Organization and Administration
We are born in organizations, educated by organizations, and most of us spend much of our lives working for organizations. We spend much of our leisure time paying, playing, and praying in organizations. Most
of us will die in an organization, and when the time comes for burial, the largest organization
of all—the state—must grant official permission.
—AMITAI ETZIONI
CHAPTER TWO
Principles and Practices
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.2
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the conclusion of this chapter, the student will:
be able to define organizations and be familiar with
their elements
know the evolution of organizational theory,
including scientific, human relations, systems,
and bureaucratic management
understand the major components of organizational
structure, such as span of control and unity of
command
comprehend the primary leadership theories and
skills, including the characteristics and skills of
America's best leaders
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.3
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the conclusion of this chapter, the student will:
comprehend the primary leadership theories and
skills, including the characteristics and skills of
America's best leaders
be familiar with the components of communication,
including its process, barriers, role, cultural cues,
and the uniqueness of communication within
police organizations
know the kind of world and related challenges and
organizational implications of persons of three
younger generations who are now in, or will
soon be entering, the workplace
(cont.)
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.4
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the conclusion of this chapter, the student will:
know the kind of world and related challenges and
organizational implications of persons of three
younger generations who are now in, or will
soon be entering, the workplace
understand the impact of the socialization and
lifestyle of the three younger generations now
entering the workplace
describe the rights and interests --& legal aspects--
concerning both employees and employers
regarding employees' personal appearance
at the workplace
(cont.)
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.5
Defining Organizations
The word organization has a number of meanings
and interpretations that have evolved over the years.
We think of organizations as entities of two or more
people who cooperate to achieve an objective(s).
The first were likely primitive hunting parties.
Organization and a high degree of coordination
were required to bring down huge animals.
revealed in fossils from as early as 40,000 years ago
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.6
Defining Organizations
The word organization may be defined as ―a
consciously coordinated social entity, with a relative
identifiable boundary, that functions on a relatively
continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set
of goals.‖
Social entity refers to the fact that Organizations
are composed of people who interact with one
another & people in other organizations.
Relatively identifiable boundary alludes to the
organization‘s goals and the public served.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.7
Defining Organizations
Four different types of formal organizations have
been identified by asking ―Who benefits?‖
mutual benefit associations, (police labor unions)
business concerns, (General Motors)
service organizations, such as community mental
health centers
commonweal organizations, such as criminal justice
agencies, where beneficiaries are the public at large
It is important to note that no two organizations are
exactly alike.
nor is there one best way to run an organization
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.8
Evolution of Organizational Theory
Organizational theory studies organizational
designs & structures, relationship of organizations
with their external environment, and behavior of
administrators and managers within organizations.
The history of management can be divided into three
approaches and time periods:
scientific management (1900–1940)
human relations management (1930–1970)
systems management (1965–present)
Another important element may be added:
bureaucratic management.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.9
Evolution of Organizational TheoryScientific Management
Frederick W. Taylor is known today as the father of
scientific management.
He became interested in methods for getting greater
productivity from workers.
Taylor recommended giving workers hourly breaks,
going to a piecework system and other adjustments.
Productivity soared, the number of employees
needed dropped, worker earnings increased, and
production costs were reduced.
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Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.10
Evolution of Organizational TheoryScientific Management
Taylor was highly criticized by unions for his
management-oriented views.
but proved administrators must know their employees
His views, published in The Principles of Scientific
Management in 1911, caught on.
soon, emphasis was placed entirely on the formal
administrative structure
Terms such as authority, chain of command, span
of control, and division of labor were coined.
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Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
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Evolution of Organizational TheoryScientific Management
In 1935, Luther Gulick formulated POSDCORB, an
acronym for planning, organizing, staffing, directing,
coordinating, reporting, and budgeting.
Application of scientific management to criminal
justice agencies was heavily criticized.
It viewed employees as passive instruments whose
feelings were completely disregarded.
in addition, employees were considered to be
motivated by money alone
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.12
Figure 2.1 Gulick‘s POSDCORB. Source: Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick, Papers on the
Science of Administration (New York: Institute of Public Administration, 1937).
Evolution of Organizational TheoryScientific Management
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Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.13
Evolution of Organizational TheoryHuman Relations Management
Beginning in 1930, people began to see negative
effects of scientific management on the worker.
Movement toward human relations management
began with studies by the Harvard Business School
at the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric Co.
In the 1940s & 50s, police departments recognized
effects of the informal structure on the organization.
democratic/participatory management appeared
Many police managers saw this trend as unrealistic.
employees began to give less & expect more in return
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.14
Evolution of Organizational TheorySystems Management
In the 60s, human relations & scientific management
combined in the systems management approach.
This approach recognized it was still necessary to
have hierarchical arrangement for coordination.
authority & responsibility were essential
overall organization was required
Systems management combined the work of
Abraham Maslow, Douglas McGregor, and
Robert Blake & Jane Mouton.
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Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.15
Evolution of Organizational TheorySystems Management
The approach holds that to be effective, the
manager must be interdependent with other
individuals & groups and have the ability to
recognize and deal with conflict and change.
Managers require knowledge of people, money,
time, and equipment
team cooperation is required to achieve these goals
Several theories of leadership also have evolved
over the past several decades.
trait theory, leadership styles, and situational
approaches
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.16
Evolution of Organizational TheoryBureaucratic Management
Criminal justice agencies fit the description of an
organization.
They are managed by being organized into a
number of specialized units.
Administrators, managers, and supervisors exist to
ensure that these units work toward a common goal.
They agencies consist of people who interact within
the organization and with external organizations,
and they exist to serve the public.
Criminal justice organizations are bureaucracies, as
are nearly all large organizations in modern society.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.17
Evolution of Organizational TheoryBureaucratic Management
Idea of pure bureaucracy was developed by Max
Weber, German sociologist & ―father of sociology‖.
Weber argued that if a bureaucratic structure is to
function efficiently, it must have these elements:
Rulification and routinization
rules save effort by eliminating need for deriving
a new solution for every problem
facilitate standard, equal treatment of similar situations
Division of labor
performance of functions by parts of an organization
along with authority to carry out these functions
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Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.18
Evolution of Organizational TheoryBureaucratic Management
Hierarchy of authority
each lower office is under control & supervision
of a higher one
Expertise
specialized training is necessary
Written rules
administrative acts, decisions, & rules
are formulated and recorded in writing
Most police & prison organizations are based on
traditional, pyramidal, quasi-military organizational
structure containing elements of a bureaucracy.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.19
Evolution of Organizational TheoryBureaucratic Management
Bureaucracies are often criticized on two grounds.
they are said to be inflexible, inefficient, and
unresponsive to changing needs and times
also said to stifle the individual freedom, spontaneity,
and self-realization of their employees
James Q. Wilson referred to this discontent as the
―bureaucracy problem,‖ where the key issue is
―getting the frontline worker . . . to do ‗the right thing.‘‖
In short, bureaucracies themselves can create
problems.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.20
Figure 2.2
The organization
as an input–output
model.
Another way to view organizations is as systems
that take inputs, process them, and produce
outputs.
Evolution of Organizational TheoryOrganizational Inputs/Outputs
A police agency processes reports of crimes and
attempts to satisfy the customer (crime victim).
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.21
Organizational Structure
All organizations have an organizational structure
or table of organization.
written or unwritten, very basic or highly complex
The size of the organization depends on demands
placed on it and resources available to it.
Growth precipitates need for more personnel,
greater division of labor, specialization, written
rules, and other such elements.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.22
Organizational Structure
In building the organizational structure, the following
principles should be kept in mind:
Principle of the objective
every part of every organization must be an
expression of the purpose of the undertaking
Principle of specialization
activities of every member should be confined
to performance of a single function
Principle of authority
there should be a clear line of authority to every
person in the group
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.23
Organizational Structure
Principle of responsibility
responsibility of the superior for the acts of his/her
subordinates is absolute
Principle of definition
content of each position, duties involved, authority
and responsibility contemplated, and relationships
with other positions should be clearly defined
Principle of correspondence
responsibility & authority should correspond
Span of control
no person should supervise more than six direct
subordinates
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.24
Organizational Structure
A major principle of hierarchy of authority is
unity of command, placing one superior officer in
command/control of every situation and employee.
The unity-of-command principle ensures that
multiple and/or conflicting orders are not issued.
Every person in the organization should report to
one and only one superior officer.
When the unity-of-command principle is followed,
everyone involved is aware of the actions initiated
by superiors and subordinates.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.25
Figure 2.3 Chain of command.
A simple structure
indicating the direct
line of authority in a
chain of command
Organizational
Structure
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Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.26
Figure 2.4 Organization pyramid. Source: Adapted R. Human Behavior in Organizations, p. 349.
© 1966. Reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
The classic pyramidal design, shown here, has the
following characteristics:
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Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.27
Organizational StructurePyramidal Design
Nearly all contacts take the form of orders going
down and reports of results going up the pyramid.
Each subordinate must receive instructions and
orders from only one boss.
Important decisions are made at the pyramid top.
Superiors have a specific span of control,
supervising only a limited number of people.
Personnel at all levels except at the top and bottom
have contact only with their boss above them and
their subordinates below them.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.28
Communication in the OrganizationImport and Consequences
Communication is very important in our society.
People consider language an index of culture,
breeding, personality, intelligence, integrity.
Ignorance or improper use of language can easily
interfere with your success and advancement.
Communication becomes exceedingly important
and sensitive in criminal justice organizations, as
practitioners often see people at their worst, when
they are in embarrassing, compromising situations.
To communicate what is known could be
devastating to parties concerned.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.29
Communication in the OrganizationDefinition and Characteristics
Today we communicate via e-mail, fax, video, cell
phones, satellite dishes, and many other forms.
also written letters and memos, body language,
TV & radio, newspapers and meetings
Studies have shown communication is the primary
problem in administration.
lack of communication is employees‘ primary
complaint about their immediate supervisors
Estimates vary, but all studies emphasize the
importance of communications in everyday law
enforcement operations.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.30
Communication in the OrganizationCommunication Process Elements
Encoding
to convey an experience or idea, we translate,
or encode, that experience into symbols
Transmission
translation of the encoded symbols into some
behavior that another person can observe
Medium
communication must be conveyed through
some channel or medium
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.31
Communication in the OrganizationCommunication Process Elements
Reception
verbal & nonverbal symbols reach the senses of the
receiver and conveyed to the brain for interpretation
Decoding
the individual who receives the stimuli develops some
meaning for the verbal and nonverbal symbols and
decodes the stimuli
Feedback
after decoding transmitted symbols, the receiver
usually provides response or feedback to the sender
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.32
Communication in the OrganizationDefinition and Characteristics
Systems of communication are usually created with
formal areas of responsibility & delegation of duties.
Most criminal justice administrators prefer a formal
system.
Several human factors affect communication.
employees typically communicate with those persons
who can help them to achieve their aims
they avoid communicating with those who do not
Communication within a criminal justice organization
may be downward, upward, or horizontal.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.33
Communication in the Organization
Five Types of Downward Communication
Job instruction
relating to the performance of a certain task
Job rationale
relating a certain task to organizational tasks
Procedures and practice
organizational policies, procedures, rules & regulations
Feedback
appraising how an individual performs assigned tasks
Indoctrination
designed to motivate the employee
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Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.34
Communication in the OrganizationUpward Communication
Communication is often difficult and infrequent when
superiors are isolated and seldom seen or spoken to.
In large organizations, administrators may be located
in headquarters far from operations personnel.
complexity of the organization may also cause
prolonged delays of communication
Communication delays are inherent in bureaucracy.
the more levels the communication passes through,
the more it is filtered and diluted in its accuracy
Many problems could be minimized or eliminated
if superiors took time to listen to employees.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.35
Communication in the OrganizationHorizontal Communication
Thrives when formal communication channels are
not open.
A disadvantage is that it is easier and more natural,
and often replaces vertical channels.
It is essential if subsystems within a criminal justice
organization are to function in an effective and
coordinated manner.
Horizontal communication may also provide
emotional and social bonds that build morale
and feelings of teamwork among employees.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.36
Communicating in Police OrganizationsConsequence, Jargon and the Grapevine
Officers must possess the ability to communicate
internally and externally regarding policies and
procedures that affect daily operations.
Like people in other occupations, police have their
own jargon, dialect, and slang used on a daily basis.
they help officers to communicate among themselves
The police also communicate with one another by
listening and talking on the squad car radio.
generally with codes in use since the 1920s
The police also use of a phonetic alphabet, designed
to avoid confusion between letters that sound alike.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.37
Communicating in Police OrganizationsConsequence, Jargon and the Grapevine
Added to other barriers to effective communication,
the grapevine can hinder communications.
It is fast, operates mostly at the workplace &
supplements regular, formal communication.
On the positive side, the grapevine can be a tool for
management to gauge employees‘ attitudes, spread
useful information, and help employees vent
frustrations.
it can also carry untruths and be malicious
Without a doubt, the grapevine is a force for
administrators to reckon with on a daily basis.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.38
Oral and Written Communications
Our society tends to place considerable confidence
in the written word within complex organizations.
Often, in spite of the writer‘s best efforts, information
is not conveyed clearly.
Criminal justice organizations seem to rely
increasingly on written communication, with
tendency toward written rules, policies & procedures
has been caused by three developments:
the requirement for administrative due process
civil liability
the accreditation movement
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.39
Oral and Written Communications
In recent years e-mail has proliferated as a
communication medium in criminal justice
organizations.
easy-to-use, almost instantaneous, in upward,
downward, or horizontal directions
E-mail messages can lack security and can be
ambiguous—not only with respect to content
meaning but also with regard to what they
represent.
Are such messages, in fact, mail, to be given the
full weight of an office letter or memo, or should
they be treated more as offhand comments?
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.40
Other Barriers to Effective Communication
Several other potential barriers to effective
communication exist.
Some people, for example, are not good listeners.
Other things obstruct communication, including time
constraints, inadequate or excessive information,
prejudices, strained sender–receiver relationships.
Subordinates do not always have the same ―big
picture‖ viewpoint that superiors possess and do not
always communicate well with someone in a higher
position who is perhaps more fluent and persuasive
than they are.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.41
Other Barriers to Effective CommunicationCultural Cues
At least 90 percent of communication is nonverbal
in nature, involving posture, expressions, gestures,
tone of voice.
People learn to interpret these nonverbal messages
by growing up in a particular culture, but not every
culture interprets nonverbal cues in the same way.
Criminal justice practitioners must possess cultural
empathy and understand the cultural cues of
citizens from other nations.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.42
Primary Leadership TheoriesWhat is Leadership?
Probably since the dawn of time administrators have
received advice on how to do their jobs from those
around them.
To understand leadership, the term must first be
defined, an important & fairly complex undertaking.
Perhaps the simplest definition is to say leading is
―getting things done through people.‖
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Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.43
Primary Leadership TheoriesOther Definitions of Leadership
―Influencing activities of an individual or group in
efforts toward goal achievement in a given situation‖
―Working with and through individuals & groups to
accomplish organizational goals‖
―The activity of influencing people to strive willingly
for group objectives‖
―The exercise of influence‖
In criminal justice organizations, the role might be
defined as ―influencing organizational members to
use their energies willingly and appropriately to
facilitate the achievement of the [agency‘s] goals.‖
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© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
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Primary Leadership TheoriesTrait Theory
Popular until the 1950s, based on the contention
that good leaders possessed certain character
traits that poor leaders did not.
Has lost much support since the 1950s, partly
because of the basic assumption of the theory
that leadership cannot be taught.
Quantifiable means to test trait theory were limited,
and inability to measure these factors was the real
flaw in and reason for the decline of trait theory.
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Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
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Figure 2.5 Traits and skills commonly associated with leadership effectiveness. Source: Adapted
from Gary A. Yukl, Leadership in Organizations, pp. 70, 121–125, Table 3-6. © 1981. Reproduced
by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
Primary Leadership TheoriesTrait Theory
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Primary Leadership TheoriesStyle Theory
A study investigated how leaders motivated
individuals/groups to achieve organizational goals.
Three principles of leadership behavior emerged:
leaders must give task direction to their followers
Closeness of supervision directly affects employee
production
leaders must be employee oriented
The major focus of style theory is the adoption of a
single managerial style by a manager based on his
or her position in regard to initiating structure and
consideration.
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Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.47
Primary Leadership TheoriesStyle Theory
Autocratic leaders are leader centered and have a
high initiating structure.
A democratic leader tends to focus on working
within the group and strives to attain cooperation
from group members by eliciting their ideas and
support.
Laissez-faire is a hands-off approach in which the
leader is actually a nonleader.
this may not be a leadership style at all
it may be an abdication of administrative duties
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Kenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
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Figure 2.6 Style theory. Source: Richard N. Holden, Modern Police Management (Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1986), p. 40.
Three pure
leadership styles
were thought to
be the basis for
all managers:
autocratic,
democratic,
laissez-faire.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
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© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
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Situational Leadership®
Recognizes that the workplace is a complex setting
subject to rapid changes.
states the best way to lead depends on the situation
The model emphasizes the leader‘s behavior in
relationship to followers‘ behavior and requires that
the leader evaluate follower readiness in two ways.
willingness (motivation) and ability (competence)
Situational Leadership® takes into account worker
readiness; readiness is defined as the capacity to
set high but attainable goals, the willingness to take
responsibility, and the education and/or experience
of the individual or the group. c
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Situational Leadership®
R1 followers are neither willing nor
able to take responsibility for task
accomplishment.
R2 followers are willing but are not
able to take responsibility for task
accomplishment.
R3 followers are not willing but are
able to take responsibility for task
accomplishment.
R4 followers are willing and able
to take responsibility for task
accomplishment.
Figure 2.7a Situational Leadership®. Source: Copyright 2006. Reprinted with permission of the
Center for Leadership Studies, Inc., Escondido. CA, 92025. All rights reserved.
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Situational Leadership®
S1-Telling. High task/low relationship
one-way communication
leader defines roles of followers
S2-Selling. High task/high relationship
Two-way communication
Socioemotional support to get
followers to accept decisions
S3-Participating.
High relationship/low task style
indicates that both the leader and
followers have the ability and
knowledge to complete the task.
S4-Delegating.
Low relationship/low task style
followers ―run their own show‖
Figure 2.7b Situational Leadership®. Source: Copyright 2006. Reprinted with permission of the
Center for Leadership Studies, Inc., Escondido. CA, 92025. All rights reserved.
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Situational Leadership®
The style-of-leader portion of Fig 2.7 means that, as
the readiness level of followers develops, the
appropriate style of leadership moves
correspondingly.
a police supervisor who has a subordinate whose
maturity is in the R3 range (able but unwilling) would
be most effective when employing an S3
(participating) style of leadership
Hersey and Blanchard asserted that leaders could
reduce their close supervision and direction of
individuals and increase delegation as followers‘
readiness to complete tasks increased.
c
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The Managerial Grid
In 1964, Blake and Mouton developed their
managerial grid from the studies done by Edwin
Fleishman and others at Ohio State University.
The Ohio team used two variables, focus on task
(initiating structure) and focus on relationships
(consideration), to develop a management
quadrant describing leadership behavior.
The managerial grid (Figure 2.8) includes five
leadership styles based on concern for output
(production) and concern for people.
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Figure 2.8 Managerial grid. Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. Exhibit
from ―Breakthrough in Organizational Development‖ by Robert R. Blake, Jane S. Mouton, Louis B.
Barnes, and Larry E. Greiner, Harvard Business Review, November–December 1964. Copyright ©
1964 by the Harvard Business School Publishing Corporation; all rights reserved.
Authority–compliancemanagement (9,1)
Country clubmanagement (1,9)
Middle-of-the-roadmanagement (5,5)
Impoverishedmanagement (1,1)
Teammanagement (9,9)
The five leadership styles can be summarized as:
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Characteristics and Skills of America’s
Best Leaders
Given today‘s skepticism and distrust of leaders,
it may seem there is a dearth of leadership.
A survey found that twenty-first-century authentic
leaders know who they are; they do not feel a need
to impress or please others.
they inspire those around them & bring people
together around shared purposes & common values
Usually authentic leaders demonstrate five traits:
pursuing their purpose with passion; practicing solid
values; leading with hearts as well as heads;
establishing connected relationships; self-discipline
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Characteristics and Skills of America’s
Best Leaders
Robert Katz identified three skills leaders should
possess, each resulting in the achievement of
objectives and goals, the primary management task.
Technical skill - those a manager needs to ensure
specific tasks are performed correctly.
Human skill - involve working with people, including
being thoroughly familiar with what motivates
employees and how to utilize group processes.
Conceptual skill - ―coordinating & integrating
activities and interests of the organization toward
a common objective.
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Motivating Employees
Some have sought to do so through justice (Plato),
others through psychoanalysis (Freud), some
through conditioning (Pavlov), some through
incentives (Taylor), and still others through fear
(any number of dictators and despots).
From the Industrial Revolution to the present,
managers have been trying to get a full day‘s
work from their subordinates.
Many theories have attempted to explain motivation.
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Motivating EmployeesThe Hawthorne Studies
An important theory that criminal justice leaders must comprehend is that of the Hawthorne effect.
which essentially means that employees‘ behavior may be altered if they know they are being studied
The Hawthorne studies revealed people work for many reasons, not just for money and subsistence.
for the first time, clear evidence was gathered to support workers‘ social and esteem needs
At least three major new areas of inquiry evolved: what motivates workers
leadership
organizations as behavioral systems.
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Motivating EmployeesMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham H. Maslow (1908–1970), founder of the
humanistic school of psychology, conducted
research on human behavior at the Air University,
Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, during the 1940s.
The behavior patterns analyzed were those of
motivated, happy, and production-oriented people—
achievers, not underachievers.
He studied biographies of historical and public
figures and also observed and his contemporaries—
none of whom showed psychological problems or
signs of neurotic behavior.
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Figure 2.9 Maslow‘s hierarchy of human needs. Source: A. H. Maslow, Motivation and
Personality, 2nd ed. (New York: Harper & Row, 1970).
Maslow‘s observations coalesced
into a hierarchy of needs
He suggested needs should
be filled in sequential order
to prevent frustration
Maslow‘s research indicated
that once a person reaches a
high state of motivation, he/she
will remain highly motivated,
will have a positive attitude
toward the organization, and
will adopt a ―pitch in and help‖
philosophy
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Motivating EmployeesExpectancy and Contingency Theories
The 1960s, expectancy theory, states employees will
do what managers or organizations want if:
the task appears to be possible
the reward (outcome) offered is seen as desirable
employees believe performing the task will bring
the desired outcome
there is a good chance that better performance
will bring greater rewards
The theory will work for an organization that specifies
behaviors it expects the rewards or outcomes for
those who exhibit such behaviors.
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Motivating EmployeesExpectancy and Contingency Theories
In the 70s, Morse & Lorsch described their
contingency theory, with these basic components:
among people‘s needs is a central need to achieve a
sense of competence
ways in which people fulfill this need will vary
competence motivation is most likely to be achieved
when there is a fit between task and organization, an
a sense of competence continues to motivate people
even after competence is achieved
This tells managers to tailor jobs to people or give
people skills, knowledge, and attitudes they need.
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Gamers, Tattoos, and AttitudesGenerations X, Y, and Next Employees
Many articles and books are being written about
understanding and motivating those persons of four
younger generations who are now entering or will
soon enter the workplace.
Generation X - persons born between 1965 & 1975
Generation Y - between 1976 & 1980.
The Next generation - between 1990 &1995
Millennials - also termed Generation 2.0––
extremely tech-savvy and digitally literate 20-
somethings preparing to enter the workplace
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Gamers, Tattoos, and AttitudesGenerations X, Y, and Next Employees
These generations grew up amid rising crime rates,
violence & terrorism; structured lives; multicultural
society & resurgence of the ―American hero‖.
police officers & firefighters commonly in the news
Almost 90 percent have use the Internet; more than
half send text messages daily and use social
networking sites, have a tattoo or body piercing,
or have dyed their hair a nontraditional color.
They have an emerging sense of patriotism and
political interest, feel special, connected, confident,
hopeful, goal/achievement oriented, and inclusive.
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Gamers, Tattoos, and AttitudesGenerations X, Y, and Next Employees
Their television viewing habits are unique as well.
Dragnet vs CSI; Starsky and Hutch vs 24; &
Three’s Company vs The Simpsons
An entire generation grew up in a game world––
where reward is everywhere.
gaming offers everyone the opportunity to be in
charge, succeed, and be a star
With respect to tattooing, while a member of these
generations might not look twice at exposed ink or
metal, administrators of the baby boomer generation
might find it offensive.
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Implications for the Criminal Justice
Workplace
How might criminal justice integrate such individuals
into a work environment with a strong hierarchy and
no reset button?
The American workplace will increasingly become
a playing field of competing viewpoints and values.
The implications for criminal justice administrators
are several.
they should think of ways in which they can take
advantage of the motivations of these younger
generations as they enter the field
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Implications for the Criminal Justice
Workplace
It is also recommended these leaders attempt to
understand the younger employee‘s preferred work
environment.
Such leaders should avoid judging those whose
work ethic is slightly different from theirs.
Regarding tattooing, administrators are given some
control over their employees‘ appearance––and
may find guidance in that arena––in a 1976 U.S.
Supreme Court decision, Kelley v. Johnson.
the Court said appearance regulations are generally
valid unless so irrational that they are arbitrary
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