Unit EightUnit Eight

Ways of Developing Ways of Developing ParagraphParagraph

Listing and Listing and ExemplificationExemplification （（列举和举例列举和举例法法））

Comparison and contrast(Comparison and contrast( 比较对照法比较对照法））

Cause and Effect (Cause and Effect ( 因果分析法因果分析法））

Definition and classification(Definition and classification( 定义分类法定义分类法））

Induction and deduction (Induction and deduction ( 归纳与演绎法归纳与演绎法））

I. Paragraph Development by Listing and Exemplification （列举和举例（列举和举例

法）法）1. Paragraph Development by 1. Paragraph Development by

Listing Listing

1) Basic Information1) Basic Information

The main idea in the topic sentence The main idea in the topic sentence can be further developed by listing can be further developed by listing some details, such as reasons, some details, such as reasons, methods, which can make the methods, which can make the paragraph easy to follow.paragraph easy to follow.

The bad impact of tourism on the environment The bad impact of tourism on the environment has mainly expressed itself in various ways. has mainly expressed itself in various ways. One way is the process of exploiting a new One way is the process of exploiting a new scenic spotscenic spot.. In order to attract tourists, a lot of In order to attract tourists, a lot of artificial facilities have been built, which have artificial facilities have been built, which have certain unfavorable effects on the environment. certain unfavorable effects on the environment. This process usually breaks the ecological This process usually breaks the ecological balance of the area. balance of the area.

Another way the development of tourism Another way the development of tourism has damaged the environment occurs has damaged the environment occurs when tourists go to scenic spots.when tourists go to scenic spots. Some Some tourists don't have the awareness to tourists don't have the awareness to protect the environment, and ignorantly protect the environment, and ignorantly throw their garbage here and there. Some throw their garbage here and there. Some people even kill the local wildlife to eat, people even kill the local wildlife to eat, which badly damages the balance of the which badly damages the balance of the natural environment. natural environment.

2) Transitional Words 2) Transitional Words

for one thing, for another;for one thing, for another;

to begin with, first, second, to begin with, first, second,

also, besides, moreover, finally;also, besides, moreover, finally;

one, another, still another, etcone, another, still another, etc

2. Paragraph Development by Exemplification

1) Basic Information using examples and details to illustrat

e your point, and make the main idea become specific ,also make your paragr ,also make your paragraph understandable and persuadable.aph understandable and persuadable.

There are many different forms of exercisesThere are many different forms of exercises

to suit different tastes. to suit different tastes. For exampleFor example, those , those

who enjoy competitive sports may take up who enjoy competitive sports may take up

ball games. ball games. For another exampleFor another example, if they , if they

prefer to exercise alone, they can have a runprefer to exercise alone, they can have a run

or take a walk in the morning or in the or take a walk in the morning or in the

evening. evening. BesidesBesides, people can go swimming in , people can go swimming in

the summer and go skating in the winter. the summer and go skating in the winter. In In

shortshort, no matter what their interests are, , no matter what their interests are,

people can always find more than one sports people can always find more than one sports

that are suitable to them. that are suitable to them.

2) Transitional Words 2) Transitional Words

for example, for instance, for one thing,for example, for instance, for one thing,

for another, to illustrate, one example is,for another, to illustrate, one example is,

to begin with, first, second, furthermore,to begin with, first, second, furthermore,

besides, in addition, moreover, finally, inbesides, in addition, moreover, finally, in

conclusion, in summary, also, a case inconclusion, in summary, also, a case in

point, as an illustration, incidentally, point, as an illustration, incidentally,

namely, that is.namely, that is.

Useful Words and expressionUseful Words and expression举例：举例： illustrate/illustration illustrate/illustration 引用：引用： cite/quote an example cite/quote an example 事例：事例： to cite an example to cite an example 适用的例子：适用的例子： a case in point a case in point 例如：例如： for example/for instance for example/for instance 证据：证据： evidence/proof evidence/proof 不容质疑：不容质疑： it goes without it goes without

saying/undeniable saying/undeniable 表明表明 ::unfold/expose/index/reveal/unfold/expose/index/reveal/

exhibitexhibit

WWe may cite/quote a e may cite/quote a single/common example of …single/common example of …

WWe may mention another example e may mention another example of … of …

The following examples can prove The following examples can prove my standpoint.my standpoint.

I can think of no better illustration I can think of no better illustration of this idea than the fact that … of this idea than the fact that …

There is now evidence that … There is now evidence that … TThe most striking instancehe most striking instance is… is…

TThe list of such examples is he list of such examples is numerous. numerous.

The above instances drive us to a The above instances drive us to a natural conclusion that … natural conclusion that …

TTo illustrate/As another instanceo illustrate/As another instance If one more example is needed, I If one more example is needed, I

could mention…could mention…Given the examples I just outlined, I Given the examples I just outlined, I

can only say that…can only say that…

3) Some problem on using Exemplification

A. Using improper exampleEg. Population control is a fundamental po

licy in China. If the country is overcrowded too much, the government has to spend more money than they can afford to support them; Overcrowded, the country may seek more land to support its people, therefore it may want to have a war against other country.

3) Some Problem on Using Exemplification

B. Orderless ExamplesEnvironment Pollution must be curbed for t

he benefit of people. I have traveled through half of China from south to north, I found that I can not see a clear river or lake. When I looked up in the sky, I found its color was not blue at all, it is gray! We have lost the beautiful globe for ever, I thought. So I think we have to take some measures to fight pollution.

Class WorkClass Work

Develop the following topic sentence intDevelop the following topic sentence into a paragraph, by using listing or exemplo a paragraph, by using listing or exemplification. ification.

There are a number of wayThere are a number of ways for us to keep fit. ____________s for us to keep fit. ____________

Sample:Sample: There are a number of ways for us to keep fit. There are a number of ways for us to keep fit.

First, First, no matter how busy we areno matter how busy we are ，， we should we should have exercise every day to strengthen our muhave exercise every day to strengthen our muscles. scles. SecondSecond ，， it is important to keep good hit is important to keep good hours. for exampleours. for example ，， if we are in the habit of gif we are in the habit of going to bed early and getting up earlyoing to bed early and getting up early ，， we cawe can avoid overworking ourselves and get enougn avoid overworking ourselves and get enough sleep. h sleep. FinallyFinally ，， entertainment is also necesentertainment is also necessary so that we may have some moments of rsary so that we may have some moments of relaxation. If we follow those instructionselaxation. If we follow those instructions ，， wwe will certainly be in good health.e will certainly be in good health.

II. Comparison and Contrast(II. Comparison and Contrast( 比较对照比较对照法法））

Use comparison and contrast to develop Use comparison and contrast to develop a topic by examining its similarities or dia topic by examining its similarities or dissimilarities to another thing, process, or ssimilarities to another thing, process, or state. state. Comparison emphasizes the similaComparison emphasizes the similarities, contrast the differences.rities, contrast the differences. A paragra A paragraph may use both comparison and contrasph may use both comparison and contrast. t.

在写作实践中，有两种常见的比较和对照的模式：在写作实践中，有两种常见的比较和对照的模式： 第一种先第一种先 AA 后后 BB 式，即在比较过程中，分别论述式，即在比较过程中，分别论述

AA 与与 BB 的特征，采用的特征，采用 A1A1 ，， A2A2 ，， A3A3 ；； B1B1 ，， BB22 ，， B3B3 ；…的方法。；…的方法。 (block pattern(block pattern ) )

(Subject to subject)(Subject to subject)

A1 A2 A3

B1 B2 B3

见下例 :

When the average American family When the average American family goes to buy a new car, it is faced goes to buy a new car, it is faced with a difficult decision because of with a difficult decision because of the variety of automobiles. After the variety of automobiles. After weeding out the impossibilities, weeding out the impossibilities, most families have to choose most families have to choose between between the SUV and the compactthe SUV and the compact, , both of which have good and bad both of which have good and bad features. features. The compactThe compact gets excellent gets excellent gas mileage, from thirty to forty gas mileage, from thirty to forty miles per gallon. With the price of miles per gallon. With the price of gasoline climbing toward $2.00 per gasoline climbing toward $2.00 per gallon, this is no small consideration. gallon, this is no small consideration.

HandlingHandling is another positive is another positive factor of a compact car. Its size factor of a compact car. Its size almost guarantees excellent almost guarantees excellent maneuverability and the ability to maneuverability and the ability to squeeze into those half spaces in squeeze into those half spaces in the parking lot. Space for people the parking lot. Space for people and cargo, however, is limited. and cargo, however, is limited. For the large family, the car pool, For the large family, the car pool, or the long vacation, these cars or the long vacation, these cars are not ideal. are not ideal.

The SUV, The SUV, on the other handon the other hand, , would be would be excellent for these types of families excellent for these types of families and activities. It has plenty of room to and activities. It has plenty of room to seat six adults with space left over for seat six adults with space left over for luggage, the family dog, or more luggage, the family dog, or more people. Obviously this large size people. Obviously this large size means handling is somewhat means handling is somewhat awkward. Also, owing to its largeness, awkward. Also, owing to its largeness, the SUV does not get the gas mileage the SUV does not get the gas mileage a compact does, and the owner can a compact does, and the owner can count on more frequent and more count on more frequent and more expensive stops at the pump. The expensive stops at the pump. The family buying a new car should family buying a new car should certainly consider these two and certainly consider these two and carefully weigh the characteristics of carefully weigh the characteristics of each.each.

第二种是第二种是 ABAB 交错式交错式 (( alternative pattern alternative pattern ) ) (Point to point)(Point to point)即以即以 A1,B1;A2,B2;A3,B3……A1,B1;A2,B2;A3,B3…… 以成对的形式以成对的形式进行逐点比较，该结构能使行文避免单调，进行逐点比较，该结构能使行文避免单调，对比的效果更鲜明突出。对比的效果更鲜明突出。

A1 B1A2 B2A3 B3

见下例 :

From Paragraph to EssayFrom Paragraph to Essay Despite their obvious differences in Despite their obvious differences in

length, the paragraph and the essay are length, the paragraph and the essay are quite similar structurally. quite similar structurally. For exampleFor example, , the paragraph is introduced by either a the paragraph is introduced by either a topic sentences or a topic introducer topic sentences or a topic introducer followed by a topic sentence. In the followed by a topic sentence. In the essay, the first paragraph provides essay, the first paragraph provides introductory material and establishes the introductory material and establishes the topic focus. topic focus. Next,Next, the sentences in the the sentences in the body of a paragraph develop the topic body of a paragraph develop the topic sentence. sentence. Similarly,Similarly, the body of an essay the body of an essay consists of a number of paragraphs that consists of a number of paragraphs that expand and support the ideas presented expand and support the ideas presented in the introductory paragraph. in the introductory paragraph.

Finally,Finally, a terminator — whether a restat a terminator — whether a restatement, conclusion, or observation — enement, conclusion, or observation — ends the paragraph. The essay, too, has a dds the paragraph. The essay, too, has a device which brings its ideas to a logically evice which brings its ideas to a logically and psychologically satisfying completioand psychologically satisfying completion: the concluding paragraph. Although en: the concluding paragraph. Although exceptions to these generalizations may xceptions to these generalizations may be observed in modern creative writing, be observed in modern creative writing, most well written expository paragraphmost well written expository paragraphs and essay are comparable in structure.s and essay are comparable in structure.

     Paragraph Writing Essay WritingParagraph Writing Essay Writing1.For example1.For example: a topic sentence ---an introductory pa: a topic sentence ---an introductory pa

ragraphragraph2. 2. NextNext:: sentence developers -----a number of Paragra sentence developers -----a number of Paragra

phsphs3. 3. FinallyFinally: : a concluding sentence ---- a concluding para concluding sentence ---- a concluding par

agraphagraph

比较和对照法常用的过渡词：比较和对照法常用的过渡词： like, likewise, unlike, similarly, in the same wlike, likewise, unlike, similarly, in the same w

ay, on the other hand, compare with, by comay, on the other hand, compare with, by comparison, in contrast, on the contrary, but, so parison, in contrast, on the contrary, but, so despite, yet, instead, while, whereas, howevdespite, yet, instead, while, whereas, however, nevertheless, although, even though, coner, nevertheless, although, even though, conversely, different from, equally important, in versely, different from, equally important, in spite ofspite of ，， instead, in the same manner, stillinstead, in the same manner, still

ComparisonComparisonShort ConjunctionsShort Conjunctions

Similarly, Similarly, Likewise, Likewise, ...the same... ...the same... ...the same as... ...the same as... ...also... ...also... ..., too. ..., too. both both

Longer Expressions Longer Expressions In the same way, In the same way, X is similar to Y in that (they)... X is similar to Y in that (they)... X and Y are similar in that (they)... X and Y are similar in that (they)... Like X, Y [verb]... Like X, Y [verb]... In like manner, In like manner, One way in which X is similar to Y is (that)... One way in which X is similar to Y is (that)... Another way in which X is similar to Y is (thaAnother way in which X is similar to Y is (tha

t)... t)...

ContrastContrastUnlike A, B... Unlike A, B... A is not as ... as B... A is not as ... as B... In contrast, B... In contrast, B... A has...; however, B has… A has...; however, B has… Although A..., B... Although A..., B... A is ..., but B is ... A is ..., but B is ... A is ... whereas B is ... A is ... whereas B is ... A is ...; on the other hand, B is... A is ...; on the other hand, B is...

Exercise #1Exercise #11.in the same way,2. likewise, 3.another 1.in the same way,2. likewise, 3.another

similarity,4.similarly,similarity,4.similarly,5. whereas,6. too, 7.while,8. both, 9.however 5. whereas,6. too, 7.while,8. both, 9.however              Even though we come from different cultures, my Even though we come from different cultures, my

wife and I are alike in several ways. For one thing, we wife and I are alike in several ways. For one thing, we are ______thirty-two years old. In fact, our birthdays are ______thirty-two years old. In fact, our birthdays are in the same month, hers on July 10 and mine on are in the same month, hers on July 10 and mine on July 20.________ is that we both grew up in large cities. July 20.________ is that we both grew up in large cities. Helene was born and raised in Paris and I come from Helene was born and raised in Paris and I come from Yokohama. Third, our hobbies are alike _______. My Yokohama. Third, our hobbies are alike _______. My wife devotes a lot of her free time to playing jazz wife devotes a lot of her free time to playing jazz piano. ________, I like to spend time after work piano. ________, I like to spend time after work strumming my guitar. A more important similarity strumming my guitar. A more important similarity concerns our values. For example, Helene has strong concerns our values. For example, Helene has strong opinions about educating our children and raising opinions about educating our children and raising them to know right from wrong. I feel ________. Our them to know right from wrong. I feel ________. Our children should receive a good education and also children should receive a good education and also have strong moral training.have strong moral training.

8

3

6

5

1

EX 2EX 2

Writing a contrast Writing a contrast paragraph.paragraph.

Fast food and Traditional Fast food and Traditional foodfood

Traditional food and fast foodTraditional food and fast food Even though traditional food and fast Even though traditional food and fast

food are both eatable , which can make food are both eatable , which can make people full, they are different in various people full, they are different in various ways. To begin with, the biggest ways. To begin with, the biggest difference involves the time spent on the difference involves the time spent on the food. Traditional food is overshadowed by food. Traditional food is overshadowed by its fast competitor in terms of time. its fast competitor in terms of time. Traditional food can consume a Traditional food can consume a considerable amount of time from considerable amount of time from choosing materials, to arranging your choosing materials, to arranging your table for visual appeal. In contrast, fast table for visual appeal. In contrast, fast food cannot be faster when making a five-food cannot be faster when making a five-minute trip to a store around the corner, minute trip to a store around the corner, or even dialing to a fast food company. or even dialing to a fast food company.

Another dissimilarity concerns their Another dissimilarity concerns their nutritional value. Traditional food is nutritional value. Traditional food is favorably nutritious and balanced, favorably nutritious and balanced, compared with fast food. It is reported compared with fast food. It is reported traditional food can retain more traditional food can retain more nutrition before being served on the nutrition before being served on the table, for in general, they are cooked table, for in general, they are cooked with a temperate heat. By contrast, with a temperate heat. By contrast, the fast food are made at such a high the fast food are made at such a high temperature that nutrition has temperature that nutrition has inescapably vaporized during the inescapably vaporized during the cooking process. As a result, cooking process. As a result, traditional food differs from fast food in traditional food differs from fast food in various aspects.various aspects.

3. Cause and Effect ( ( 因果分析法因果分析法 ))1) Basic Information1) Basic InformationUse cause and effect in paragraphs when Use cause and effect in paragraphs when

you are tracking the development of one you are tracking the development of one situation or event out of another. Cause situation or event out of another. Cause and effect is an analytical mode of and effect is an analytical mode of paragraph development that attempts to paragraph development that attempts to show how events are influenced by or show how events are influenced by or caused by others—the linkage of caused by others—the linkage of causation.causation.

2) Patterns2) Patterns EffectEffect Cause EffectCause Effect EffectEffect ReasonReasonEffect Reason Effect Reason ReasonReason

Pattern OnePattern One

EffectEffect Cause EffectCause Effect EffectEffect Linking words:Linking words: As a result, Next, In addiAs a result, Next, In addi

tion, Finally …tion, Finally …

Eg. Eg. It is difficult for workers to find emplIt is difficult for workers to find employment this years.oyment this years.

As a result, many recent college As a result, many recent college graduates are unemployed or taking graduates are unemployed or taking part-time jobs to meet expenses.part-time jobs to meet expenses.

Next, unemployment among high school Next, unemployment among high school graduates has meant that large numbers graduates has meant that large numbers of teenagers are seeking unemployment of teenagers are seeking unemployment benefits.benefits.

In addition, the unemployment figures In addition, the unemployment figures are the highest in decades.are the highest in decades.

Finally, the federal government must Finally, the federal government must contribute large amounts of money to contribute large amounts of money to support the growing numbers of people support the growing numbers of people who are receiving welfare assistance.who are receiving welfare assistance.

There is no doubt that youth drug abuse is a serious social problem and has produced a lot of negative effects on our society. The most severe consequence is the rapid increase of juvenile delinquencies committed by youths taking drugs. With the high incidence of youth drug cases, many once-happy families have been on the verge of collapse, which will inevitably disrupt social order and jeopardize social security and even national stability.

Pattern TwoPattern Two ReasonReasonEffect Reason Effect Reason ReasonReason Linking words : Linking words : One reason…,In additio One reason…,In additio

n, another reason…,Finally n, another reason…,Finally First of all, Second, In addition, FinallyFirst of all, Second, In addition, Finally Eg. It is difficult for workers to find employEg. It is difficult for workers to find employ

ment this years . ment this years .

One reason isOne reason is that many industries are that many industries are not hiring new workers .not hiring new workers .

In addition,In addition, industries are reducing their industries are reducing their current staff levels because of a decline current staff levels because of a decline in national economic conditions .in national economic conditions .

Another reason isAnother reason is that workers who once that workers who once might have considered early retirement might have considered early retirement are now staying at their jobs .are now staying at their jobs .

Finally,Finally, other workers who once view other workers who once view their job as optional now must keep their their job as optional now must keep their positions in order to meet their minimum positions in order to meet their minimum financial responsibilities . financial responsibilities .

In recent decades, cities have grown so In recent decades, cities have grown so large that now about 50% of the Earth's large that now about 50% of the Earth's population lives in urban areas. population lives in urban areas. There are There are several reasons for this occurrence. Firstseveral reasons for this occurrence. First, , the increasing industrialization of the the increasing industrialization of the nineteenth century resulted in the nineteenth century resulted in the creation of many factory jobs, which creation of many factory jobs, which tended to be located in cities. These jobs, tended to be located in cities. These jobs, with their promise of a better material with their promise of a better material life, attracted many people from rural life, attracted many people from rural areas. areas.

SecondSecond, there were many schools , there were many schools established to educate the children of established to educate the children of the new factory laborers. The promise of the new factory laborers. The promise of a better education persuaded many a better education persuaded many families to leave farming communities families to leave farming communities and move to the cities. and move to the cities. FinallyFinally, as the , as the cities grew, people established places of cities grew, people established places of leisure, entertainment, and culture, such leisure, entertainment, and culture, such as sports stadiums, theaters, and as sports stadiums, theaters, and museums. For many people, these museums. For many people, these facilities made city life appear more facilities made city life appear more interesting than life on the farm, and interesting than life on the farm, and therefore drew them away from rural therefore drew them away from rural communities.communities.

EFFECTEFFECT(Topic Sentence)(Topic Sentence)

CAUSESCAUSES(Supporting Sentences)(Supporting Sentences)

There are severThere are several reasonsal reasons

for the expansifor the expansion of city .on of city .

Factory jobs attracted people.Factory jobs attracted people.

Better schools attracted Better schools attracted families to move to the city. families to move to the city.

Places of leisure, Places of leisure, entertainment, and culture entertainment, and culture made city life appear more made city life appear more interesting. interesting.

3)Transitional Words:3)Transitional Words:therefore, consequently, therefore, consequently,

accordingly, as a result, hence, so accordingly, as a result, hence, so that, thus/ since, because, for, due that, thus/ since, because, for, due to, for this reason, owing toto, for this reason, owing to

Useful words and expressionUseful words and expressionattribute to / ascribe to / owe to attribute to / ascribe to / owe to lead to/result in/give rise lead to/result in/give rise

to/entail/causeto/entail/cause to cause, to produce, to bring about, to reto cause, to produce, to bring about, to re

sult from, to be responsible for, to be the rsult from, to be responsible for, to be the result of, to be the cause of, to be due to, to esult of, to be the cause of, to be due to, to be caused by, to have an effect on be caused by, to have an effect on

The success/failure/decline The success/failure/decline stems/derives/results from the factors as stems/derives/results from the factors as fellows. fellows.

One lies in…another is found in … still One lies in…another is found in … still another consists in… another consists in…

TThere is another reason why I cast my here is another reason why I cast my preference for… …preference for… …

……....is mainly responsible for… is mainly responsible for… WWe may look into every possible e may look into every possible

reason except the real one.reason except the real one. The The leading/underlying/root cause/for … leading/underlying/root cause/for … is… is…

TThese factors,hese factors, coupled with the factor coupled with the factor of … ,lead to… of … ,lead to…

Basic Sentence Patterns is responsible foris responsible for

a. A cause produces an effect .a. A cause produces an effect . results in results in Example: Heavy smoking-----lung cancerExample: Heavy smoking-----lung cancer

is due to is due to b. An effect results from a cause .b. An effect results from a cause . occurs from occurs from Example: Lung cancerExample: Lung cancer ---heavy smoking---heavy smoking

Basic Sentence Patterns

Owing to Owing to c. Because of a cause, an effectc. Because of a cause, an effect As a result ofAs a result of Example: He has developed a bad cough. Example: He has developed a bad cough.

He has been smoking heavily.He has been smoking heavily. ⑴ ⑴ He has developed a bad cough as He has developed a bad cough as

a result of/owing to/because of a result of/owing to/because of heavy smoking .heavy smoking .

⑵ ⑵ He has developed a bad cough He has developed a bad cough owing to the fact that he has been owing to the fact that he has been smoking heavily .smoking heavily .

Basic Sentence Patterns

EX1. Correct errors.EX1. Correct errors. There are several possible reasons why my father There are several possible reasons why my father

is in excellent health, even though he is over eighty is in excellent health, even though he is over eighty years of age. For one thing, he is in excellent years of age. For one thing, he is in excellent condition _condition _becausebecause__ he has stopped smoking he has stopped smoking cigarettes. He quit smoking cigarettes cigarettes. He quit smoking cigarettes __because ofbecause of_ _ whenever he climbed stairs he would invariably stop whenever he climbed stairs he would invariably stop several times and cough loudly. His good health is several times and cough loudly. His good health is also also sincesince__ his cutting down on the wrong kinds of his cutting down on the wrong kinds of foods. For example, whereas before he would eat foods. For example, whereas before he would eat fatty red meat and deep-fried dishes several times a fatty red meat and deep-fried dishes several times a week, nowadays he seldom does so. He has more week, nowadays he seldom does so. He has more energy energy as a resultas a result_ _ He is also in good physical He is also in good physical shape _shape _as a consequenceas a consequence_ _ his devotion to his devotion to exercise. He swims three times a week at the local exercise. He swims three times a week at the local gym, and on sunny days he prefers to walk home gym, and on sunny days he prefers to walk home rather than take the bus.rather than take the bus. SoSo__, my father is in better __, my father is in better shape than some of his children are! shape than some of his children are!

Ex 2Ex 2There are several factors contributing There are several factors contributing

to the popularity of studying abroad.to the popularity of studying abroad.

Ex 2. Write a paragraph with “Cause and Ex 2. Write a paragraph with “Cause and Effect”Effect”

Three are several factors Three are several factors contributing to the traffic jam.contributing to the traffic jam.

The increase of private cars is the first The increase of private cars is the first reason for the crowded traffic. reason for the crowded traffic.

The second reason is that the road The second reason is that the road construction and improvement haven’t kept construction and improvement haven’t kept pace with the increase of traffics. pace with the increase of traffics.

The last reason involves the bad The last reason involves the bad management of transportation system and management of transportation system and people’s little awareness of traffic people’s little awareness of traffic regulations. regulations.

4. Definition and classification4. Definition and classification((定义分类法定义分类法 ))

1) Definition Definition is the most fundamental way oDefinition is the most fundamental way of developing and analyzing ideas. A writer f developing and analyzing ideas. A writer has to define the terms to show the directihas to define the terms to show the direction of the essay.on of the essay.

Readers must know the directions beforReaders must know the directions before they can predict what they are going to ree they can predict what they are going to read. How complete the definition is and whaad. How complete the definition is and what kind the writer uses depends on how muct kind the writer uses depends on how much specific information is needed.h specific information is needed.

　　 Love is a very general term. It refers to Love is a very general term. It refers to a strong feeling of fondness for another pa strong feeling of fondness for another person. It can happen between people of terson. It can happen between people of the opposite sex or between members of a he opposite sex or between members of a family. No matter where it happens, love family. No matter where it happens, love can always bring happiness to people.can always bring happiness to people.

Tips for Good Definition ParagraphsTips for Good Definition Paragraphs

Start your paragraph with a dictionary or Start your paragraph with a dictionary or other authority's definition of the word oother authority's definition of the word or phrase you are writing aboutr phrase you are writing about. .

Add another point, your own, to this defiAdd another point, your own, to this definitionnition. .

Tell your reader one thing that sth is notTell your reader one thing that sth is not. . Choose another point and explain it hereChoose another point and explain it here..

Tips for Good Definition ParagraphsTips for Good Definition Paragraphs

Choose one of the other points you can tChoose one of the other points you can think of, and explain it herehink of, and explain it here. .

Choose another point and explain it hereChoose another point and explain it here..

If you have another point, explain it hereIf you have another point, explain it here. . Finish with a conclusion which reflects aFinish with a conclusion which reflects a

ll that you mentioned in your paragraph.ll that you mentioned in your paragraph.

Webster's II New Riverside University DiWebster's II New Riverside University Dictionary defines mother's day as "A day ctionary defines mother's day as "A day for honoring mothers and  motherhood, for honoring mothers and  motherhood, observed annually on the second Sundaobserved annually on the second Sunday in May." Actually, mother's day is a cely in May." Actually, mother's day is a celebration, but it is much more too. For thebration, but it is much more too. For the family, it is not a normal day, busy with e family, it is not a normal day, busy with chores and work around the house, and chores and work around the house, and empty of excitement. empty of excitement.

It is a day when children get up earlier It is a day when children get up earlier than usual, and excitedly try to keep their than usual, and excitedly try to keep their plans for celebration secret from their plans for celebration secret from their mothers. It is a day when mothers mothers. It is a day when mothers pretend not to hear the kids excitement pretend not to hear the kids excitement and preparations, and show absolute and preparations, and show absolute surprise when they, smiling and parading surprise when they, smiling and parading down the hall, carefully and awkwardly down the hall, carefully and awkwardly bring orange juice and overdone toast for bring orange juice and overdone toast for her breakfast in bed, as a sign of love. her breakfast in bed, as a sign of love.

Mother's Day is a day for remembering - a Mother's Day is a day for remembering - a happy day for people who warmly think of happy day for people who warmly think of their mothers, a sad day for those who no their mothers, a sad day for those who no longer have them, and a day for most of longer have them, and a day for most of the world to celebrate a very special the world to celebrate a very special member of the family - the mother. member of the family - the mother.

It is a day when kids and adults buy all It is a day when kids and adults buy all kinds of gifts for their special women - fkinds of gifts for their special women - from jewelry to food, to cards and flowerom jewelry to food, to cards and flowers, and restaurants are full of families trrs, and restaurants are full of families trying to give their mothers a day off froying to give their mothers a day off from the kitchen. m the kitchen.

Useful ExpressionsUseful Expressions

what is …, to be defined as, to refer to, twhat is …, to be defined as, to refer to, the definition of …is, to be used to desche definition of …is, to be used to describe, in a very real sense, in a limited sribe, in a very real sense, in a limited sense, this is, this means, be explained, ense, this is, this means, be explained, state that, in other words, namelystate that, in other words, namely

2) ClassificationClassificationA. A classification places items in groA. A classification places items in gro

ups according to some principles.ups according to some principles.Eg 1. Eg 1. CollegesColleges can be classified or gr can be classified or gr

ouped according to theirouped according to their locationlocation sizesize course offeringscourse offerings costcost

Eg2. CarsEg2. Cars can be classified by can be classified by

high-performancehigh-performance

luxuryluxury

familyfamily

B. Items are placed in a B. Items are placed in a group because they share group because they share characteristics.characteristics.

High performance cars have similar features: engine size, and the ability to travel fast.

Luxury cars: leather seats, and electronic dashboards

Family cars: seating for six or more and good gas mileage

C. Classification is important because C. Classification is important because it helps us sort and group things.it helps us sort and group things.

Think how hard it would be to find a Think how hard it would be to find a book in the library without a book in the library without a classification systemclassification system

D. The topic sentence for a D. The topic sentence for a classification paragraphclassification paragraph presents the topic and includes presents the topic and includes words that let the reader know words that let the reader know the paragraph will place things in the paragraph will place things in groups.groups.

Topic sentencesTopic sentences::

Four categories of employers exist in Four categories of employers exist in the workplace.the workplace.

An athlete soon learns of the several An athlete soon learns of the several kinds of coaches.kinds of coaches.

All automobiles fall into one of three All automobiles fall into one of three groups.groups.

E. Place things according to E. Place things according to only only one one principle.principle.When you develop your When you develop your supporting details, think of supporting details, think of each sentence that each sentence that presents a particular group presents a particular group as a general statement that as a general statement that must be followed by must be followed by specific statements.specific statements.

Kinds of exams: Kinds of exams: multiple choice, true/false, multiple choice, true/false, in class, take-home, essay, fill-in-the-in class, take-home, essay, fill-in-the-blanks, open book, definition, matchingblanks, open book, definition, matching

Principle of classification: degree of Principle of classification: degree of difficultydifficulty

group 1: easygroup 1: easy group 2: moderately hardgroup 2: moderately hard group 3: hardgroup 3: hard items in group 1: true/false, matchingitems in group 1: true/false, matching items in group 2: multiple choice items in group 2: multiple choice items in group 3: essay, fill-in-the blanksitems in group 3: essay, fill-in-the blanks

Class WorkClass WorkKinds of teachersKinds of teachers

kinds of restaurantskinds of restaurantskinds of friendskinds of friends

kinds of dinner partieskinds of dinner partieskinds of bosseskinds of bosses

kinds of birthday celebrationskinds of birthday celebrationskinds of radio stationskinds of radio stations

kinds of neighborskinds of neighborskinds of courseskinds of courses

Useful ExpressionsUseful Expressions to divide…into, to classify…into, group…to divide…into, to classify…into, group…

into, to fall into classes, there are…kinds into, to fall into classes, there are…kinds (types, groups, classes, categories, sorts ) (types, groups, classes, categories, sorts ) of, according to, in terms of, depending on, of, according to, in terms of, depending on, at the level of at the level of

EX. Write a paragraph with definition and EX. Write a paragraph with definition and classification.classification.

On musicOn music

Classification, Classification, Deductive order,Deductive order, Inductive order, Inductive order, Chronological order,Chronological order, Definition, Definition, Comparison-contrast, Comparison-contrast, Cause and Effect Cause and Effect

Ex. Distinguish each Paras.Ex. Distinguish each Paras. 1. It is time to face facts. Few children thes1. It is time to face facts. Few children thes

e days escape exposure to drug abuse and e days escape exposure to drug abuse and not all children have good role models in tnot all children have good role models in their home. They need education about druheir home. They need education about drug abuse, and that education is probably beg abuse, and that education is probably best offered by qualified professionals. With st offered by qualified professionals. With proper education about drugs, children caproper education about drugs, children can make better choices and become more pn make better choices and become more productive adults. For all these reasons, the roductive adults. For all these reasons, the time has come to offer drug education in ttime has come to offer drug education in the schools.he schools.

Inductive orderInductive order

2. Drug abuse has been an especially 2. Drug abuse has been an especially challenging social issue since it first challenging social issue since it first entered the mainstream of American life entered the mainstream of American life during the 1960's, with few children during the 1960's, with few children completely escaping exposure to drug completely escaping exposure to drug abuse. In addition, throughout the abuse. In addition, throughout the 1970's, drug abuse, along with other 1970's, drug abuse, along with other social problems, frequently meant that social problems, frequently meant that children have fewer good role models in children have fewer good role models in their home. Fortunately, in the 1980's, their home. Fortunately, in the 1980's, one response to this problem was the one response to this problem was the emergence of aggressive drug education emergence of aggressive drug education programs offered by qualified programs offered by qualified professionals. The next logical step for professionals. The next logical step for the 1990's would be to ensure that the 1990's would be to ensure that children can make better choices and children can make better choices and become more productive adults. become more productive adults.

chronological orderchronological order

3.Drug Education in schools is a good 3.Drug Education in schools is a good idea. Not every child has good role idea. Not every child has good role models at home. Besides, drug education models at home. Besides, drug education is probably best offered by qualified is probably best offered by qualified professionals. This education is essential professionals. This education is essential because in our society, few children will because in our society, few children will completely escape exposure to drug completely escape exposure to drug abuse. With drug education in the abuse. With drug education in the schools, children can make better choices schools, children can make better choices and become more productive adults.and become more productive adults.

Deductive orderDeductive order

4. The term workaholic describes 4. The term workaholic describes a person who is addicted to work, a person who is addicted to work, unable to break what can be a unable to break what can be a dangerous habit. Not content with dangerous habit. Not content with eight hours at the office and eight hours at the office and without a lunch break, the without a lunch break, the workaholic might dine with a workaholic might dine with a client, bring home a briefcase full client, bring home a briefcase full of paperwork at night, and return of paperwork at night, and return to the office on weekends.to the office on weekends.

DefinitionDefinition

5. Historians take a variety of 5. Historians take a variety of approaches to their discipline. Some approaches to their discipline. Some focus on biographies because they focus on biographies because they believe that history is shaped by believe that history is shaped by great men and women. Others great men and women. Others emphasize the physical emphasize the physical environment in their belief that environment in their belief that geographical factors ultimately geographical factors ultimately determine the course of events. A determine the course of events. A third group looks for an explanation third group looks for an explanation of history in economic forces. of history in economic forces.

ClassificationClassification

6. Students entering college soon 6. Students entering college soon discover that they spend fewer discover that they spend fewer hours in the classroom than they did hours in the classroom than they did in high school. They also find that in high school. They also find that they have more long-term they have more long-term assignments than they have been assignments than they have been accustomed to. College teachers accustomed to. College teachers seem to be much less visible than seem to be much less visible than their high school counterparts. While their high school counterparts. While this, at first, creates the illusion of this, at first, creates the illusion of freedom, it really reflects the shift or freedom, it really reflects the shift or responsibility to the student. responsibility to the student.

comparison-contrastcomparison-contrast

7. Many houses today are constructed by 7. Many houses today are constructed by builders who own and develop an area of builders who own and develop an area of homes. The builders often hire teams of homes. The builders often hire teams of workers who go from site to site specializing workers who go from site to site specializing in certain tasks. To make this easier and to in certain tasks. To make this easier and to make the cost of materials less expensive, make the cost of materials less expensive, the houses are all built based on the same the houses are all built based on the same floor plan and the exteriors only have minor floor plan and the exteriors only have minor variations in styles and materials. variations in styles and materials. Consequently, the interior details as well as Consequently, the interior details as well as the exteriors look very much the same from the exteriors look very much the same from house to house. The overall result of this house to house. The overall result of this system is a lack of charm and individuality system is a lack of charm and individuality of homes in such housing additions. of homes in such housing additions.

Cause and EffectCause and Effect