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Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. 9-2
Chapter Outline
1) Overview
2) Noncomparative ScalingTechniques
3) Continuous Rating Scale
4) Itemized Rating Scale
i. Likert Scale
ii. Semantic Differential Scale
iii. Stapel Scale
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Chapter Outline
5) Noncomparative Itemized Rating Scale Decisionsi. Number of Scale Categories
ii. Balanced Vs. Unbalanced Scales
iii. Odd or Even Number of Categories
iv. Forced Vs. Non-forced Scales
v. Nature and Degree of Verbal Description
vi. Physical Form or Configuration
6) Multi-item Scales
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Chapter Outline
7) Scale Evaluation
i. Measurement Accuracy
ii. Reliability
iii. Validity
iv. Relationship between Reliability andValidity
v. Generalizability
8) Choosing a Scaling Technique
9) Mathematically Derived Scales
Reliable? Valid? Generalizable?
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Chapter Outline
10) International Marketing Research
11) Ethics in Marketing Research12) Summary
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Noncomparative Scaling Techniques
Respondents evaluate only one object at a time,and for this reason non-comparative scales
are often referred to as monadic scales. Non-comparative techniques consist of
continuous and itemized rating scales .
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A relatively new research tool, the perception analyzer, provides continuousmeasurement of gut reaction. A group of up to 400 respondents is presentedwith TV or radio spots or advertising copy. The measuring device consists of adial that contains a 100-point range. Each participant is given a dial andinstructed to continuously record his or her reaction to the material being tested.
As the respondents turn the dials, theinformation is fed to a computer, which tabulatessecond-by-second response profiles. As theresults are recorded by the computer, they aresuperimposed on a video screen, enabling theresearcher to view the respondents' scoresimmediately. The responses are also stored in apermanent data file for use in further analysis.The response scores can be broken down bycategories, such as age, income, sex, or productusage.
Perception Analyzer
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Itemized Rating Scales
The respondents are provided with a scale that hasa number or brief description associated with eachcategory.
The categories are ordered in terms of scaleposition, and the respondents are required to selectthe specified category that best describes theobject being rated.
The commonly used itemized rating scales are theLikert, semantic differential, and Stapel scales.
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Likert Scale
The Likert scale requires the respondents to indicate a degree of agreement ordisagreement with each of a series of statements about the stimulus objects.
Strongly Disagree Neither Agree Stronglydisagree agree nor agree
disagree
1. Sears sells high-quality merchandise. 1 2X 3 4 5
2. Sears has poor in-store service. 1 2X 3 4 5
3. I like to shop at Sears. 1 2 3X 4 5
The analysis can be conducted on an item-by-item basis (profile analysis), or atotal (summated) score can be calculated.
When arriving at a total score, the categories assigned to the negativestatements by the respondents should be scored by reversing the scale.
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Semantic Differential Scale
The semantic differential is a seven-point rating scale with
end points associated with bipolar labels that have semanticmeaning.
SEARS IS:
Powerful --:--:--:--:-X-:--:--: Weak
Unreliable --:--:--:--:--:-X-:--: ReliableModern --:--:--:--:--:--:-X-: Old-fashioned
The negative adjective or phrase sometimes appears at theleft side of the scale and sometimes at the right.
This controls the tendency of some respondents, particularlythose with very positive or very negative attitudes, to markthe right- or left-hand sides without reading the labels.
Individual items on a semantic differential scale may bescored on either a -3 to +3 or a 1 to 7 scale.
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A Semantic Differential Scale for Measuring Self-Concepts, Person Concepts, and Product Concepts
1) Rugged :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Delicate
2) Excitable :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Calm3) Uncomfortable :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Comfortable4) Dominating :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Submissive5) Thrifty :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Indulgent6) Pleasant :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Unpleasant
7) Contemporary :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Obsolete8) Organized :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Unorganized9) Rational :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Emotional
10) Youthful :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Mature11) Formal :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Informal12) Orthodox :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Liberal13) Complex :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Simple14) Colorless :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Colorful15) Modest :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Vain
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Scale Basic Characteristics
Examples Advantages Disadvantages
ContinuousRatingScale
Place a mark on acontinuous line
Reaction toTVcommercials
Easy to construct Scoring can becumbersomeunlesscomputerized
Itemized Rating Scales
Likert Scale Degrees ofagreement on a 1(strongly disagree)to 5 (strongly agree)scale
Measurementof attitudes
Easy to construct,administer, andunderstand
Moretime - consuming
SemanticDifferential
Seven - point scalewith bipolar labels
Brand,product, andcompanyimages
Versatile Controversy asto whether thedata are interval
StapelScale
Unipolar ten - pointscale, - 5 to +5,without a neutral point (zero)
Measurementof attitudesand images
Easy to construct,administer overtelephone
Confusing anddifficult to apply
Table 9.1
Basic Noncomparative Scales
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Summary of Itemized Scale Decisions
Table 9.21) Number of categories Although there is no single, optimal number,
traditional guidelines suggest that thereshould be between five and nine categories
2) Balanced vs. unbalanced In general, the scale should be balanced toobtain objective data
3) Odd/even no. of categories If a neutral or indifferent scale response ispossible for at least some respondents,an odd number of categories should be used
4) Forced vs. non-forced In situations where the respondents areexpected to have no opinion, the accuracy ofthe data may be improved by a non-forcedscale
5) Verbal description An argument can be made for labeling all ormany scale categories. The categorydescriptions should be located as close tothe response categories as possible
6) Physical form A number of options should be tried and thebest selected
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Fig. 9.1
Jovan Musk for Men is: Jovan Musk for Men is: Extremely good Extremely good
Very good Very goodGood Good Bad Somewhat good
Very bad BadExtremely bad Very bad
Balanced and Unbalanced Scales
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Rating Scale Configurations
-3 -1 0 +1 +2-2 +3
Cheer
Cheer detergent is:1) Very harsh --- --- --- --- --- --- --- Very gentle
2) Very harsh 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very gentle
3) . Very harsh... Neither harsh nor gentle... Very gentle
4) ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____Very Harsh Somewhat Neither harsh Somewhat Gentle Very
harsh harsh nor gentle gentle gentle
5)
Very Neither harsh Veryharsh nor gentle gentle
Fig. 9.2
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Thermometer Scale Instructions: Please indicate how much you like McDonalds hamburgers bycoloring in the thermometer. Start at the bottom and color up to thetemperature level that best indicates how strong your preference is.
Smiling Face ScaleInstructions: Please point to the face that shows how much you like theBarbie Doll. If you do not like the Barbie Doll at all, you would point to Face 1.If you liked it very much, you would point to Face 5.
1 2 3 4 5
Fig. 9.3
Like very
much
Dislikevery much
100
7550250
Some Unique Rating Scale Configurations
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Some Commonly Used Scales in Marketing
Table 9.3
CONSTRUCT SCALE DESCRIPTORS
Attitude
Importance
Satisfaction
Purchase Intent
Purchase Freq
Very Bad
Not at All Important
Very Dissatisfied
Definitely will Not Buy
Never
Bad
Not Important
Dissatisfied
Probably Will Not Buy
Rarely
Neither Bad Nor Good
Neutral
Neither Dissat. Nor Satisfied
Might or Might Not Buy
Sometimes
Good
Important
Satisfied
Probably Will Buy
Often
Very Good
Very Important
Very Satisfied
Definitely Will Buy
Very Often
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Development of a Multi-item Scale
Develop Theory
Generate Initial Pool of Items: Theory, Secondary Data, andQualitative Research
Collect Data from a Large Pretest Sample
Statistical Analysis
Develop Purified Scale
Collect More Data from a Different Sample
Final Scale
Fig. 9.4
Select a Reduced Set of Items Based on Qualitative Judgment
Evaluate Scale Reliability, Validity, and Generalizability
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Scale Evaluation
Fig. 9.5
Discriminant NomologicalConvergent
Test/Retest
AlternativeForms
InternalConsistency
Content Criterion Construct
GeneralizabilityReliability Validity
Scale Evaluation
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Measurement Accuracy
The true score model provides a framework forunderstanding the accuracy of measurement.
XO = X T + X S + X R
where
XO = the observed score or measurement
XT = the true score of the characteristicXS = systematic errorXR = random error
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Potential Sources of Error on Measurement
1) Other relatively stable characteristics of the individual that influencethe test score, such as intelligence, social desirability, and education .
2) Short-term or transient personal factors, such as health, emotions,and fatigue .
3) Situational factors, such as the presence of other people, noise, anddistractions.
4) Sampling of items included in the scale: addition, deletion, or changesin the scale items.
5) Lack of clarity of the scale, including the instructions or the itemsthemselves.
6) Mechanical factors, such as poor printing, overcrowding items in thequestionnaire, and poor design.
7) Administration of the scale, such as differences among interviewers .
8) Analysis factors, such as differences in scoring and statisticalanalysis.
Fig. 9.6
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Reliability
Reliability can be defined as the extent to whichmeasures are free from random error, X R . If X R =0, the measure is perfectly reliable.
In test-retest reliability , respondents are
administered identical sets of scale items at twodifferent times and the degree of similaritybetween the two measurements is determined.
In alternative-forms reliability , two equivalentforms of the scale are constructed and the samerespondents are measured at two different times,with a different form being used each time.
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Reliability
Internal consistency reliability determines theextent to which different parts of a summated scaleare consistent in what they indicate about thecharacteristic being measured.
In split-half reliability , the items on the scale aredivided into two halves and the resulting half scoresare correlated.
The coefficient alpha , or Cronbach's alpha, is theaverage of all possible split-half coefficients
resulting from different ways of splitting the scaleitems. This coefficient varies from 0 to 1, and avalue of 0.6 or less generally indicatesunsatisfactory internal consistency reliability.
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Validity
The validity of a scale may be defined as the extentto which differences in observed scale scores reflecttrue differences among objects on the characteristicbeing measured, rather than systematic or randomerror. Perfect validity requires that there be no
measurement error (X O = X T, X R = 0, X S = 0). Content validity is a subjective but systematic
evaluation of how well the content of a scalerepresents the measurement task at hand.
Criterion validity reflects whether a scale performsas expected in relation to other variables selected(criterion variables) as meaningful criteria.
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Validity
Construct validity addresses the question of whatconstruct or characteristic the scale is, in fact,measuring. Construct validity includes convergent,discriminant, and nomological validity.
Convergent validity is the extent to which thescale correlates positively with other measures ofthe same construct.
Discriminant validity is the extent to which ameasure does not correlate with other constructsfrom which it is supposed to differ.
Nomological validity is the extent to which thescale correlates in theoretically predicted ways withmeasures of different but related constructs.
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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may bereproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, inany form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the priorwritten permission of the publisher. Printed in the UnitedStates of America.
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.