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Nielsen's famous findings
problems found benefits / cost
cf. Nielsen (1994)
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Field studiesEvaluatereal life
PaperMock-up
Thinking aloud
Usability testing
Low-fiDesign
Prototype
Thinking aloud
Usabilitytesting
Hi-fi Design
Implement
User studies, function tests
Evaluate
Develop
Identification of end-users
Specs
Contextualinquiry
Analysis
TaskAnalysis
Objectives
Holzinger (2004), Holzinger (2005)
User Centered Development (UCD)
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Low-Fi – High Fi Prototyping
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Thinking Aloud Protocol
Subjective –but one of the most valuable methods in usability engineering!Literally, the user "thinks aloud" whilst going through tasks and their thoughts are recorded.Designers can then see what the user was thinking at the time of having problems.Reveals not only what the problems are, but why!
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Understand Humans
Understand perceptual system to understand how we perceive information and response timesUnderstand cognitive system to understand how we learn, remember, and make decisionsUnderstand motor system to understand limits of human task performanceUse knowledge to inform the design of interfaces
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Lomax, H and Casey,N. (1998) ‘recording social life: reflexivity and video methodology’, sociological research online, 3(2) http://www.socresonline.org.uk/socresonline/3/2/1.htmlRose, G. (2001) Visual methodologies: an introduction to interpreting visual objects. London: Sage.Van Leeuwen, T. and Jewitt, C. (2000) The handbook of visual analysis. London: Sage. (in particular Goodwins chapter 'Professional vision')Pink, S. (2001) Doing visual ethnography: images, media, and representation in research. London: Sage.Banks,M. (2001) Visual methods in social research. London: Sage.Banks, M and Morphy, H (Eds) (1997) Rethinking Visual Anthropology, New Haven: Yale University Press.Prosser, J (Ed.) (1998) Image-based Research: A Sourcebook for Qualitative Researchers, London: Falmer Press.Emmison, M. and Smith, P. (2000) Researching the visual. London: Sage.Norris, S. (2004) Analyzing Multimodal Interaction, London: RoutledgeFalmer.R.Flueitt (2005 – October) Using video to investigate preschool classroom ineraction, Visual Communication 4(3).
Some resources on Video Analysis
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Interactions: New Visions of Human-Computer Interaction, Vol. 12, Issue 3, 64
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Again …
Richard E. Clark (1994)“Technology is the answer, but what is the question?”Today, the technology has changed … but the question has not!
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How usability is defined: Items in four different usability constructs
•Understandability•Learnability•Operability•Attractiveness
“The capability of the software product to be understood, learned, used and attractive to the user, when used under specified conditions.”
•Effectiveness•Efficiency•Satisfaction
"The extent to which a product can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction in a specified context of use."
•Learnability•Memorability•Efficiency•Subjective satisfaction•Low rate of errors
•Effectiveness:performance in accomplishment of tasks and the access to potential utility.•Learnability:degree of learning needed to accomplish tasks.•Flexibility:adaptation to variation in tasks.•Attitude: user satisfaction with system.
ISO 9126-1 (2000)
ISO 9241-11(1998)
Nielsen (1993)Shackel (1986)
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HCI ISO overview
process quality product quality quality in use
usability in context
development process
product effect of the product
user centred process
interface and interaction
ISO 13407 ISO 9241-11ISO 14598-1
ISO/IEC 9126-1ISO/IEC 9126-4
ISO 20282-2
organisational capability
life cycle processes
usability capability
ISOTR 18529 ISO 9241 parts 10, 12-17ISO/IEC 9126-2/3
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Learning requires cognitive effort!
Successful learning results in permanent understanding of contexts and
in mastering problems (zone of developments) –not just fun of edutainment!
Lessons Learned
Shall we make learning as easy as possible?
Wilhelm Busch (1832-1908)
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Future Research
We need much more research to help define the learning goals that best profit from new technologies … in real-life …
Richard E. Mayer (2005)
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Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) & Usability Engineering (UE) is integrating
HCI&UE and the power of M3
Media Psychology
Media InformaticsMedia Education
Design & Development
Holzinger (2002, 2003, 2004, 2005), Holzinger & Motschnig (2005)
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