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Science is the systematic study of nature and its effect on
humans and the environment (Ooi Soi Tai et al., 2005).
Exposure to scientific skills is a core to the process of
teaching and learning science. Nowadays, science curriculum
focus on mastery of scientific skills and moral values in order
to develop individuals who are competitive, dynamic, robust
and resilient and able to master scientific knowledge and
technological competency as stated in National Science
Education Philosophy:
In consonance with the National Education
Philosophy, science education in Malaysia
nurtures a Science and Technology Culture by
focusing on the development of individuals who
are competitive, dynamic, robust, and resilient
and able to master scientific knowledge and
technological competency
In science curriculum, scientific skills encompass
science process skills and manipulative skills. There are
twelve science process skills and five manipulative skills that
science students need to master. Science process skills
enable students to formulate their questions and find out the
answers systematically. Manipulative skills in scientific
investigation are psychomotor skills that enable students to
stimulate their skills.
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Theories and Perspectives
in Science Education
Numerous theories and perspectives concerning the teaching
and learning of science are addressed in this book. Here we
look at a few of the more prominent ones.
Active learning is a set of strategies that posits the
responsibility for learning with the student. Discovery learningand inquiry-based instruction are examples of active learning.
Discussion, debate, students questioning, think-pair-share,
quick-writes, polling, role playing, cooperative learning, group
projects, and student presentations are a few of the many
activities that are learner driven. It should be noted, however,
that even lecturer can be an active learning event if students
process and filter information as it is provided. Cornell notes
and diagramming are a couple of activities that can makelectures active learning events.
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We can learn through any of our five senses, but the three
most valuable are vision, hearing, and touch. Theorists and
practitioners claim that learners have a preference for one
learning style over another. Visual learners learn best by
watching, auditory learners learn best by verbal instruction,
and kinesthetic learnerslearn best by manipulation. Because
of the demands of the profession, teachers often resort to the
instructional style that requires the least time and preparation:lecture and discussion. Although these may be valuable
approaches to teaching and learning, they fail to take
advantage of other learning modalities and disenfranchise
students whose primary modality is visual or kinesthetic. This
book emphasizes the use of all three modalities in teaching
and learning.
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Intelligence is a property of the mind that includes many
related abilities, such as the capacities to reason, plan, solve
problems, comprehend language and ideas, learn new
concepts. And think abstractly. Historically, psychometricians
have measured intelligence with a single score (intelligence
quotient, IQ) on a standardized test, finding that such scores
are predictive of later intellectual achievement. Howard
Gardner and others assert that there are multipleintelligences, and that no single score can accurately reflect a
persons intelligence. More important, the theory of multiple
intelligences implies that people learn better through certain
modalities than others and that science teachers should
design curriculum to address as many modalities as possible.
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John Flavell argues that learning is maximized when students
learn to think about their thinking and consciously employ
strategies to maximize their reasoning and problem solving
capabilities. Metacognitive thinkers know when and how they
learn best and employ strategies to overcome barriers to
learning. As students learn to regulate and monitor their
thought process and understanding, they learn to adapt tonew learning challenges. Expert problem solvers first seek to
develop an understanding of problems by thinking in terms of
core concepts and major principles. By contrast, novice
problem solvers have not learned this metacognitive strategy
and are more likely to approach problems simply by trying to
find the right formulas into which they can insert the right
numbers. A major goal of education is to prepare students to
be flexible for new problems and settings. The ability totransfer concepts from school to the work or home
environment is a hallmark of a metacognitive thinker.
Perhaps the most widely used classification of human thought
is Blooms Taxonomy. Benjamin Bloom and his team of
researchers wrote extensively on the subject, particularly on
the six basic levels of cognitive outcomes they identified:
knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis,
and evaluation. Bloom taxonomy hierarchical, with
knowledge, comprehension, and application as fundamental
levels and analysis, synthesis, and evaluation as advanced.
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'Scientific Skills
When educators refer to higher-level reasoning, they are
generally referring to analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. One
of the major themes of this book is to develop higher-order
thinking skills through the teaching of science.
Constructivism is a major learning theory, and is particularly
applicable to the teaching and learning of science. Piaget
suggested that through accommodation and assimilation,
individuals construct new knowledge from their experiences.
Constructivism views learning as a process in which students
actively construct or build new ideas and concepts based on
prior knowledge and new information. The constructivist
teacher is a facilitator who encourages students to discover
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(Scientific Skills
principles and construct knowledge within a given framework
or structure.
The important of helping students connect with prior
knowledge and experiences as new information is presented
so they can dispense with their misconceptions and build a
correct understanding. Seymour Papert, a student of Piaget,
asserted that learning occurs particularly well when people
are engaged in constructing a product. Paperts approach,
known as constructivism, is facilitated by model building,
robotics, video editing, and similar construction projects.
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)Scientific Skills
An expert scientist is not necessarily an effective teacher. An
expert science teacher, however, knows the difficulties
students face and the misconceptions they develop and
knows how to tap prior knowledge while presenting new ideas
so students can build new, correct understandings. Schulman
refers to such expertise as pedagogical content knowledge
(PCK) and says that excellent teachers have both expert
content knowledge and expert PCK. In How People Learn,Bransford, Brown, and Cocking state, Expert teachers have a
firm understanding of their respective disciplines, knowledge
of the conceptual barriers that students face in learning about
the discipline, and knowledge of effective strategies for
working with students. Teachers knowledge of their
disciplines provides a cognitive roadmap to guide their
assignments to students, to gauge student progress, and to
support the questions students ask. Expert teachers areaware of common misconceptions and help students resolve
them.
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*Scientific Skills
Science Process Skills
Science processes are means to obtain and
investigate scientific knowledge. Everyone needs
science process skills to approach learning and the
solving of problems scientifically. Although students
need to remember theories and facts, they also need to
experience, practice and appreciate science process skills
because these skills cannot be acquired through reading. In
other words, learning new science process skills requiredpracticing the same skills at different abstract levels using
different stimuli. According to Robert Gagne learning science
process skills is not easy because students require time to
acquire basic process skills before they are able to integrate
several basic skills into a combined skill, such as the
controlling of variables. Adam Hill (2010), stated that basic
science process skills refer to the six actions and five actions
of integrated skills as follows:
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Observation is the basis of all process skills. The results ofobservation are scientific facts which can be used to carry out
other basic science process such as classifying, measuring,
making inferences, predicting, communicating and using
space time relationships. Besides that, observing also helps
to use all kinds of integrated science process skills.
Observation of real phenomena begins the inquiry
process and continues throughout all its phases. Effectiveobservation involves using all the senses together such as
seeing, hearing, touching, smelling and tasting in order to
gather as much information as possible about the object that
is being observed. In making observations, the learner
gathers evidence and ideas about phenomena and begins to
identify similarities and differences. Observation does not
require wide experience and means that children can also
make good observations.
Example of observation:
! Describing a pencil as yellow
! Describing the magnetic pull on certain substances
Using the five senses to identify the
characteristics, changes, similarities
and differences in objects.
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Types of observation
Indicators for observing
Use various senses effectively
Identify relevant particulars of the object and its surroundings
Pay more attention to relevant details out of a host of information
Identify similarities and differences
Identify unusual or unique characteristics
Aware of change in environment
Note the order of happenings that take place
Use instruments to aid senses in making a detailed study
Observation
Qualitative
Sense used todescribe objects
generally.Example: Red
colour, sphericalshape
Quantitative
Measurementmade with the
aid ofinstruments.
Example: 1.5cm
long, 2 timeslonger
Change
Physical orchemical change
described.Example: Colourof water changed
to red, size of
sweet becomesmaller
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Students in the early grades are expected to be able to sort
objects or phenomena into groups based on their
observations. Grouping objects or events is a way of imposing
order based on similarities, differences, and interrelationships.
This is an important step towards a better understanding of
the different objects and events in the world. There are
several different methods of classification. Perhaps the
simplest method is serial ordering. Objects are placed into
rank order based on some property. For example, students
can be serial ordered according to height.
Besides that, classification involves arranging objects
logically into categories that are specific. For example, living
things are divided into two big categories; animals and plants.
Each category is then divided into smaller sections according
to more specific characteristics.
There are two important factors in classification which
are:
i. Classification is based on characteristics that can be
observed.
ii. The use of dichotomy when separating objects into
categories.
Group objects or events
according to similarities or
differences
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Example of classifying:
" Classification of animals can be based on the number of
legs of the animals." Placing all rocks having certain grain size or hardness
into one group.
Indicators for classifying
! Identify similarities and differences! Group objects based on common characteristics.! Explain method of classification in simple terms.! Other criteria may be used to group objects.! Objects may be grouped in various ways.
Measuring is making quantitative observation by comparing
the objects measured against one another or against standard
unit of measurement. The basis of measuring is the repetitionof a unit. The ability to make estimate is important in order to
master the skill of measuring.
Students begin to grasp the idea of measuring by
comparing. This skill of comparing advances with the use of
numbers when they learn to measure accurately. Science
experiments offer good opportunity for children to measure
Making quantitative observations by
comparing against certain standards.
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and use numbers such as measured the weight, height, area,
volume and time. This science process skill is later used to
find out the speed of object, temperature change, rate ofgrowth and others. Not only that, students usually showed
interest in carrying out measuring instruments such as
thermometer, balance and stopwatch.
Example of measuring and using numbers:
# Using a meter stick to measure the length of a table in
centimetres.# Estimate the length of your body parts and put them in
order from the shortest to the longest.
Indicators for measuring and using numbers
"Number of items in different group may be countedand compared
"Patterns may be recognised in table of numbers"
Use scale and explain ratio"Compare objects using numbers"Record readings accurately"Record unit correctly"Choose and use standard unit"Compare time, distance, area and volume of
different units"Ensure accuracy of certain measurements
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Making inferences means interpreting or explaining what isobserved. Good inference are based on the observation or in
other hands, inference can be defined as an initial conclusion
made on the basis of observation. Any inference that is
related to the observation logically is reasonable and can be
accepted and the conclusion can only obtain based on the
result of the experiment.
Besides that, inferences can be defined as anexplanation for an observation that we have made and it is
based on past experiences and prior knowledge. Inferences
are often changing when new observations are made. As
stated before, observations are information that gathered
directly through our five senses and inferences help to explain
those observations.
Example of making inferences:
Observation:The school fire alarm is going off
Possible inferences:
"The school is on fire
"We are having a fire drill
"A student pulled the fire alarm
An initial conclusion which can be
tested for its truth.
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These are all logical explanations for why the fire alarm is
going off.
Indicators for Making Inferences
Use information obtained from observation to make aninitial conclusion which is reasonable
Make various interpretations from one observationRecognise the limitations of inferencesTest the accuracy of inferences by making additional
observationsUse inferences as tools to determine additional
observations
Predictions are central to the process of testing whether or not
a hypothesis is on the right track. This process takes away the
need for guessing. Prediction is based on evidence from past
knowledge and/or experience, and upon immediate evidencegained through observation.
A prediction goes beyond available evidence to suggest
what will happen in the future. The greater the use of
evidence to link the original ideas to future behaviours, the
more useful and testable the prediction. Previous data are
required in order to make exact predictions. Predictions are
Anticipating future events based on
observation and inference
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not just wild guesses because guessing is often based on
little or no evidence.
Examples of predicting:
" I see it is raining and the sun is coming out. There could be
a rainbow.
" When I flip the switch the lamp will light.
" If I release both balls at the same time, they will hit the
ground at the same time.
Indicators for predicting
$Use previous or current evidence to state what wouldprobably happen.
$Differentiate prediction from guesswork$Determine probable result of an action$Use pattern explicitly as evidence for projection$Validate any statement of what will happen or be
discovered based on proof and past experience
$Be cautions when making presumptions about a designwhich exceeds existing evidence
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Example of communicating:
" Describing the change in height of a plant over time in
writing or through a graph.
" Draw and colour the exterior of the fruit.
Indicators for Communication
" Speak, listen or write to explain ideas or meaning tofriends.
" Record information from studies." Draw and makes notes.
" Use symbols and explain what they mean." State questions clearly." Use reference material." Write reports of experiments so that others can repeat
the experiments.
The relationship between space and time in the occurrence of
certain events is more important compared to other events.
Space and time are two very basic concepts in science. Its
involves describing and comparing the objects in terms of
size, position, direction of movement and change in pattern
over a period of time. This skill also involves the ability to
Identify shape and movement
according to time
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#+Scientific Skills
discern and describe directions, spatial arrangements, motion
and speed, symmetry, and rate of change.
Students can relate events and experience by paying
attention to the sequence and position in which the event
takes place. In addition, imaging and thinking about
movement through space and time is a skill which must be
developed through training. The suitable topics related to
space-time relationships include topics such as shape,
symmetry, reflection, shearing and rotation specifically learnt
in Mathematics; and more complex science topics such aslight and shadow, relative movement and position, speed and
acceleration.
Example of using space-time relationship:
Measure the time taken by two objects to travel a fixed
distance.
Draw a cube so that the drawing produced looks three-
dimensional.
Indicators for Using Space-Time Relationship
# Describe location with reference to time.# Describe change of direction with reference to time.# Describe change in shape with reference to time.# Describe change in size with reference to time.# Arrange events chronologically.# Ascertain change by referring to rate of change.# Ascertain position of an object and describe its
position in space.# Describe the shape of an object seen from a different
position.# Describe the relationship between distance of a
moving object and time.
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Interpreting data includes finding a pattern of effects and
synthesizing a variety of information in order to make a
statement about their combined meaning. It may includemaking associations between variables and making sure that
the data support the hypothesized connections. It is critical to
relate findings to initial questions and observations. Any
information collected can be interpreted and communicated
orally or in writing.
Skills of interpreting data or information are important.
To acquire such data-interpreting skills, students can betrained to analyse data, diagrams, tables, graphs, pictures
and explanatory labels. Students are taught to identify
patterns or relationship between the variables concerned and
to make conclusions. It is necessary to emphasis that
conclusions made beyond what is provided for by the data
avoided. Students also are warned about conclusions which
lie beyond parameters or the data collected. Acquisition of
information interpreting skills can enhance critical thinkingskills because any conclusion supported by data lends
credibility to the information stated.
Example of interpreting data:
Examine the food label and list the information printed on
the labels.
Explaining patterns or relationship
based on information gathered
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##Scientific Skills
Why maize plants in the science garden which have had
fertilizer added to soil grow taller than those which have
not had fertilizer added to the soil.
Indicators for Interpreting Data
Collect various data and make statements aboutwhat they might mean.Identify pattern or design in the informationobtained.State the relationship between different series ofinformation.
Defining operationally can be defined as stating specific
information by describing what must be done and what should
be observed. In science, students need to define terms
operationally so that they are clear and not confusing. In
carrying out an experiment, operational definitions are needed
to communicate variables accurately. An operational definition
helps to convey clearly what are being observed or done so
that others will understand. An operational definition is
primarily a research tool and related to the concern for
controlling variables. The major function of operational
Stating specific information bydescribing what must be done and
what should be observed
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definitions is to establish the parameters of an investigation or
conclusion in an attempt to gain a higher degree of objectivity.
In carrying out an experiment, operational definitions
are needed to communicate variables accurately. For
example, in studying how exercise influence pulse rate, the
kind of exercise must be defined operationally so that the
reader knows exactly what exercise is required.
Example of defining operationally:
Describe the model of 3-dimensional insect to give an
operational definition.
Define electric circuit operationally.
Indicators for Defining Operationally
" Define terms in the context of personalexperience.
" State what is observed and what is done.
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Variables can be defined as the factors or aspects that can
influence results of experiment. In experiments, the
identification and testing of variables require careful analysisof the situation. There are three types of variables are
considered as follows:
" Manipulated variables: the factor or condition that is
manipulated or changes to test its effect on the
experiment.
" Responding variables: the experiment result that responds
or reacts to a factor or condition changed by experimenter." Constant variables: variables that keeps constant during
the experiment.
Controlling variables is also a kind of group process
because one may engage in several different behaviours in
an attempt to control variables. In general, this skill is any
attempt to isolate a single influent of a system so that its role
can be inferred. The process is an attempt to achieve a
circumstance or condition in which the impact of one variable
is clearly exposed. The use of experimental and control
circumstances, standardizing procedures and repeated
measures are only a few of the ways in which variables might
be controlled. Understanding the nature of the skill requires
analytical thinking in which the system under study can be
reduced to a set of interacting components.
Aspects that can influence
results of experiments
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#&Scientific Skills
Example of controlling variables:
State the manipulated variables for the swings of thependulums experiment.
Determined the constant variables for the experiment of
rusting factors.
Indicators for Controlling Variables
! Control the variable!Identify the variables to be studied!Identify the variables to be kept constant
Making hypothesis is known as making educated guesses
which can be tested based on evidence collected.
Hypothesizing suggests an explanation consistent with
available observations, questions, and evidence. When a
students makes a hypothesis, they link information from past
experiences that may explain both how and why events occur.
Inquiry starts when something catches our interest and takes
time to observe it very carefully. Hypothesizing arrives after
observe, comment, raise questions, and explore with
materials.
Formalized hypotheses contain two variables. One is
"independent" and the other is "dependent." The independent
Making educated guess which can be
tested based on evidencecollected
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variable is the one you, the "scientist" control and the
dependent variable is the one that you observe and/or
measure the results. Notice that, for the hypothesis statement,it contain the word if and then as examples above.
Example of hypotheses:
If skin cancer is related to ultraviolet light, then people with
a high exposure to ultra violet light will have higher
frequency of skin cancer.
If leaf colour change is related to temperature, thenexposing plants to low temperatures will result in leaf
colour.
Indicators for Making Hypotheses
$ Suggest an explanation that is in line with proof.$ Suggest an explanation that is in line with science
principles or concepts.$ Use previous knowledge to come up with an
explanation.$ Be aware that there is more than one way to
explain a happening or event.$ Be aware that the explanation is only a
suggestion.
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#(Scientific Skills
An experiment seeks to find solutions to a problem or some
facts yet unknown. It involves testing for hypothesis and the
use of controls. Through experimenting, students relate all the
science process skills in a systematic manner. Usually
experimenting is synonymous with the algorithm called
scientific method which follows these five basic steps:
In experimentation each step emerges from the
previous one. The purpose of the process is to judge theextent to which a hypothesis might be true and to set a
standard whereby that judgement is made. Experimentation
should be reserved for the process of systematically
evaluating hypotheses. ,-./012/34135 perform a scientific
procedure especially in a laboratory, to determine something
or to evaluate the hypotheses. Actually, experimenting
activities require thinking skills that are more critical and
Problem Hypothesis Predictions
Test of predictionsEvaluation ofhypothesis
Investing manipulating variables and
testing hypotheses to make
conclusions
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The laboratory can be a very exciting place in which to work
but it can also be very dangerous if the safety rules are not
obeyed. There are rules that must be followed by students
while in the science laboratory.
1)
GENERAL RULES Never enter a laboratory unless given permission by
your teacher.
Apparatus and laboratory substances cannot be
carried out without the permission of the teachers.
Apparatus and laboratory substance may be used
only on the direction of teacher.
All apparatus and laboratory substances used must
be returned to origin place or as directed by theteacher.
Always return cleaned equipment to the correct
place.
Practical work can only be done with the knowledge
and consent of the teacher.
Apparatus that is damaged or broken should be
reported immediately to the teacher or lab assistant.
Be alert and proceed with caution at all times in the
laboratory. Notify the teacher immediately of any
unsafe conditions you observe.
Students are required to maintain cleanliness and
order furniture so that organized and orderly
manner.
Be careful using a Bunsen burner especially when
you are wearing flammable clothing.
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$#Scientific Skills
1) Science Apparatus" There are various types of apparatus in a science
laboratory. The table below shows several common
types of apparatus used. Students should know
about apparatus and also need to know about the
general use of various apparatus.
Apparatus:CrucibleFunction:To heatup the chemicals
Apparatus:Test tubeFunction:To fill in the
chemicals
Apparatus:Evaporating dish
Function:Toevaporate liquid fromthe solution
Apparatus:Cork &rubber stopperFunction:Used toclog the test tube orconical flask
Apparatus:GlassslideFunction:Placing thespecimen for thepurpose of observationunder the microscope
Apparatus:Flat-bottomflaskFunction:To fill in thechemicals used in thepreparation of gas forwhich the processdoes not requireheating.
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Apparatus:SyringeFunction:Fortransferring liquids insmall amounts
Apparatus:StopwatchFunction:To measuretime
Apparatus: Test tubeholderFunction: To hold thetest tube
Apparatus:BeakerFunction:To fill inliquid and chemicals
Apparatus:ConicalflaskFunction:To fill inliquid and chemicals
Apparatus:FilterfunnelFunction:To filter themixture of solid and
liquid
Apparatus:Wire
gauze & tripod standFunction:Tosupport apparatusduring heating
Apparatus:Bunsen
burnerFunction:To providea flame
Apparatus:Test tuberackFunction:To hold thetest tube in an uprightposition
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2) Handling Instruments for measuring Quantities" In this section, students shall learn to use and handle
scientific instruments for measuring length, volume,
mass, time, temperature, electric current and voltage.
i. Ruler
Length (length) is the distance between two points. Inthe laboratory, long an object is measured using a
ruler. Meter long ruler (meter ruler) is one meter (m)
or 100 centimetres (cm). Each centimetre is divided
into 10 millimetres (mm). So, the length of the meter
rule is also equal to 1000 millimetres (mm).
The correct way to read the scale on a ruler is shown
in the diagram below. The eye must look
perpendicularly at the mark on the scale. This avoids
errors in measurement due to parallax. Parallax error
is due to the incorrect positioning of the eye. Another
reason for this is the object being not at the same
level as the markings of the scale.
1 cm = 10 mm
1 m = 100 cm = 1000 mm1 km = 1000 m
Measurement of length
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"#$ %&''$%( )&*+(+&, (& '$-. - *%-/$
0$-*1'+,2 (#$ /$,2(# &3 (#$ %1'4$
ii. Callipers
For objects without any flat sides, we cannot use a
ruler to make measurements. There are two types of
callipers which are external callipers and internal
callipers. Both the callipers were used to measureinternal and external diameter of the object.
Callipers consist of a pair of steel jaws hinged at the
base. They are closed until the points just touch the
object to be measured. Then, when the callipers are
removed, the distance between jaws can be
measured with a ruler.
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0$-*1'+,2 (#$ $5($',-/ .+-6$($' &3 - 7$-8$'
0$-*1'+,2 (#$ +,($',-/ .+-6$($' &3 - 7$-8$'
iii. Micrometre Screw Gauge
A micrometre screw gauge is used for measuring the
diameter of fine wires, the thickness of paper and
similar small distances. The micrometre has two
scales the main scale on the sleeve and the circular
scale on the thimble. One complete turn of the thimblemoves the spindle by 0.50 mm. There are 50 divisions
on the thimble. Hence each division represents a
distance of 0.01 mm. A micrometre therefore allows
us to measure accurately up to 0.01 mm.
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i. Measuring cylinder
Volume, the amount of space occupied, is usually
measured with a measuring cylinder. Chemists use the
units litres (l) and millilitres (ml). Measuring cylinder
measures a range of volumes, and are accurate to 1 or 2
ml in 100ml. When using measuring cylinder, students
should place the cylinder on a firm level surface and
always read from the bottom of the meniscus. Avoidparallax error by looking
level across the liquid
surface.
9$-.+,2 (#$ 4&/16$
1*+,2 - 6$-*1'+,2
%:/+,.$'
ii. Burette
A burette is used to measure the volume of solution that
reacts with the known volume of the other solution already
put into the titration flask from the pipette. In a titration set-
up, a burette is clamped vertically to stand. To fill aburette,
Measurement of volume
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use a funnel to pour the liquid into the burette
until the level of liquid is above the zero mark
on the burette. Then open the tap so that theburette jet is filled with liquid and all the air is
removed. When the jet is full, the tap is close.
Weight of an object is the earth gravity on the object.
Meanwhile, the mass of an object is the quantity of matter in
the object. For these reasons, we need to use the scale /
balance is different for measuring weight and mass of an
object. Spring balance and triple beam balance are used to
measure mass of objects.
i. Measure the weight
Weight of an object can be measured with spring /
compression balance. This is because the earth gravity
acts to extend the spring6
Measurement of mass
The unit of weight and mass are:
Weight (Newton/ N)
Mass (Kilogram/ Kg)
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i. Mercury thermometer
Thermometers are calibrated to
give the correct temperature when
immersed in the liquid to a depth of
seven centimetres. To read the
temperature of a liquid correctly,
the thermometer should always be
immersed in the liquid as fast as possible.
ii. Clinical thermometer
Clinical thermometers are used to
measure human body temperature.
There is a constriction in the clinical
thermometer.
i. Ammeter
Ammeter is used to measure the size of an electric current.
The ammeter must be connected in
series to the circuit. Electric current must
flow into the ammeter by the positive
terminal and leave by the negative
terminal. If it is connected the other way
aroubd, the pointer will deflect slightly
below the zero mark.
Measurement of temperature
Measurement of electric current
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ii. Multimeter
A multimeter is a multi-functional
electrical meter that can measurethe potential difference, current and
resistance. A rotating knob or
switch allows to select the quantity
that measured and the sentivity of
the instruments.
iii. Galvanometer
A galvanometer is used to detectelectric current, but not calibrated to
measure current. It has a scale and can
be used to compared current. It is easily
easily damaged because a few
thousands of an ampere can burn the
coil.
i. Voltmeter
The potential difference across two points in a circuit can
be measured by a voltmeter. The voltmeter must be
connected in parallel to the component
across which the potential difference is
being measured. The current must flow
into positive terminal (+) and flow out of
the negative (-) terminal.
Measurement of voltage or potential
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3) Handling Optical Instruments" For this section, students shall learn on how to handle
and use four types of optical instruments.
i. Magnifying Glass
A magnifying glass is a bi-
convex lens. Things look bigger
through the magnifying glass. In
order to look at the magnified
image clearly, the magnifying
glass was placed near the
object. Then, move it away from
the object until the image is clear and make an image is in
focus.
ii. Microscope
A microscope is to
magnify objects toosmall to see with the
unaided eyes. It is also
used to resolve
structural details of
small objects so that
adjacent objects can be
distinguished. Setting
up the microscope is askill which needs to be learned carefully.
a) Turn on the illuminator. When using the dimmer, it is
best slowly increase the light intensity as the lamp
heats up quite quickly.
b) Place a slide or specimen on the stage with the sample
directly above the aperture and, if possible, fasten it to
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the stage with the stage clips. Reminder: A cover slip is
always needed to allow for the best quality image.
c) Ensure the iris diaphragm is completely open, allowingthe maximum amount of light to reach the slide and the
lenses. Caution: Do not use the iris diaphragm to
control the light, it is to control resolution and contrast -
use the dimmer instead.
d) Rotate the nosepiece so that the objective lens with the
lowest level of magnification is directly above the
sample. Reminder: Using lower magnifications first
helps to select the part of the specimen of interest andthen adjust further.
e) Look through the binocular eyepieces and adjust the
iris diaphragm until the amount of light is satisfactory.
More light is better than less light, but the comfort of the
viewers eyes should also be taken into account.
f) Turn the coarse adjustment knob until the specimen
comes into broad focus. Caution: you should not use
the coarse focus with a high magnification objective forfear of the objective making contact with the slide.
g) Turn the fine adjustment knob until the specimen
comes into sharp focus.Caution: should not take a long
time to find focus, otherwise the high magnification
objective could also hit the slide. If you are having a
difficult time to find focus then restart with the lower
magnification objective.
78 The viewer should then be able rotate the nosepiece to
higher settings and bring the sample into more 93:
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iii. Telescope
A telescope is used to magnify distant objects. There are
two types of telescopes; the refractor telescope
which uses glass lenses and the reflector telescope which
uses mirrors. Telescopes come in all shape and sizes. It can
be used to observe the moon, planets, star clusters, nebulae
and even galaxies.
Steps to use the refracting telescope:
a) Align the finderscope so that it is in line with and points
to the same thing that sees in the eyepiece. The best
way to do this is to find the lowest power eyepiece and
use it to find a bright object such as the Moon.
b) Once get the target (for example Moon) centred in theeyepiece of telescope, re-centre the Moon in the
eyepiece from time to time as the Moon is constantly
moving.
c) Finderscope should be at least one set of three thumb
screws holding the finderscope in place. Gently loosen
the screws on the finderscope and look through its
eyepiece until see the cross hair.
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d) Align the Moon on the cross hair by alternately
adjusting the screws until it stays centred.
e) Tighten the screws to hold the finderscope securelyand make it aligned with the telescope eyepiece.
iv. Binoculars
A pair of binoculars consists of two compact refracting
telescopes joined together. It has a same function as the
telescope with the advantage of giving both binocular and
stereoscopic visions. Binocular vision allows distances tobe judged and shapes to be perceived in depth whereas
stereoscopic vision allows seeing objects as solid shapes
in three dimensions.
Step to use the binoculars:
a) To use a pair of binoculars, account for a difference in
eye strength or vision. Centre-focusing binoculars have
an adjustment mechanism to compensate for eyes of
unequal strength.
b) Only one eyepiece is independently adjustable, and it
has a scale marked off in dioptres, the optical
measuring unit for spherical power.
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Maintenance is important to ensure that all equipment and
apparatus are in good condition and can be used.
Maintenance of science apparatus and laboratory substances
includes glass equipment, optical instruments, instruments
and chemicals. All equipment and apparatus should be
maintained so that long lasting and safe to use. Screeningequipment and apparatus must be carried out regularly and
systematically.
1) Glass instruments" Glass instruments commonly used are made from soda
glass and borosilicate glass. The cleft of glass
instruments can be improved and borosilicate glass
apparatus be sanded back with fine polish. Glassinstruments can be cleaned with a suitable detergent
and then washed with water.
Glass instruments Cleaning and storing
a) Beaker andmeasuring
cylinder
Stored on the shelvesaccording to the type and
size.
b) Tube andglass rod
Placed horizontally to preventbending. Hollow glass tubeshould be closed in both endsto prevent dust.
c) Burette andpipette
Stored in upright on theshelves.
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Burette or pipette must bewashed with dilute nitric acid
followed by water to avoidalkali attached to it.
d) Reagentbottles
Reagent bottles that werefilled with chemicals must belabelled.
Label that has been damagedshould be replaced with anew label.
e) Syringe Syringes should be washedbefore use in order to avoiddust.
Syringe needle must be keptin a locked and if not used,the piston must be separatedfrom the cylinder.
f) Glass slide Specimens glass slide mustbe labelled and sorted bycategory.
Empty glass slide should becleaned with alcohol and keptin a box.
g) Small glassinstruments
(petri dish,tubespecimens)
Stored in the tray
Cannot store in high place or
mixed with other equipment.
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Instruments Cleaning and storing
a) Galvanometer Galvanometer terminalsshould be cleaned to avoidrust and sensitive enoughwhen installed wires.
The adjustment must work toensure that the galvanometerreading can give accuratereadings.
Make sure that thegalvanometer is not storednear the magnetic sources.
b) Ammeter andvoltmeter
Direct current of ammeter andvoltmeter can only be usedfor direct current circuits only.
However, alternating currentof ammeter and voltmeter canbe used for direct currentcircuit if used other pointer.
c) Thermometer Must be stored in appropriatecontainers becausethermometer bulb is madefrom glasses and it is thin andfragile.
Thermometer should not beused as a rod to stir thesolution.
After used thermometer clinic,the thermometer should becleaned with alcohol.
d) Vanier calliper Should be kept in desiccatorto avoid rusting.
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If rusty, Vanier callipers needto be scrubbed with fine sand
paper and stored in originalcontainers.
e) Micrometrescrew gauge
Micrometre screw gaugeshould be lubricated with oiland kept in a box.
f) Balance Should be kept in storage orin the preparation room and
away from corrosivechemicals.
Mechanical balance shouldbe lubricated with a little oil ina regular basis.
Electronic balance should beplaced in a specific and notencouraged to be transferredbecause it is sensitive and
easily damaged by vibration.
g) Stopwatch Should be stored its boxes
after used. For digital stopwatch, battery
must be removed if not usedin the long term.
4)Chemicals" Stocks of chemicals must be checked regularly to
determine whether the material safely used. Older
stock must be used first. Toxic and hazardous
chemicals must be strictly controlled, by controlling the
quantity and kept in a locked cabinet. Besides that,
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chemicals that are sensitive to light should be kept in
dark glass bottles to avoid sunlight.
Chemicals Storing
a) Inorganicchemicals
Inorganic chemicals shouldbe stored separately fromorganic chemicals.
Chemicals and shelves mustbe labelled according to thename of the metal.
b) Organicchemicals
Organic chemicals are usuallystored in alphabetical order inplace that is separate fromother materials.
Most of the organic chemicalsare volatile or poisonousliquid, so store used to storechemicals must have goodventilation.
" Storage Regulations
Storage of chemicals must follow the regulations as
follows:
i. Stocks of chemicals must be stored in chemical
storeroom with good ventilation.
ii. This chemicals storage rack should have a barrier to
prevent the bottle falling.
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iii. A volatile and hazardous liquid should be stored in a
fume chamber.
iv. Toxic materials shall be kept in a locked cabinet andlabelled as toxic substances.
v. The use of toxic substances must be recorded.
vi. Chemicals that expired and cannot be used must be
disposed properly.
Chemical reagent bottles must be clearly labelled and
the label should be continuously checked. Details of thelabel are as follows:
Label on reagent bottles for concentrated chemicals or
corrosive must be printed in red.
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" Lab safety is an integral part of performing science
experiments in school and one that can prevent injuries
and accidents. Proper lab safety involves many
procedures and precautions, as well as equipment and
gear, so dedicating an entire lesson to reviewing lab safety
will help students to absorb the information. Presenting the
information in an entertaining and active manner, or bymotivating students with bonus points, can help engage
them in the activities.
" Science substances in the science laboratory must be
handled properly and safely. Incorrect in handling science
substances such as handling of chemicals, radioactive
material, biological, electric devices and hazardous
chemical substances can lead to the following hazards:i. Fire and explosion caused by reactive materials.
ii. Burns caused by corrosive chemicals.
iii. Allergy to the science substances.
iv. Injuries caused by chemical spills and splashes.
v. Pollution to the environment.
vi. Poisoning due to inhaling poisonous gas.
vii. Hazard caused by exposure to radiation.
1) Handling of chemicals" Chemicals safe to use if handled properly. There are
some chemicals that have certain features such as
flammable and explosive, corrosive, toxic and
irritating. Symbol of hazardous chemicals shown in
figure below:
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Symbol Description
Poisonous
Self-explanatory. Whereasmost chemicals are fairlydangerous if ingested orinhaled, many of these aredangerous even on contact.
Environmentalhazard
Relatively rare with laboratorychemicals (most of which
pose some environmentalhazard if not got rid ofcorrectly), these requireparticular care to be taken ondisposal.
Corrosive
Avoid contact with the skin.Bear in mind that these can(under some circumstances)rust chemical cupboards.
Explosive
Self-explanatory, though fairlyseldom seen in the averagelab. Bear in mind that noiseand movement can alsotrigger explosion (not justsparks/flames).
Flammable/extremelyflammable
Chemicals to be stored inflame-resistant cupboards.Volatile solvents can be aparticular problem as they areprone to spread around fromunsealed containers. Thiscovers pyrophoric materials.
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Irritant orharmful
This symbol covers a widerange of (sometimes relatively
minor) hazards - withprecautions such as avoidcontact with the skin, do notbreathe, etc.
Oxidisingchemical
Oxidising chemicals arematerials that spontaneouslyevolve oxygen at room
temperature or with slightheating, or that promotecombustion.
Radioactive
Designates those substanceswhich have measurableradioactivity. Caution! Avoidexposure.
PoisonousGas
Used for transport of apoisonous gas - on gascylinders, or sometimes as anindicator on vehicles.
Poison
More general symbol for thetransport of poisonousmaterials (not necessarily agas).
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Dangerouswhen wet
Generally means that it willreact fairly violently with
water.
FlammableGas
Safety symbol used for thetransport or storage of aflammable gas.
Non-flammableGas
Safety symbol used in thetransport of non-flammable(and hence often non-hazardous, at least out in the
open) gases
OrganicPeroxide
Chemical safety symbol usedin the transport and storage oforganic peroxides
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i. Hazardous chemicals
" All chemicals are dangerous if not handled in the
correct way. This is because the chemical isflammable, corrosive and toxic and reacts to
produce other substances that cause harm. Some
are very active reactions to cause an explosion and
fire. The table below shows examples of the harmful
chemicals commonly used in schools.
Chemicals Harmful effects Storage and
disposalAsbestos Asbestos
dusts irritateeyes, lungsand skin. Itcan causelung cancer ifinhaled for thelong term.
Wet theasbestos andinsert it into thepolythene bagand labelledbefore disposal.
Benzene(C6H6)
Highlyflammableand toxic ifswallowed,inhaled orabsorbedthrough theskin. Nature
carcinogenic.
Keep a coolplace. Do notmix withchlorine andother oxidizingagents.Benzene wastemust be
disposed of inunused land.
Bromine(Br2)
Vapour is veryirritating to theeyes, lungsand skin.Liquidbromine istoxic and
Mix alkalinesolution withplenty of waterand pour downin the drainduring disposal.Disposal shall
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nerve cellsand cause
blindness anddeath.
Naphthalene(C10H8)
Dangerouswhen inhaled,swallowedand contactwith the skin.Use goggles
and gloveswhen usingnaphthalene.
Never mixedwith strongoxidizingagents. Moistenwith water andstored in
polythene bagsbeforedisposing.
Potassium,sodium,calcium,lithium
Burst andburned whenreacted withwater. Reactwith tetrachloromethane.
Stored inparaffin oil. Addto absoluteethanol beforedisposal.
Magnesium,zinc,
aluminium
Easily to firewith brightflame.
Kept away fromoxidizing agentssuch as nitrate,chlorate andperoxide.
Sulphur Explosion andcombustionoccurs whensulphur isheated andproducedsulphurdioxide thathighly toxic.
Kept away fromoxidizing agentsand avoidheating.Sulphur mustbe stored in acool placed.
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ii. Handling of chemical spills
" Any chemical spillage is dangerous and requires
immediate action. These spills can produce toxicfumes as well as cause of fire and accidents.
Rubber gloves should be used during clean up any
spills. The table below shows the procedure for
handling spills.
Substances Procedure
Solids thatstable at roomtemperaturesuch as zincpowder.
This substance is swept withsuitable tools, collected andplaced in appropriate wastecontainers.
Acid Acid solution spills should bewashed with water and pipedto the drain.
Solid or solution of sodium
bicarbonate can be used toneutralize the remaining acidspill and then wash with water
Oily materialssuch ascoconut oiland grease
Oil spillage should be wipedwith a cloth or clean with thesand sprinkled on the spill.
Spill area should be cleanedwith soap and water.
Volatilesolvents
If it is small spills, wiped witha cloth and throw the clothinto a suitable wastecontainer.
Large spills are cleaned witha mop until dry. Mops usedshould be cleaned.
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3) Handling of biological" Safety precautions should be emphasized in handling
biological materials such as microorganisms, insects,
parasites and small animals.
i. Safety precautions in handling microorganismsSome bacteria, fungi and viruses are dangerous.
Handling this material should be done with caution
and the following are the steps to be taken when
handling microorganisms.
Before starting work, make sure there is
adequate supply of antiseptic.
All surfaces, chairs and work areas should be
cleaned with antiseptic detergent before leaving
the laboratory.
After used the pollutants, put in a polythene
bag and tied up neatly before being disposed of
in the trash. Fridge and the tools used to store the culture
medium must be cleaned with antiseptic.
While doing the cleaning, lab coat, gloves and
goggles should be used.
Hands should be washed thoroughly with soap
and antiseptic before leaving the laboratory.
All spills and accidents must be recorded.
ii. Safety precautions in handling insects and smallanimals.In order to handling insects and small animals,
several safety precautions should be taken as
follows:
Insects and small animals should be placed in
safe containers such as cages or aquariums.
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Experimental animals may carry pathogens, so
handling must be done safely, such as wearing
gloves. Any wounds on the hands should be wrapped
completely before studied on insects and small
animals.
Any bites and scratches by experimental
animals must be treated with antiseptic and
medical treatment should be taken.
Carcass experimental animals shall be
disposed of in a safe manner, such as landfills
and completely burned.
4) Handling of electric devices" The use of electrical devices can cause accidents if
not follow the rules or appliances are not maintained
properly. To prevent accidents caused by incorrect of
handling electrical equipment, the following stepsshould be taken:
Never touch electrical equipment with wet hands.
When working with electricity do not stand on
metal, wet concrete or wet ground. It is wiser to
stand on a rubber-mat or a dry wooden platform.
Faulty electrical appliances and equipment must
be properly handled and repaired promptly.
Proper maintenance of electric wiring and fuses is
essential. Fuses should not be replaced with ones
of higher amperage or with thick wires or tin foils.
Disconnect electrical gadgets when not in use.
Electric wires or cords, if faulty, should never be
used until repaired.
Electric gadgets should be repaired only by a
qualified person.
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5) Handling of hazardous experimental substances" Accidents can occur in the handling of science
equipment and materials when conduct the
experiment if students are careless and do not take
proper measures. There was an experiment
conducted in the laboratories that are potentially
harmful. specific measures should be taken as
shown:
Experiment Handling procedure
Hydrogenflame
Experiments involving hydrogen gasis hazardous. Open flames must beavoided. Mixture of hydrogen andoxygen will explode when ignited.
Heating ofchlorate
Heating chlorate with oxidizedmaterials such as phosphorus orsulphur can cause explosion. Make
sure that the mixture does notcontain phosphorus chlorate andsulphur.
Heating ofammonium
nitrate
Any experiment involving theheating of ammonium nitrate shouldbe avoided as these materials mayexplode when heated, even in smallquantities.
Reactionsinvolvingreactivemetals
Experiments involving reactivemetals such as sodium or potassiumshould use a small quantity. Tongsshould be used to take or transferthis material.
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Experimentusing
concentratedacid
For the experiment that useconcentrated acids, do not pour the
water into concentrated acid. Ifconcentrated acid should be diluted,pour acid slowly into the water.Never add concentrated acid tochlorate. Use a dropper whentransferring concentrated acidsduring the experiment.
Experiment
involvingbromine
Electrolysis of lead bromide (II) will
produce bromine gas. Brominevapour harmful to eyes, lungs andskin. Experiment involving liquid orvapour of bromine must be carriedout in fume chamber. In the redoxexperiment, bromine water is safe tobe used compared to liquid bromine.
" Hazardous experiments should be conducted by theteacher in a demonstration. During a demonstration,
following steps must be followed:
Distance between students and demonstration
material should be appropriate.
Make sure students in a small group during the
demonstration.
Make sure that safety precautions are used.
The place where the demonstrations carried out shallbe suitable either outside or in the laboratory science.
Teachers must always be with students in the science
laboratory.
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~ ~ PANIC BUSTERS ~ ~
What do I do when
A fire occurs?In the event of a fire, alert the teacher and leave
the laboratory immediately.
My clothes are on fire?Stop-Drop-Roll! Stop immediately,
drop to the floor, and roll. This is the quickest way to smother a
fire.
My lab partners clothes or hair is on fire?Grab the nearest
the blanket, and use it to extinguish the flames. Inform the
teacher.
A chemical comes in contact with eyes? Wash your eyes
with water for at least 15 minutes. Inform the teacher.
I spill a chemical on my body?Rinse the affected area for at
least 15 minutes. Inform the teacher.
I spill a chemical on the floor?Keep your classmates away
from the area, and alert the teacher immediately.
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Activities
In order to enhance students knowledge about the
scientific skills, there are some exercises and web
pages recommended for students to try by their own
as follows:
1) http://www.epa.gov/region03/ee/chesapeake/game
1.htm
2) 744.BCC===614/9@7D1;6@;2CAE1
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Scientific Method - Designing and Conducting an
Experiment
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HYPOTHESIS
1) Juabita planted seeds with an
oblong shape in three
containers. She placed ten
seeds with the pointed end
facing down in one container.
In the second container, she
placed ten seeds with the
pointed sideways in a third
container. All the seeds werecovered with soil. Each
container was given equal
amounts of water and light
each day. Within three weeks,
ten plants were growing in
each of the container.
2) Dylan calculated
the density of water and of
four solid objects. He then
placed the objects in a tub
filled with water. Dylan
observed that the objects
that were denser than
water sank to the bottomof the tub. The object that
was less dense than water
floated to the waters
surface.
3) Shari set up plastic bowling pins 0.5m from the end of a ramp. She
rolled a ball down the ramp into the pins. She then counted how many of
the pins the rolling ball moved. She repeated this three more times using
balls of different masses. Shari observed that the ball with the greatest
mass moved the most pins.
Write a hypothesis for each investigation above.
1. Hypothesis: .
2. Hypothesis: .
3. Hypothesis: .
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SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Find all the terms associated with the scientific method.
C Y D E L B A I R A V S U E P S A I
D H R A F O X L Q I T S R R E C X N
A O A O T E C L Y E N A O J Q I E D
N O H R E A W M P O P B M S U E U E
A Q H T T H X S I M L N L E I N O P
L M V J E S T T O E M O D L P T N E
Y W B O S M A C M W I L C B M I O N
S K K Y Q V C I K B T H Z A E S I DI P O V R G E I H E A O P I N T S E
S J P E R C U Q F Z A O Y L T S U N
U S S A N E N R G I X S Z E Z Y L T
X B P E N O Q E E R T L S R R A C X
O H I K C N I K H H Y N O E F H N A
S C I N F E R E N C E K E R C R O I
S S C Y T N E D N E P E D I T O C S
I N Q R S I S E H T O P Y H C N R M
H S X N S E L U R Y T E F A S S O P
N J Z S I X S T N E M I R E P X E C
ANALYSIS EXPERIMENTS RELIABLE
CHARTS GRAPHS SAFETY RULESCOMPARE HYPOTHESIS SCIENCE
CONCLUSION INDEPENDENT SCIENTIFIC METHODS
CONTROL INFERENCE SCIENTISTSDATA OBSERVATIONS STEPSDEPENDENT PROBLEM THEORY
EQUIPMENT PROCESS VARIABLES
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Scientific Reasoning Skills
Although the goal of education is to develop thinkers and
lifelong learners, few classroom activities encourage students
to monitor of improve their own thinking about and regulating
ones own thought processes, is a skill that differentiates
expert from novice learners. Expert learners employ effective
learning techniques, monitor their own learning, and develop
and adapt strategies to become more effective learners. The
activities in this chapter require students to think about their
own thinking, with the goal of developing better metacognitive
skills and becoming more effective learners.
Novice learners rarely evaluate their comprehension,
examine the quality of their work, or make adjustments in their
learning strategies. They are generally satisfied with
superficial explanations and do not strive to make connections
or understand the relevance of material learned. By contrast,
expert learners think about their thinking, know when they
dont understand something, reflect on the quality of their
work, make revisions in learning strategies as they proceed,
search for deeper explanations, and strive to understand how
concepts are interrelated.
Metacognition involves the development,
implementation, and evaluation of a learning plan. During
development, learners establish goals (what needs to be
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learned and to what depth), determine relevent prior
knowledge and skills, define task requirements (time,
schedule, evaluation criteria), and select resources (books,peers, authorities, electronic references) that will assist them
in reaching their goals. During implementation, learners apply
strategies (eg., concept mapping), evaluate the effectiveness
of these strategies (using formative assessments including
self-questioning), and modify their plans as necessary. As
individuals become more skilled with metacognitive strategies,
they gain confidence and become independent learners,
determining and pursuing their own intellectual needs.
This chapter focuses on the identification and
development of essential reasoning skills, and much of the
rest of this book deals with specific strategies. Teachers
should implement learning activities that develop these skills
and instruments that assess them. As students learn to
identify and develop their reasoning skills, they become more
effective and independent learners and better able to use thestrategies introduced throughout this book.
Inductive reasoning (drawing conclusions from the
natural world through observation and experimentation) is the
process of making generalizations from specific information.
By contrast, deductive reasoningderiving testable predictions
about cases from established principles) is a process of
making specific conclusions by the application of generalprinciples. Scientists and others employ both in their work and
everyday lives.
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In an effort to categorize reasoning and learning
skills, a committee of psychologists and educators, directed
by Benjamin Bloom, developed a taxonomy of effective,
psychomotor, and cognitive skills. The taxonomy of cognitive
objectives became widely used by educators and curriculum
developers. Recently, experts have proposed modifications,
but although I see merit in the revised classification, theactivities in this book use the original format because of its
familiarity and widespread acceptance in literature and
practice. Although designed as a hierarchy, the elements are
not strictly hierarchical in practice, so the position within the
hierarchy should not be overemphasized. Blooms taxonomy
gives us the opportunity to examine our teaching emphasis,
and it is noted that most secondary instruction focuses on
basic knowledge ad comprehension and gives minimal
attention to the development of higher-order reasoning skills.
Fortunately, the sciences provide as environment that is
conducive to the development of these skills, and many
teachers capitalize on this to help develop critical thinkers.
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(A) Blooms Taxonomy, 1956. (B) Revised Taxonomy, 2001.
Expert learners use metacognitive strategies to
monitor and improve their learning, employ inductive and
deductive logic to make discoveries, and exhibit knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and
evaluation as they study and work in addition, theydemonstrate critical thinking, creativity, fluency, flexibility,
originality, lateral thinking, transferability, and elaboration.
Critical thinking is the process of analyzing and
evaluating information on the basis of evidence and logic.
Critical thinkers evaluate statements, opinions, and
hypotheses by collecting, analyzing, and evaluating data,
issues, and arguments from different sources and
perspectives. Critical thinking is used to identify
misconceptions in science.
A B
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Creativity may involve insight, inventiveness,
imagination, innovation, originality, initiative, and
resourcefulness to develop new hypotheses, products, or
ways of thinking. It is difficult to teach creativity, but teachers
can provide activities that help develop the requisite skills of
fluency (the ability to generate many ideas), flexibility (the
ability to see things different perspectives), and elaboration(the ability to build on existing ideas). Fluent individuals
generally consider many options and think outside the box.
Brainstorming activities are helpful for accomplishing this.
Flexible thinkers can analyze problems and issues from a
variety of perspectives.
This chapter provides lateral thinking exercises,
designed to help students approach problems from a varietyof perspectives. Finally, much emphasis is given in this book (
and in the companion books Hands-On Physics Activities with
Applications and Hands-On Chemistry Activities with Real-Life
Applications) to transferabilitythe aptitude for applying ideas
across a wide variety of contexts.
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Any discussion of thought processes requires first agreeingon terms and interpretations. Perhaps the most widely used
classification of human thought is one known as Blooms
taxonomy. Benjamin Bloom and his team of researchers
wrote extensively on the subject, particularly on six basic
levels of cognitive outcomes the identified: knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and
evaluation. Blooms taxonomy is hierarchical, with knowledge,
comprehension, and application as fundamental levels, andanalysis, synthesis, and evaluation as advances levels. When
educators refer to higher-level reasoning, they are generally
referring to analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
Blooms Taxonomy of Cognitive Skills
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Verbs Commonly Associated with Levels of Reasoning
The following questions from a physics test on motion
represent all six levels of Blooms taxonomy. A rationale is
provided for each classification, but alternative classifications
are possible depending on the prior knowledge of the
students. For example, the comprehension question could be
considered a knowledge question if students had memorized
a textbook explanation. After reviewing the physics questions
on motion below, classify the chemistry, biology, and earth
science questions, the questions are written so each set has
representatives from all six levels of Blooms taxonomy. Note
that it is not necessary to understand the content of these
questions in order to identify the level of reasoning they
represent.
Knowledge
when what
where who memorize name order cite copy define describe label list
match record
recount repeat show specify
Comprehension
associate classify
convert describe differentiate discuss distinguish estimate explain express extend group identify
indicate order
paraphrase predict report summarize
Application
apply calculate
chart choose compute construct demonstrate determine develop examine illustrate interview modify
operate prepare
produce relate report show
Analysis
analyze arrange
categorize classify compare contrast correlate detect diagram differentiate dissect test survey
outline order
investigate inventory interpret identify
Synthesis
adapt assemble
collaborate compose construct create design develop devise formulate generalize generate hypothesize
imagine integrate
speculate revise reorganize propose
Evaluation
argue assess
conclude convince criticize decide deduce defend determine infer interpretjudgejustify
persuade rate
rank recommend relate value
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Blooms
Taxonomy
Questions Rationale
Knowledge Write the formula that describes themotion of a falling object near theEarths surface?
This requires recalling thememorized formula.
Comprehension Explain why objects fall more slowly onthe Moon than on Earth?
This requiresunderstanding thedifference between themasses of the Moon andEarth and how affectsacceleration.
Application A baseball falls from a height of 30 m.Ignoring air resistance, calculate thetime ball hits the ground.
This requires applying akinematics equation toderive the answer to thisproblem.
Analysis A bullet is fired from a rifle aimed atthe horizon, and at the same time asidentical bullet is dropped from thesame height as the muzzle of the gun.Ignoring air resistance, compare andcontrast the trajectory of both
bullets and the time requires to hitthe ground.
This requires examiningthe similarities anddifferences of thetrajectories, anddistinguishing relevantfrom irrelevant
information to answer thequestion.
Synthesis Bawling balls, basketballs, baseballs,
golf balls, and ping pong balls at thesame rate in a vacuum. Develop ahypothesis that predicts the orderthey will hit the ground if droppedfrom a height of 1000m in air. Explain
you reasoning.
This question requires
generating andsubstantiating ahypothesis based onestablished principles,prior knowledge, andexperience.
Evaluation Legend has it that Galileo investigatedthe motion of falling bodies by
dropping cannon balls from the leaningtower of Pisa. In reality, his studies ofmotion were conducted by rollingobjects down declined planes. Discussthe advantages this method may have
held for Galileo.
This requires judging themerits of Galileos
approach using criteriaand logic.
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Determining Levels of Reasoning Required by
earth Science Questions.
Classify the earth science questions below with thelevels of Blooms Taxonomy that they best represent.
Reminder: it is not necessary to understand thecontent of these questions in order to identify thelevel of reasoning they represent.
1. Explain why the air pressure in Death Valley (280feet below sea level) is greater than on top of
Mount Whitney (14,495 feet above sea level).2. Design a barometer using only the following items:
plastic soda bottle, balloon, straw, and tape.
Illustrate your design with an annotated diagram.3. Define standard atmospheric temperature andpressure (STP).
4. Assess the benefits and shortcomings ofbarometric and global positioning system altimeters
for use in private aircraft.5. A mercury barometer reads 760mm (1 atmosphere).
What minimum height would the barometer need tobe to measure this pressure if it were made using
water, knowing that density of mercury is 12.56times that of water?
6. A noodle dish cooked at sea level is fine, while thesame dish cooked for the same length of time a
10,000 feet is crunchy. Analyze the differencesbetween the two cooking environments, and offer anexplanation for the difference.
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)%Scientific Skills
Science may be defined as the development and organizationof knowledge of the physical universe through observation,
experiment, and reason, and the body of knowledge gained
from such activities. The word sciencecomes from the Latin
scientia, meaning knowledge, because science is a way of
knowing about the physical world. One of the primary ways
scientists discover new knowledge is through inductive
reasoning: the logic of developing generalizations,
hypotheses, and theories from specific observations andexperiments. The premises or observation support the
conclusion or generalization but do not ensure it. The
following examples of inductive reasoning illustrate how it is
used to develop reasonable, although not certain,
conclusions.
Physicists have repeatedly measured the acceleration
due to gravity at sea level to be 9.8 m/s2, and this value is
now an accepted constant, even though it has not been tested
everywhere that is at sea level on the Earths surface. As with
all other conclusions derived by induction, it is possible thatthis generalization is flawed. It is possible, although extremely
unlikely, what newer measurements will show different values
at places not yet measured.
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Developing a Periodic Table by Inductive Reasoning
(Chemistry)
Materials: Paint chips (available from a home improvement or paintstore)
The pioneering Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleyev analyzeddata of the elements and found that when arranged at predictableintervals. Mendeleyev developed a table in which he arranged
elements with similar properties in columns of ascending atomicmass. His table provided a general summary of the elements, hadtremendous predictive value, and is widely used in its revised form,the periodic table of the elements.
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In this activity, you will engage in an analogous
process as you arrange paint color chips into anorganized periodic table. Your instructor will provide
you with an envelope containing paint chips of a varietyof colors and intensities. Apply the following rules as youarrange the chips.
The basic color of a paint chip represents it
chemical properties. For example, all blue paintchips can be considered to have similar properties,
significantly different from those of red chips. Thebasic color of a chip is analogous to melting point,ionization energy, conductivity, or some otherperiodic property.
The shade of a paint chip is analogous to atomi
mass. Thus, a light blue paint chip represents anelement of lower atomic mass while a dark blue paint
chip represents an element that has similar
properties as the light blue chip, but with higheratomic mass.Arrange all chips with similar colors in the same
column (family) and all colors with similar intensity(shade) in the same row (series). In the real Periodic
Table of the Elements, properties gradually change frommetallic to non-metallic as you proceed through a seriesfrom the left to the right across the table. You may
illustrate this concept by arranging your columns in thesequence of the visible spectrum: red-orange-yellow-green-blue-violet. Place the reddest colors on the, left
of your table and the most violet colors on the right.
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Whereas inductive reasoning draws general principles fromspecific instances, deductive reasoning draws specific
conclusions from general principles or premises. Apremiseis
a previous statement or proposition from which another is
inferred or follows as a conclusion. Unlike inductive
reasoning, which always involves uncertainty, the conclusions
from deductive inference are certain provided the premises
are true. Scientist use inductive reasoning to formulate
hypotheses and theories and deductive reasoning whenapplying them to specific situations. The following are
examples of deductive reasoning:
Physics: Electric Circuits
First premise: The current in an electrical circuit is
directly proportional to the voltage and inversely
proportional to the resistance (I=V/R).
Second premise: The resistance in a circuit is
doubled.
Inference: Therefore, the current is cut in half.
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)*Scientific Skills
Chemistry: Element Classification
First premise: Noble gases are stable.Second premise: Neon is a noble gas.
Inference: Therefore, neon is stable.
Biology: Plant Classification
First premise: Monocot flower parts are in multiples
of three.Second premise: Apple flowers have five petals.
Inference: Therefore a le trees are not monocot.
Astronomy: Planetary Motion
First premise: The ration of the squares of the periods of any
two planets is equal to the ratio of the cubes of their average
distances from the sun. T12/R1
3= T22/R2
3
Second premise: Earth is closer to the Sun than Mars.
Inference: Therefore, Earth orbits the Sun faster than Mars.
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Deducing the Wavelength of Sound (Physics)
Materials needed: tuning forks, 1L graduatedcylinder or equally deep sink or container, 1 or 2
diameter PVC or glass pipe; or use the simple dataprovided.
The following premises apply to a pipe that has
one end and one sealed end:Premise 1: A resonant standing wave isestablished when two sound waves of the same
amplitude and wavelength travel in oppositedirections.
Premise 2: Sound waves reflect off the sealedend of a tube.
Premise 3: A tube with one open end resonates
when its length is one quarter the wavelength ofsound (1/4!)
Inference: The wavelength of soundis four times the shortest length of
pipe that resonates. We cantherefore determine the wavelength
of sound by finding the shortest
length of pipe in which the sound willresonate and multiplying its length by
four.
"%U
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*#Scientific Skills
Lateral thinking is the ability to approach problems from avariety of perspectives rather than only from the single most
obvious approach. Consider the following question:
The standard way to approach this question is to
calculate the distance relative to a point on the Earths surface
by multiplying the speed of the jet (800km/h) by the time in
flight (3 hours). Alternatively, you could calculate the speed
relative to the Earths center
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