TriUne Research THE BEGINNING Ap Dijksterhuis en Malcolm
Gladwel Als 95 % onbewust, dan waarom de focus op bewust leren?
Maar hoe in praktijk toe te passen? Ofwel: leren we niet al lang
impliciet?
Slide 3
Bedien de juiste systemen op de juiste manier Leerproces:
werkgeheugen Niet overbelasten Gebruik verschillende modi (Badelley
1997) opslag van kennis en vaardigheid: lt memory systems
Declarative (episodic, semantic) Non-declarative (procedural,
priming, conditioning)
Slide 4
Slide 5
Victor Lamme: De FMRI inzetten voor en na een training kan
precies laten zien wat er veranderd is. Dat is nog eens een
evaluatie! Bron: Leren in Organisaties, februari 2010
What is practicable? Errorless In sports (golf) For patients
with degraded memory Analogy (also similarity and metaphor) in
sports (table tennis) In motor skills (process management)
Slide 9
Demands of the real world It must work (or at least be a
promising technique) It must fit into existing processes (training
or work processes)
Slide 10
Learning needs Master processes that comply to the following
requirements: Time pressure (temporal proximity), complexity and
magnitude of impact Example: Financial management processes
Performance gaps: - Performance is insufficient, errrors occur, -
timing is a problem (late response, late performance ) - risks are
not perceived and dealt with, - knowledge is lacking
Slide 11
What works? Explicit instruction leaves us mostly with
deficiencies described above Implicit instruction serves the
non-declarative procedural memory : this is about about skills, not
the technical knowledge. Implicit instruction serves the
non-declarative priming memory: this is about (deep rooted)
reflexes.
Slide 12
Analogy learning 5 levels: 1. MEANING: Bite-size lexical items
(words, nouns, adjectives, etc) that exhort readers to picture the
words as symbols for other meanings 2. RHETORIC: Short phrases
meeting retorical needs in particular contexts. Activate familiar
rhetorical-context categories. 3. HIGH LEVEL LABEL FOR PERCEPTIONS:
A lexical item (safety net) is effortlessly evoked lable for a
situation in another context (protection against pensioen-gat) 4.
LARGE SCALE REMINDINGS: the perception at hand evoces various and
differing situations. 5. CREATE HYPOTHETICAL SCENARIOS: a given
scenario/perception is compared with concocted scenarios (if the
situation at hand means x, could we asume that y could be conceived
as well?)
Slide 13
For the real world analogy learning Analogies are common and
subjects are often not aware of using them It makes a difference
whether subjects generate the analogy themselves or are provided
with them The facility to generate analogies based on structural
features does not depend on the level of expertise in the field of
the problem, but on the fact whether the analogy was produced ore
merely received. Ideally, both encoding and retrieval conditions
must match for the successful analogical retrieval to occur. both
experts and novices are capable of generating true structural
analogies if the circumstances permit. If the encoding and
retrieval conditions highlight structural features, than both
experts and novices can generate analogies based on structural
features. To generate an analogy, people do not need the training
that is needed for true expertise, but must be in a context that
highlights structural relationships.
Slide 14
Criteria for effectiveness Durability: time elapsed between
training and test Resilience: response times Robustness:
performance under stress
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How does it fit? Analogy learning: Learning process 1:
Prefabricated analogies: provide novices with expert analogies
Learning process 2: Self constructed analogies / provide learners
with a proces of creating analogies
Slide 17
Analogy learning Donnely and McDaniel 1993: Metaphors and
analogies are one of the central ways of leaping the
epistemological gap between old knowledge and radically new
knowledge Connecting a familiar (source) concept to a new (target)
concept, permits the learner to use information about the source
domain to make more informed speculations about the target
domain.
Slide 18
Analogy learning of scientific concepts Warning: learning with
analogies enforces the ability to draw inferences, but it may
actually be harmful to mastery (cross over effect, see below). So,
at the start of the intervention, one has to determine whether the
goal is ability to generate inferences or literal knowledge
Secondly, one has to avoid surface relations (source and target
share superficial similarity))
Slide 19
AnalogyLiteral text Inferential knowledge Factual knowledge
Cross over effect
Slide 20
Example of literal text Concept of a pulsar: A pulsar is a
collapsing star. As the star collapses, it rotates steadily and it
also emits a stream of radiation. The stream of radiation from the
pulsar flows continuously. However, by virtue of the fact that
collapsing stars rotate, the pulsar's stream of radiation appears
to us here on Earth as though it was [sic] flashing intermittently.
In this literal presentation, the focus is placed on a single
domain of knowledge: pulsars. The statement describes concrete
attributes about that domain.
Slide 21
Example analogy text A pulsar is a rotating, collapsing star
that emits a stream of radiation. The radiation from a rotating
pulsar acts like the light from a rotating lighthouse beacon. The
pulsar's radiation (or beacon's light) streams continuously. But
for us here on Earth (or for boats far at sea) we see only
intermittent, pulsing flashes of pulsar radiation (or beacon
light). Here, the concept of a pulsar is taught through its
connection with a domain more familiar to most students:
lighthouses.
Slide 22
In Gentner's (1983) view, processing an analogy requires that
individuals perform a cognitive mapping between the dynamic
relations, the so-called relational predicates, that are shared by
the two domains. Some relevant predicates in our example are
ROTATING and STREAM. These predicates are common to the two
domains, so an understanding of the predicates in the source domain
(lighthouse) permits the individual to appreciate the relations
described in the target domain (pulsar). The notion of cognitive
mapping implies that with analogy, one's cognitive resources are
spent primarily at an abstract level, linking two seemingly
unrelated domains. Ideally, the learner maps the commonalities from
the source to the target and avoids surface relations.
Slide 23
Learning benefit The largest benefit will be for novices in the
particular domain of knowledge/skill (subjects with little
background in the general topic of instruction) Therefore,
analogical representations may serve an especially good
introductory function to learning new concepts.
Slide 24
The results indicate that the most appropriate representational
form for conceptual learning depends on the learner's goal. If the
goal is primarily to answer questions of fact, then analogical
learning may be inappropriate. Yet, it is interesting that despite
their poorer performance at answering basic level questions,
subjects in this analogy condition were able to recall
significantly more information about the concepts than subjects in
the literal condition. Thus, the appropriateness of literal
teaching under our instructional conditions (text, auditory, and
visual graphic presentation combined) is relegated to a relatively
narrow form of conceptual mastery, one having to do with verbatim
recognition of presented material. Analogies, on the other hand,
appear to be most appropriate when the goal of learning is
meaningful understanding, understanding at a level that allows the
learner to draw inferences beyond the stated facts.
Slide 25
analogy design in text only in images in animated video 1.
Scenario 1: mapping of familiar (source) onto new situation
(target) (source is provided by external agent) 2. Scenarion 2:
building a familiar source (source is generated by
participants)
Slide 26
Analogy design (2) Take university or HBO textst explaining
specific management concepts For each concept, construct a didactic
text in two versions: literal and analog (Scenario 1: provide
analogy, Scenario 2: have participants generate analogy) Supplement
Learning adjunct (see below) Supplement the the analogy (and the
literal text) with dynamic, visual presentations of the concepts
(cartoon videos) Before entering the analog learning condition,
describe the concept of analogy to the subjects Test with multiple
choice questions Test Durability, Resilience and Robustness
Slide 27
Analogy design: Learning adjuncts The analogy as such may not
generate inferential skill to the level that can be achieved
through the help of a learning adjunct (such as elaborative
interrogation). It is assumed that this may occur if analogies are
provided by an external agent. Externaly provided, the analogy may
not always be consistent with the learners knowledge base or, may
not be rich enough to help the learner construct a better
understanding (mental model) of the toe be learned
Slide 28
Study adjuncts: why? Analogy generates inferential thinking
appropriate study adjuncts can support the inferential effect (in
order to eliminate the loss of factual information about the
concepts to be learned) The crux: the distinction between higher
order relational processing (analogy) and the processing of
specific facts allows a priori specification of what kind of
adjuncts will be effectively combine with analogy.
Slide 29
Material-appropriate framework (MAP) Suggestes that for a
learning adjunct to be effective, the type of processing evoked by
the learning adjunct should complement the type of processing
ancouraged by the text material itself.
Slide 30
Study adjuncts Key word highlighting (increases (a little)
factual knowledge) Student-generated schematic Trainer/experimenter
provided schematic Elaborative interrogation Note: Schematics only
support inference knowledge of analogy learners ONLY provided that
the schematics explicitly label the component parts and the
behavior of each part.
Slide 31
Elaborative interrogation requires learners to explain why
phenomena described in the text occur. produces superior factual
learning because it activates relevant prior knowledge and fosters
connections between this prior knowledge and the new facts. The
activation of prior knowledge to help understand new relations
might also aid inference learning
Slide 32
Elaborative interrogation Assumption: by going through
elaborative interrogation, the learner constrcts a mental model of
the situation described by the text. That mental model helps the
learner to go beyond the stated facts. Therefore, the answer may be
that you have to let learners generate their own analogy, guided by
interrogative interrogation (applied just as 'scafolding by
scientists who deal with unexpected outcomes (see above). Both (EI
and Analogy) help to create mental models and both support
inferential thinking.
Slide 33
Performance test multiple choice, immedeately after learning
session durability (what remains?), resilience and (response time)
robustness test (stress) after 2 weeks