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Nonverbal communicationis the process ofcommunicationthrough sending and receiving wordless
(mostlyvisual)cues between people.
Messages can be communicated throughgesturesand touch,body languageor posture, physical
distance,facial expressionandeye contact,which are all types of nonverbal communication. Speech
contains nonverbal elements known asparalanguage,includingvoice quality,rate, pitch,volume,and
speaking style, as well asprosodicfeatures such asrhythm,intonation,andstress.Likewise, written
texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, or the
physical layout of a page. However, much of the study of nonverbal communication has focused on
face-to-face interaction, where it can be classified into three principal areas:environmentalconditions
where communication takes place, physical characteristics of the communicators, and behaviors of
communicators during interaction.
Contents
[hide]
1 Importance
2 History
3 First impression
4 Posture
5 Clothing
6 Gestures
7 Engagement
8 Across cultures
o 8.1 Indigenous communities
o 8.2 Nonverbal actions
9 Genetics
10 Proxemics
11 Movement and body position
o 11.1 Kinesics
o 11.2 Haptics: touching in communication
12 Functions of nonverbal communication
o 12.1 Criticism
o 12.2 Interaction of verbal and nonverbal communication
12.2.1 Complementing
12.2.2 Substituting
13 Clinical studies of nonverbal communication
o 13.1 Child comprehension
o 13.2 Comprehension of nonverbal facial cues
14 See also
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visualhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visualhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visualhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial_expressionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial_expressionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial_expressionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_contacthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_contacthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_contacthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralanguagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralanguagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralanguagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_qualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_qualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_qualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volumehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volumehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volumehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosodichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosodichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosodichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Importancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Importancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#First_impressionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#First_impressionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Posturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Posturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Clothinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Clothinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Gestureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Gestureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Engagementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Engagementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Across_cultureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Across_cultureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Indigenous_communitieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Indigenous_communitieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Nonverbal_actionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Nonverbal_actionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Proxemicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Proxemicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Movement_and_body_positionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Movement_and_body_positionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Kinesicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Kinesicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Haptics:_touching_in_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Haptics:_touching_in_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Functions_of_nonverbal_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Functions_of_nonverbal_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Criticismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Criticismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Interaction_of_verbal_and_nonverbal_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Interaction_of_verbal_and_nonverbal_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Complementinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Complementinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Substitutinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Substitutinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Clinical_studies_of_nonverbal_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Clinical_studies_of_nonverbal_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Child_comprehensionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Child_comprehensionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Comprehension_of_nonverbal_facial_cueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Comprehension_of_nonverbal_facial_cueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Comprehension_of_nonverbal_facial_cueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Child_comprehensionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Clinical_studies_of_nonverbal_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Substitutinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Complementinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Interaction_of_verbal_and_nonverbal_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Criticismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Functions_of_nonverbal_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Haptics:_touching_in_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Kinesicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Movement_and_body_positionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Proxemicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Nonverbal_actionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Indigenous_communitieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Across_cultureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Engagementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Gestureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Clothinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Posturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#First_impressionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Importancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosodichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volumehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_qualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralanguagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_contacthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial_expressionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visualhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication5/28/2018 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15 Footnotes
16 References
17 External links
Importance[edit]
SymbolTable for Non-verbal communication withpatients
Nonverbal communication represents two-thirds of all communication.[1]
Nonverbal communication
can portray a message both verbally and with the correct body signals. Body signals
comprisephysical features,conscious andunconsciousgesturesand signals, and the mediation of
personal space.[1]
The wrong message can be established if the body language conveyed does not
match a verbal message. Nonverbal communication strengthens a firstimpressionin common
situations like attracting a partner or in a business interview: impressions are on average formed
within the first four seconds of contact.[1]First encounters or interactions with another person strongly
affect a person's perception.[2]
When the other person or group is absorbing the message they are
focused on the entireenvironmentaround them, meaning the other person uses all five senses in
theinteraction:83% sight, 11% hearing, 3% smell, 2% touch and 1% taste.[3]
History[edit]
The firstscientificstudy of nonverbal communication wasCharles Darwin's book The Expression of
the Emotions in Man and Animals.[3]
He argued that allmammalsreliably showemotionin their faces.
Seventy years laterSilvan Tomkins(19111991) began his classic studies onhumanemotions in
Affects Imagery Consciousness volumes 1-4.Rudolf Laban(18791958) andWarren Lamb(1923-)
raised body movement analysis in the world of dance to a high level. Studies now range across a
number of fields, including,linguistics,semioticsandsocial psychology.Another large influence in
nonverbal communication wasRay Birdwhistell,who "pioneered the original study of nonverbal
communicationwhat he called 'kinesics.' He estimated that the average person actually speaks
words for a total of about ten or eleven minutes a day and that the average sentence takes only about
2.5 seconds. Birdwhistell also estimated we can make and recognize around 250,000 facial
expressions."[3]
First impression[edit]
Main article:First impression (psychology)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Footnoteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Footnoteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication?veaction=edit&vesection=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication?veaction=edit&vesection=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication?veaction=edit&vesection=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patienthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patienthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patienthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-Hogan.2C_K._2003-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-Hogan.2C_K._2003-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-Hogan.2C_K._2003-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_featureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_featureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_featureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconscious_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconscious_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-Hogan.2C_K._2003-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-Hogan.2C_K._2003-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-Hogan.2C_K._2003-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impression_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impression_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impression_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-Hogan.2C_K._2003-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-Hogan.2C_K._2003-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-Hogan.2C_K._2003-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-Pease_B._2004-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-Pease_B._2004-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-Pease_B._2004-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication?veaction=edit&vesection=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication?veaction=edit&vesection=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication?veaction=edit&vesection=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientifichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientifichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientifichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-Pease_B._2004-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-Pease_B._2004-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-Pease_B._2004-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silvan_Tomkinshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silvan_Tomkinshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silvan_Tomkinshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Labanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Labanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Labanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren_Lambhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren_Lambhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren_Lambhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semioticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semioticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semioticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Birdwhistellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Birdwhistellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Birdwhistellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-Pease_B._2004-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-Pease_B._2004-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-Pease_B._2004-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication?veaction=edit&vesection=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication?veaction=edit&vesection=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication?veaction=edit&vesection=3http:/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A study revealed that students who rated a professor as highly likeable from only a two-second first
impression found the class much more enjoyable throughout thesemesterversus the students who
did not."[1]
Posture[edit]
There are many different types of posture, including slouching, towering, legs spread, jaw thrust,
shoulders forward, and arm crossing. Posture or a person's bodily stance communicates a variety of
messages. Posture can be used to determine a participant's degree of attention or involvement, the
difference in status between communicators, and the level of fondness a person has for the other
communicator, depending on body "openness".[4]
Studies investigating the impact of posture on
interpersonal relationships suggest that mirror-image congruent postures, where one person's left
side is parallel to the other person's right side, leads to favorable perception of communicators and
positivespeech;a person who displays a forward lean or decreases a backward lean also signifies
positive sentiment during communication.[5]
Posture can be situation-relative, that is, people will change their posture depending on the situation
they are in.[6]
Clothing[edit]
Clothing is one of the most common forms of non-verbal communication. The study of clothing and
other objects as a means of non-verbal communication is known as artifactics[7]
or objectics.[8]
The
types of clothing that an individual wears conveys nonverbal clues about his or her personality,
background and financial status, and how others will respond to them.[3]
An individual's clothing style
can demonstrate theirculture,mood,level of confidence, interests, age, authority, values/beliefs, and
their sexual identity.
A study of the clothing worn by women attending discothques, carried out inVienna, Austria,showed
that in certain groups of women (especially women who were without their partners), motivation
forsexand levels of sexualhormoneswere correlated with aspects of their clothing, especially the
amount of skin displayed and the presence of sheer clothing.[9]
Gestures[edit]
Gestures may be made with thehands,arms orbody,and also include movements of the head, face
andeyes,such aswinking,nodding, or rolling one's eyes. Although the study of gesture is still in
itsinfancy,some broad categories of gestures have been identified by researchers. The most familiar
are the so-called emblems or quotable gestures. These are conventional, culture-specific gestures
that can be used as replacement for words, such as the hand wave used in western cultures for
"hello" and "goodbye." A single emblematic gesture can have a very different significance in different
cultural contexts, ranging from complimentary to highly offensive.[10]
For a list of emblematic gestures,
seeList of gestures.There are some universal gestures like the shoulder shrug.[3]
Gestures can also be categorized as either speech independent or speech related. Speech-
independent gestures are dependent upon culturally accepted interpretation and have a direct
verbaltranslation.[4]
A wave or apeace signare examples of speech-independent gestures. Speech-
related gestures are used in parallel with verbal speech; this form of nonverbal communication is used
to emphasize the message that is being communicated. Speech-related gestures are intended to
provide supplemental information to a verbal message such as pointing to an object of discussion.
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nication#cite_note-Pease_B._2004-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gestureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infancyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winkinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eyeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication?veaction=edit&vesection=6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-Grammer.2C_K._.282004.29-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormoneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna,_Austriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-Pease_B._2004-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication?veaction=edit&vesection=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speechhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-Knapp_.26_Hall.2C_2007.2C_p._9-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication?veaction=edit&vesection=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-Hogan.2C_K._2003-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semester5/28/2018 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Facial expressions, more than anything, serve as a practical means of communication. With all the
various muscles that precisely control mouth, lips, eyes, nose, forehead,and jaw, human faces are
estimated to be capable of more than ten thousand different expressions. This versatility makes non-
verbals of the face extremely efficient and honest, unless deliberately manipulated. In addition, many
of these emotions, including happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust, shame, anguish and
interest are universally recognized.[11]
Displays of emotions can generally be categorized into two groups: negative and positive. Negative
emotions usually manifest as increased tension in various muscle groups: tightening of jaw muscles,
furrowing of forehead, squinting eyes, or lip occlusion (when the lips seemingly disappear). In
contrast, positive emotions are revealed by the loosening of the furrowed lines on the forehead,
relaxation of the muscles around the mouth, and widening of the eye area. When individuals are truly
relaxed and at ease, the head will also tilt to the side, exposing our most vulnerable area, the neck.
This is a high-comfort display, often seen during courtship, that is nearly impossible to mimic when
tense or suspicious.[12]
Engagement[edit]
Information about the relationship andaffectof these two skaters is communicated by theirbody posture,eye
gazeandphysical contact.
Eye contact is when two people look at each other's eyes at the same time; it is the primary nonverbal
way we indicate engagement, interest, attention and involvement. Studies have found that people use
their eyes to indicate interest. This includes frequently recognized actions ofwinkingand movements
of the eyebrows.[citation needed]
Men andwomenhave different ways of eye contact. Men stare at the women they are interested in,
whereas women tend to always keep their eyes roaming around the room to see who is there.
Disinterest is highly noticeable when showing little eye contact in a social setting.Pupilsdilate when
they are interested in the other person. People, sometimes without consciously doing so, probe each
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other's eyes and faces for positive or negative mood signs. Generally speaking, the longer there is
established eye contact between two people, the greater theintimacylevels.[1]
According to Eckman, "Eye contact (also called mutual gaze) is another major channel of nonverbal
communication. The duration of eye contact is its most meaningful aspect."[13]
Gaze comprises the
actions of looking while talking and listening. The length of a gaze, the frequency of glances, patternsof fixation, pupildilation,and blink rate are all important cues in nonverbal communication.
[14]"Liking
generally increases as mutual gazing increases."[1]
Along with the detection of disinterest,deceitcan
also be observed in a person. Hogan states "when someone is being deceptive their eyes tend to
blink a lot more. Eyes act as leading indicator of truth or deception,"[1]
Eye aversion is the avoidance
of eye contact. Eye contact and facial expressions provide important social and emotional information.
Overall, as Pease states, "Give the amount of eye contact that makes everyone feel comfortable.
Unless looking at others is a cultural no-no, lookers gain more credibility than non-lookers"[3]
In concealingdeception,nonverbal communication makes it easier to lie without being revealed. This
is the conclusion of a study where people watched made-up interviews of persons accused of having
stolen a wallet. The interviewees lied in about 50% of the cases. People had access to eitherwrittentranscriptof the interviews, or audio tape recordings, or video recordings. The more clues that
were available to those watching, the larger was the trend that interviewees who actually lied were
judged to be truthful. That is, people that are clever at lying can use voice tone and face expression to
give the impression that they are truthful.[15]
However, there are many cited examples of cues to
deceit, delivered via nonverbal (Para verbal and visual) communication channels, through which
deceivers supposedly unwittingly provide clues to their concealed knowledge or actual
opinions.[16]
Most studies examining the nonverbal cues to deceit rely upon human coding of video
footage (c.f. Vrij, 2008[17]
), although a recent study also demonstrated bodily movement differences
between truth-tellers and liars using an automated body motion capture system.[18]
Across cultures[edit]
Nonverbal communication can have different meanings according to different cultures. Foreigners
may even be confused about universal emotions. "In many cultures, such as the Arab and Iranian
cultures, people express grief openly. They mourn out loud, while in Asian cultures, the general belief
is that it is unacceptable to show emotion openly."[19]
In fact,Chinese people value silence more than
verbal communication.[20]
Gestures, postures, haptics, clothing, eye contact and proxemics all can be
understood differently across the world.
Gestures vary widely across cultures in how they are used and what they mean. Native Americans did
not have a written language for a long time, so they relied heavily on nonverbal communication in
which dances, rituals, and ceremonies were vital.[21]Nonverbal communication can be divided into
classes. First there is body language which includes gesture, posture, distance, touch, and gaze.
Second there is object language which includes signs, designs, and clothing. Finally, there is
environmental language which includes color, lighting, space, direction, and natural surroundings.[22]
For example, "sticking out the tongue may be a form of mockery in the West, but in Polynesia it
serves as a greeting and a sign of reverence. Clapping is a North American way of applauding, but in
Spain and the Orient it is a means of summoning the waiter. Northern Europeans usually indicate
agreement by nodding their heads up and down, and shaking the head from side to side to indicate
disagreement. The Greeks have for at least three thousand years used the upward nod for
disagreement and the downward nod for agreement.[23]
In addition, laughter is a sign of amusement
normally, but in Africa it is a sign of wonder or embarrassment.[24]There are many manners of waving
goodbye: Americans face the palm outward and move the hand side to side, Italians face the palm
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ication#cite_note-Hogan.2C_K._2003-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deceithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-Hogan.2C_K._2003-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pupillary_dilationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication#cite_note-Hogan.2C_K._2003-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intimacy5/28/2018 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inward and move the fingers facing the other person, French and Germans face the hand horizontal
and move the fingers toward the person leaving.[25]
Also, it is important to note that gestures are used
in more informal settings and more often by children.[25]
Chronemics, how people handle time, can be categorized in two ways: polychronic which is when
people do many activities at once and is common in Italy and Spain, or monochronic which is whenpeople do one thing at a time which is common in America.
[26]
Emotional expression varies with culture.[27]
The more individualistic a culture is, the more likely the
people will show emotions that are disengaged or emphasize what the self is feeling (anger, disgust,
and joy).[27]
Showing fear is less likely to occur in collectivistic societies because it shows social
withdrawal.[28]
Joy is more likely to be expressed in individualistic cultures because it is an expression
of ones uniqueness and individuality, whereas in collectivistic cultures, it may disrupt the group with
values of interdependence.[29]
In addition, Native Americans tend to be more reserved and less
expressive with emotions.[30]
Finally, frequent touches are common for Chinese;however, such actions
like touching, patting, hugging or kissing in western cultures such as America are less frequent and
publicly displayed.[31]
One common example in the United States, is the gesture of a finger or hand to indicate "come here
please". This is the gesture used to beckon dogs in some cultures. Pointing with one finger is also
considered to be rude in some cultures and Asians typically use their entire hand to point to
something.[32]
In mainstream Western culture, eye contact is interpreted as attentiveness and honesty. In many
cultures, however, including Hispanic, Asian, Middle Eastern, and Native American, eye contact is
thought to be disrespectful or rude, and lack of eye contact does not mean that a person is not paying
attention. Women may especially avoid eye contact with men because it can be taken as a sign of
sexual interest.[32]
The acceptable physical distance is another major difference in the nonverbal communication
between cultures. In Latin America and the Middle East the acceptable distance is much shorter than
what most Europeans and Americans feel comfortable with. This is why an American or a European
might wonder why the other person is invading his or her personal space by standing so close, while
the other person might wonder why the American/European is standing so far from him or her.[33]
In
addition, for Latin Americans, the French, Italians, and Arabs the distance between people is much
closer than the distance for Americans; in general for these close distance groups, 1 foot of distance
is for lovers, 1.54 feet of distance is for family and friends, and 412 feet is for strangers.[34]
In the
opposite way, most Native Americans value distance to protect themselves.[35]
Indigenous communities[edit]In Indigenous Mayan communities of the Americas, children learn how to partake in adult activities
through nonverbal communication. Children are able to learn in this manner due to their exposure to
adult activities at a young age. At a young age, children intently observe and listen in on adult
activities, and this helps provide them with a running knowledge on how to participate. As a result,
when children take on adult activities for themselves the first time they do not need verbal
communication in the form of directions from adults.[36]
They can learn how to do the adult activity
themselves through physically participating in it. In fact, talk acts only as a supplement to engagement
in an activity. For instance, when a child engages in adult activities, spoken communication can be
used to explore ideas or discuss need-to-know information. Otherwise, caregivers and adults primarily
help guide their children through an activity using non-verbal communication such as visualdemonstration, gestures, gaze and touch.
[36]
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In Indigenous Mayan communities, when a child needs assistance adults will primarily use illustrative
acts in the form of nonverbal communication to guide the child in a successful direction for the activity.
For example, a Mayan parent could demonstrate to their child how to hold dough in a manner which
allows for smooth flattening when making tortillas. In effect, when the child sees that the dough was
flattened from the demonstration, they could try it for themselves and learn first hand how to make it
flat. In that sense, by observing a nonverbal demonstration of the activity and trying it firsthand,
Mayan children learn how to participate in adult activities.[37]
Nonverbal communication is important as a way of learning for children of Indigenous Mayan
communities, because it allows for children's autonomy and for horizontal collaboration. Mayan
parents do not need to give lots of forceful verbal directives to their children to make sure they are
participating effectively. Instead, parents collaborate non verbally with their children to guide them
through the activity, and doing so is enough to ensure children do the activity successfully. By
communicating nonverbally, parents allow their children to have more individual development during
their participation in adult activities.[37]
Furthermore, by having nonverbal collaboration, children
benefit from the assistance of people who are skillful at the adult practice. The result is that on top of
their initial knowledge of adult activities, children's understanding can be further be strengthened
through the nonverbal guidance from adult expertise.[37]
Nonverbal actions[edit]
According to Matsumoto and Juang, the nonverbal motions that different people indicate important
channels of communication. The author states that nonverbal communication is very important to be
aware of, especially if comparing gestures, gaze, and tone of voice amongst different cultures. As
Latin American cultures embrace big speech gestures, Middle Eastern cultures are relatively more
modest in public and are not expressive. Within cultures, different rules are made about staring or
gazing. In some cultures, gaze can be seen as a sign of respect. Voice is a category that changes
within cultures. Depending on whether or not the cultures is expressive or non expressive, manyvariants of the voice can depict different reactions.
[38]
Genetics[edit]
"In the study of nonverbal communications, the limbicbrainis where the action is...because it is the
part of the brain that reacts to the world around us reflexively and instantaneously, in real time, and
without thought."[39]
There is evidence that the nonverbal cues made from person-to-person do not
entirely have something to do withenvironment.[3]
Other than gestures, phenotypic traits can also convey certain messages in nonverbal
communication, for instance, eye color, hair color and height. Research into height has generallyfound that taller people are perceived as being more impressive. Melamed and Bozionelos (1992)
studied a sample of managers in theUnited Kingdomand found that height was a key factor in who
was promoted. Height can have benefits and depressors too. "While tall people often command more
respect than short people, height can also be detrimental to some aspects of one-to-one
communication, for instance, where you need to 'talk on the same level' or have an 'eye-to-eye'
discussion with another person and do not want to be perceived as too big for your boots."[3]
Proxemics[edit]
Proxemicsis the study of how people use and perceive the physical space around them. The space
between the sender and the receiver of a message influences the way the message is interpreted. Inaddition, the perception and use of space varies significantly across cultures
[40]and different settings
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within cultures. Space in nonverbal communication may be divided into four main categories: intimate,
social, personal, and public space.
The term territoriality is used in the study of proxemics to explain human behavior regarding personal
space.[41]
Hargie & Dickson (2004, p. 69) identify 4 such territories:
1. Primary territory: This refers to an area that is associated with someone who has exclusive
use of it. An example is a house that others cannot enter without the owner's permission.
2. Secondary territory: Unlike primary territory, there is no "right" to occupancy of secondary
territory, but people may still feel some degree of ownership of such space as they develop
the custom of occupying it. For example, someone may sit in the same seat in church every
week and feel irritated if someone else sits there.
3. Public territory: this refers to an area that is available to all, but only for a set period, such as a
parking space or a seat in a library. Although people have only a limited claim over that
space, they often extend that claim. For example, it was found that people take longer to
leave a parking space when someone is waiting to take that space.
4. Interaction territory: this is space held by others when they are interacting. For example, when
a group is talking to each other on a footpath, others will walk around the group rather than
disturb their interaction territory.
Movement and body position[edit]
Kinesics[edit]
The term "kinesics"was first used (in 1952) byRay Birdwhistell,an anthropologist who wished to
study how people communicate through posture, gesture, stance, and movement. Part of
Birdwhistell's work involved making films of people in social situations and analyzing them to show
different levels of communication not clearly seen otherwise. Several other anthropologists,includingMargaret MeadandGregory Bateson,also studied kinesics.
Kinesic messages are more subtle than gestures.[42]
Kinesic messages comprise the posture, gaze,
and facial movements.[43]
American looks are short enough just to see if there is recognition of the
other person, Arabs look at each other in the eye intensely, and many Africans avert the gaze as a
sign of respect to superiors.[44]
There are also many postures for people in the Congo; they stretch
their hands and put them together in the direction of the other person.[45]
Haptics: touching in communication[edit]
Main article:Haptic communication
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Ahigh fiveis an example of communicative touch.
Hapticsis the study of touching as nonverbal communication, and haptic communication refers to how
people and other animals communicate via touching.
Touches among humans that can be defined as communication includehandshakes,holding hands,
kissing (cheek, lips, hand), back slapping,high fives,a pat on the shoulder, and brushing an arm.
Touching of oneself may include licking, picking, holding, and scratching.[4]
These behaviors are
referred to as "adapters" or "tells" and may send messages that reveal the intentions or feelings of a
communicator and a listener. The meaning conveyed from touch is highly dependent upon the
culture, the context of the situation, the relationship between communicators, and the manner of
touch.[46]
Touch is an extremely important sense for humans; as well as providing information about surfaces
and textures it is a component of nonverbal communication in interpersonal relationships, and vital in
conveying physical intimacy. It can be both sexual (such as kissing) and platonic (such as hugging ortickling).
Touch is the earliest sense to develop in the fetus. Human babies have been observed to have
enormous difficulty surviving if they do not possess a sense of touch, even if they retain sight and
hearing. Babies who can perceive through touch, even without sight and hearing, tend to fare much
better.
In chimpanzees the sense of touch is highly developed. As newborns they see and hear poorly but
cling strongly to their mothers. Harry Harlow conducted a controversial study involving rhesus
monkeys and observed that monkeys reared with a "terry cloth mother," a wire feeding apparatus
wrapped in soft terry cloth that provided a level of tactile stimulation and comfort, were considerably
more emotionally stable as adults than those with a mere wire mother.(Harlow,1958)
Touching is treated differently from one country to another and socially acceptable levels of touching
vary from one culture to another (Remland, 2009). In Thai culture, for example, touching someone's
head may be thought rude. Remland and Jones (1995) studied groups of people communicating and
found that touching was rare among the English (8%), the French (5%) and the Dutch (4%) compared
to Italians (14%) and Greeks (12.5%).[47]
Striking, pushing, pulling, pinching, kicking, strangling and
hand-to-hand fighting are forms of touch in the context of physical abuse.
Functions of nonverbal communication[edit]
Argyle (1970)[48]put forward the hypothesis that whereas spoken language is normally used for
communicating information about events external to the speakers, non-verbal codes are used to
establish and maintain interpersonal relationships. It is considered more polite or nicer to
communicate attitudes towards others non-verbally rather than verbally, for instance in order to avoid
embarrassing situations.[49]
Argyle (1988) concluded there are five primary functions of nonverbal bodily behavior in human
communication:[50]
Express emotions
Express interpersonal attitudes
To accompany speech in managing the cues of interaction between speakers and listeners
Self-presentation of one's personality
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Rituals (greetings)
In regards to expressing interpersonal attitudes, humans communicate interpersonal closeness
through a series of nonverbal actions known as immediacy behaviors. Examples of immediacy
behaviors are smiling, touching, open body positions, and eye contact. Cultures that display these
immediacy behaviors are considered high-contact cultures.
Criticism[edit]
An interesting question is: When two people are communicating face-to-face, how much of the
meaning is communicated verbally, and how much is communicated non-verbally? This was
investigated byAlbert Mehrabianand reported in two papers.[51][52]
The latter paper concluded: "It is
suggested that the combined effect of simultaneous verbal, vocal, and facial attitude communications
is a weighted sum of their independent effects - with coefficients of .07, .38, and .55, respectively."
Since then, other studies have analysed the relative contribution of verbal and nonverbal signals
under more naturalistic situations. Argyle,[48]
using video tapes shown to the subjects, analysed the
communication of submissive/dominant attitude and found that non-verbal cues had 4.3 times the
effect of verbal cues. The most important effect was that body posture communicated superior status
in a very efficient way. On the other hand, a study by Hsee et al.[53]
had subjects judge a person on
the dimension happy/sad and found that words spoken with minimal variation in intonation had an
impact about 4 times larger than face expressions seen in a film without sound. Thus, the relative
importance of spoken words and facial expressions may be very different in studies using different
set-ups.
Interaction of verbal and nonverbal communication[edit]
When communicating, nonverbal messages can interact with verbal messages in six ways: repeating,
conflicting, complementing, substituting, regulating and accenting/moderating. Conflicting Verbal and
nonverbal messages within the same interaction can sometimes send opposing or conflicting
messages. A person verbally expressing a statement of truth while simultaneously fidgeting or
avoiding eye contact may convey a mixed message to the receiver in the interaction. Conflicting
messages may occur for a variety of reasons often stemming from feelings of uncertainty,
ambivalence, or frustration.[23]When mixed messages occur, nonverbal communication becomes the
primary tool people use to attain additional information to clarify the situation; great attention is placed
on bodily movements and positioning when people perceive mixed messages during interactions
Complementing[edit]
Accurate interpretation of messages is made easier when nonverbal and verbal communication
complement each other. Nonverbal cues can be used to elaborate on verbal messages to reinforce
the information sent when trying to achieve communicative goals; messages have been shown to be
remembered better when nonverbal signals affirm the verbal exchange.[54]
Substituting[edit]
Nonverbal behavior is sometimes used as the sole channel for communication of a message. People
learn to identify facial expressions, body movements, and body positioning as corresponding with
specific feelings and intentions. Nonverbal signals can be used withoutverbal communicationto
convey messages; when nonverbal behavior does not effectively communicate a message, verbal
methods are used to enhance understanding.[55]
Clinical studies of nonverbal communication
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From 1977 to 2004, the influence of disease and drugs on receptivity of nonverbal communication
was studied by teams at three separate medical schools using a similar paradigm.[56]
Researchers at
the University of Pittsburgh, Yale University and Ohio State University had subjects observe gamblers
at a slot machine awaiting payoffs. The amount of this payoff was read by nonverbal transmission
prior to reinforcement. This technique was developed by and the studies directed by psychologist, Dr.
Robert E. Miller and psychiatrist, Dr. A. James Giannini. These groups reported diminished receptive
ability in heroin addicts[57]
and phencyclidine abusers[58]
was contrasted with increased receptivity in
cocaine addicts. Men with major depression[59]
manifested significantly decreased ability to read
nonverbal cues when compared with euthymic men.
In some subjects tested for ability to read nonverbal cues, intuitive paradigms were apparently
employed while in others a cause and effect approach was used.[60]
Subjects in the former group
answered quickly and before reinforcement occurred. They could not give a rationale for their
particular responses. Subjects in the latter category delayed their response and could offer reasons
for their choice.The level of accuracy between the two groups did not vary nor did handedness.[61]
Freitas-Magalhaesstudied the effect of smile in the treatment of depression and concluded that
depressive states decrease when you smile more often.[62]
Obese women[63]
and women with premenstrual syndrome[64]
were found to also possess diminished
abilities to read these cues. In contradistinction, men with bipolar disorder possessed increased
abilities.[65]
A woman with total paralysis of the nerves of facial expression was found unable to
transmit or receive any nonverbal facial cues whatsoever.[66]
Because of the changes in levels of
accuracy on the levels of nonverbal receptivity, the members of the research team hypothesized a
biochemical site in the brain which was operative for reception of nonverbal cues. Because certain
drugs enhanced ability while others diminished it, the neurotransmitters dopamine and endorphin
were considered to be likely etiological candidate. Based on the available data, however, the primary
cause and primary effect could not be sorted out on the basis of the paradigm employed.[67]
Child comprehension
An increased emphasis on gestures exists when intonations or facial expression are used. "Speakers
often anticipate how recipients will interpret their utterances. If they wish some other, less obvious
interpretation, they may "mark" their utterance (e.g. with special intonations or facial
expressions)."[68]
This specific emphasis known as 'marking' can be spotted as a learned form of non-
verbal communication in toddlers. A groundbreaking study, from the Journal of Child Language has
concluded that the act of marking a gesture is recognized by three-year-olds, but not by two-year-
olds.
In the study, two and three-year-old toddlers were tested on their recognition of markedness withingestures. The experiment was conducted in a room with an examiner and the test subjects, which for
the first study were three-year-olds. The examiner sat across from each child individually, and allowed
them to play with various objects including a purse with a sponge in it and a box with a sponge in it.
After allowing the child to play with the objects for three minutes, the examiner told the child it was
time to clean up and motioned by pointing to the objects. They measured the responses of the
children by first pointing and not marking the gesture, to see the child's reaction to the request and if
they reached for the objects to clean them up. After observing the child's response, the examiner then
asked and pointed again, marking the gesture with facial expression, as to lead the child to believe
the objects were supposed to be cleaned up. The results showed that three-year-old children were
able to recognize the markedness, by responding to the gesture and cleaning the objects up as
opposed to when the gesture was presented without being marked.
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In the second study in which the same experiment was preformed on two-year-olds, the results were
different. For the most part, the children did not recognize the difference between the marked and
unmarked gesture by not responding more prevalently to the marked gesture, unlike the results of the
three-year-olds. This shows that this sort of nonverbal communication is learned at a young age, and
is better recognized in three-year-old children than two-year-old children, making it easier for us to
interpret that the ability to recognize markedness is learned in the early stages of development,
somewhere between three and four years of age.
Boone and Cunningham conducted a study[69]
to determine at which age children begin to recognize
emotional meaning (happiness, sadness, anger and fear) in expressive body movements. The study
included 29 adults and 79 children divided into age groups of four, five and eight year olds. The
children were shown two clips simultaneously and were asked to point to the one that was expressing
the target emotion. Th
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