Verdensorden og utvikling i sør
1945-1989 Nasjonale politisk-
økonomiske systemer, geopolitisk rivalisering i sentrum (kald krig), uformell imperialisme i sør
Post-1989 Hegemonisk liberal
verdensorden, transnasjonale økonomiske nettverk, integrasjon og eksklusjon av steder, sektorer og grupper, spredning av og krav om økonomisk liberalisering og liberalt demokrati
Agnew & Corbridge: Mastering Space
Washington Consensus
Earlier interventionist states Market failure interventionist states
Market liberalisation through ”structural adjustment” Problems of bureaucratisation, state monopoly, state
intervention creating inefficiencies and undermining markets State failure economic liberalisation ”Rolling back the state” through privatisation
Denationalisation, sub-contracting, reduced welfare programs, self-management etc.
Political conditionalities by donors/IFIs in regard to loans and aid
NICs: State-led or market-led development?
Parasitic states: controlled by and used for self-interest og state elites (corruption and clientelism). Inefficient bureaucracy with limited administrative capacity. Weak states with limited capacity and accountability.
Developmental states: weak states that have become strong through governance arrangements
Such states are characterised by ”Embedded autonomy” (Peter Evans) Autonomy: strong bureaucracy with substantive autonomy in Autonomy: strong bureaucracy with substantive autonomy in
regard to specific interestsregard to specific interests Embedded: governance through networks with important Embedded: governance through networks with important
market actorsmarket actors Division of labor between market and enabling state Division of labor between market and enabling state
institutionsinstitutions
Post-Washington Consensus
From ”Less Government” to ”Good Governance”
Role of state Division of labor between state, market and
civil society State enabling market-led development Accountable and efficient state institutions
Not how much but what kind of state
Good governance
Legal framework for development providing a basis of stable rules, enforcement and dispute resolution
Efficiency in public sector management through appropriate budgeting, accounting and reporting systems
Transparency in public sector management through access to information about handling of resources
Accountability of both political and official side of government, mechanisms for holding individuals and institutions to account
Forms of Decentralisation
PrivatisationPrivatisation Transfer of functions from state to marketTransfer of functions from state to market
Deconcentration (administrative decentralisation)Deconcentration (administrative decentralisation) Transfer of functions from national to local Transfer of functions from national to local
institutions for public administrationinstitutions for public administration
Devolution (democratic decentralisation)Devolution (democratic decentralisation) Transfer of functions and authority (decision-Transfer of functions and authority (decision-
making) to local governmentmaking) to local government
Periods of Decentralisation
Golden Age of Local Government (1945 - early 60s)Golden Age of Local Government (1945 - early 60s)
Indirect rule (Mamdani: decentralised despotism)Indirect rule (Mamdani: decentralised despotism)
Decolonisation & state building (early 60s - late 70s)Decolonisation & state building (early 60s - late 70s)
State, party and nation-building. Centralised development State, party and nation-building. Centralised development planningplanning
Liberalisation & decentralisation (late 70s - late 80s)Liberalisation & decentralisation (late 70s - late 80s)
Privatisation and administrative decentralisation in Privatisation and administrative decentralisation in context of structural adjustmentcontext of structural adjustment
Democratisation & good governance (1990s - present)Democratisation & good governance (1990s - present)
Discourse and attempts at democratic decentralisation Discourse and attempts at democratic decentralisation (participation in ’good governance’)(participation in ’good governance’)
(in Africa)(in Africa)
Local Elite Capture (Local Bossism)
Decentralization may lead to local substantial democracy, but Decentralization may lead to local substantial democracy, but also decentralized despotism also decentralized despotism
Local strongmen, bossess, patrons, mafias, warlords, chiefs are Local strongmen, bossess, patrons, mafias, warlords, chiefs are not traditions that will disappear with modernisation, liberal not traditions that will disappear with modernisation, liberal democracy, western bureaucracy (against Migdal)democracy, western bureaucracy (against Migdal)
Rather, they are created as much by the nature of the state as Rather, they are created as much by the nature of the state as by that of society by that of society
Bossism reflects the subordination of the state apparatus to Bossism reflects the subordination of the state apparatus to electedelected officials in the context of officials in the context of primitive accumulationprimitive accumulation
Primitive accumulation; loss of control over means of production Primitive accumulation; loss of control over means of production / subsistence, prevalence of economic insecurity (scarcity of / subsistence, prevalence of economic insecurity (scarcity of wage work), considerable economic resources remain within the wage work), considerable economic resources remain within the ”public domain””public domain”
Thus, many voters are susceptible to clientelism in a situation Thus, many voters are susceptible to clientelism in a situation where state offices are crucial for capital accumulationwhere state offices are crucial for capital accumulation
Democratic Decentralisation
Experiments in institutionalized local popular democracy: decentralized planning in Kerala (India) and participatory budgeting in Porto Alegre (Brazil)
Common characteristics Extensive popular participation, enabled through
devolution of policy-making and institutionalization of new arenas for democratic participation.
Policy-making within these new local arenas is based on deliberative processes.
A strong ‘practical orientation’ with an emphasis on concrete socio-economic development needs.
Politics of Democratic Decentralisation
How do such institutional arrangements for local deliberative democracy come about?
Existing literature tends to focus on institutional design and ignore the political interests, strategies and relative strengths of state, elite and popular forces involved in the making of local popular democracy
Participatory budgeting has functioned as a successful political strategy for PT in Porto Alegre: (i) by responding to demands from neighborhood leaders who
would otherwise rely on clientelistic networks within the opposition party
(ii) by politically mobilizing and integrating activists from popular movements
(iii) by delivering accountable and efficient local government that especially appeals to the middle classes
(iv) by strengthening local state capacity and coordination in the interest of the bureaucracy
(v) by addressing the prioritized needs of poor people.
The Role of Local Civil Society
Civil society increasingly seen as a key arena for Civil society increasingly seen as a key arena for developmentdevelopment
Economic development through local participation Economic development through local participation and resource mobilisationand resource mobilisation
Political development (good government) through Political development (good government) through civic engagement civic engagement
Civil society conceptualised as a Civil society conceptualised as a third sectorthird sector
General points
Development administration are not simply technical Development administration are not simply technical solutions: ”There are no universal principles of solutions: ”There are no universal principles of management and no universal management tool kits” management and no universal management tool kits” (Turner & Hulme, p. 3)(Turner & Hulme, p. 3)
Institutions are not simply acted upon but can also Institutions are not simply acted upon but can also influence their environment.influence their environment.
Development administration takes place in political Development administration takes place in political contexts and reflect political forces and dynamicscontexts and reflect political forces and dynamics