Title Computer-Assisted Sociolinguistic Research Methods...
Transcript of Title Computer-Assisted Sociolinguistic Research Methods...
Title Computer-Assisted Sociolinguistic Research Methods
Author(s) Ohyama, Nakakatsu
Citation 沖縄短大論叢 = OKINAWA TANDAI RONSO, 9(1): 19-45
Issue Date 1995-03-01
URL http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12001/10663
Rights 沖縄大学短期大学部
Computer-Assisted Sociolinguistic Research Methods*
N akakatsu Ohyama
No matter what else we do, we must remember that if data are
inadequate, there is always the danger that the theory and conclu
sions drawn from them could be unrelaible and misleading. (Wolfson,
1986, p. 689)
Multiple methods of data collection and analysis permit a more
complete view of the research object and reveal at the same time the
relative potential of different methods. (Grotjahn and Kasper, 1991, p.
l11)
Contents
I • Introduction
II. Sociolinguistic Qualitative Data Analysis in the Past
Organizing Qualitative Data
Breaking Qualitative Data
Synthesizing Qualitative Data
III. Recent Computer-Assisted Qualitative Analysis
Inputting Qualitative Data
Coding and Subcoding Qualitative Data
Retrieving Qualitative Data
IV. Modern Technologies in the Mechanical Phase of Field Work
1) Formatting the Text
2) Numbering the Line
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3) Coding Segments of the Text
4) Sorting out Coded Segments
Advantages and Disadvantages
V. Summary
Bibliography
I . Introduction
This paper discusses the various strategies for organizing sociolinguis
tic qualitative data analysis. It will cover sociolinguistic data analysis of
the past, recent computer-assisted qualitative data analysis, and modern
technologies in the mechanical phase of field work. An effective computer
software program will be introduced along with a discussion of the numer
ous advantages and obstacles that may result from advanced technologies.
The Need for This Study
In recent times, sociolinguists tend to collect qualitative information for
their study. This inclination has dramatically increased during these years.
Due to this phenomenon, some of them are having difficulties in examining
their information. They need a research method facilitating high efficiency,
reliability, and flexibility (Glaser and Strauss, 1967; Grotjahn & Kasper,
1991). There is a great demand to facilitate modern technologies for
examining qualitative information (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
But for a knowledge of computer-assisted qualitative data analysis,
sociolinguists will face an obstacle in trying to manage a large amount of
information. It goes without saying that the computer, through the mass
production, is accessable to all individuals and is a useful machine for
examining sociolinguistic qualitative information because of its mechanical
storage. There is a need to know how to examine complex information
quickly, inexpensively, and accurately.
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Computer-Assisted Sociolinguistic Research Methods
II. Sociolinguistic Qualitative Data Analysis in the Past
Before the computer was available, sociolinguists had to process and
examine information in the form of field notes, official information, news
paper articles, subjects' written memoranda, and interview transcripts_
Those who have not studied research methods might consider that qualita
tive data analysis seems to be an insurmountable task They occasionally
fail in properly managing the information after collecting it_ Those who
studied research methods might develop their research strategies so that
they can examine their information by organizing, breaking data into
manageable units, and then synthesizing it_
Organizing Qualitative Data
Organizing qualitative information entails reading all the information
and numbering it sequentially and/or systematically_ This process helps
the researcher understand the variety of incidents, events, and categories of
the data_ The qualitative researcher, through observing and examining the
information, can accumulate the same type of incidents_
Glaser and Strauss have stated that:
The analyst starts by coding each incident in his data into as
many categories of analysis as possible, as categories emerge
or as data emerge that fit an existing category_ While coding
an incident for a category, compare it with the previous inci
dents in the same and different groups coded in the same
category_ (Glaser and Strauss, 1967, P- 105-106)
As the sociolinguist keeps accumulating information, " ___ the previous
incidents in the same and different groups coded in the same category" also
starts to appear from the qualitative information organized on the specific
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topic.
Breaking Qualitative Data into Manageable Units
Breaking qualitative information into manageable units entails creat
ing a small number of coding classifications. Furthermore, it entails
developing more coding classifications due to the fact that the small number
of coding classifications is occasionally too inaccurate to indicate specific
incidents. According to Glaser, researchers need to ask many questions of
the qualitative information, such as "What is the purpose of the data study?"
and examine each sentence.
The second rule is to analyze line by line, constantly coding
each sentence. This may seem somewhat painstaking, but as
codes emerge and saturate, it becomes easier and faster. It is
necessary for achieving a full theoretical coverage which is
thoroughly grounded. (Glaser, 1978, p. 57)
Synthesizing Qualitative Data
Synthesizing qualitative information usually involves splitting up a
large amount of qualitative information to be coded in classifications, each
with more than one labeled code. It facilitates sociolinguists to organize
their qualitative information sequentially and/or systematically.
Needless to say, it is time-consuming to cut and paste manually without
computer assistance. The sociolinguists spend their time cutting and
pasting by using scissors, glue, scotch tape, and index cards. In order to
sythesize qualitative information, they make many xeroxed copies of the
field notes that include the raw information. Furthermore, due to the fact
that qualitative data analysis involves endless tasks of coding and recoding,
they are confronted with the difficulty of keeping track of all the informa·
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Computer-Assisted Sociolinguistic Research Methods
tion. With computers, this complex problem can be solved.
III. Recent Computer-Assisted Qualitative Analysis
The computer has become more friendly and much easier to use. It has
eased the qualitative data analysis and facilitated workable kinds of analy
sis which were not previously achievable. Sociolinguists, using word proces
sors, have developed research strategies to examine their qualitative infor
mation, including inputting, coding, subcoding, and data retrieval.
Inputting Qualitative Data
In order to examine qualitative information, sociolinguists use word
processors to input the qualitative information, containing field notes,
interview transcrips, and written memoranda. It is much easier to read
information on a printed hard copy than on a screen. Reading the collected
data is an essential part of the data analysis. Hammersley and Atkinson
have stated that:
The first step in the process of analysis, then, is a careful
reading of the data collected up to that point, in order to gain
a thorough familiarity with it. At this stage the aim is to use
the data to think with. (Hammersley and Atkinson, 1983, p.
178)
This data inputting process allows the sociolinguist to gain familiarity with
the information.
Coding and Subcoding Qualitative Data
After the preparation process is complete, the sociolinguist must begin
the step of coding and subcoding qualitative information. Glaser has stated
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that:
The analyst codes for as many categories that might fit; he codes
different incidents into as many categories as possible. New cate
gories emerge and new incidents fit existing categories. He may even
code for what is not obviously stated. This maximizes allowing the
best fit, the most workable ones and the core relevancies to emerge
on their own. (Glaser, 1978, p.56)
Sociolinguists start with a process called open coding, coding the data
every possible way. For determining classifications, they typically begin
with a small amount of codes from the theoretical background. Then they
develop coding categories that have emerged from their data and subse
quently group the classifications.
For example, a coding system was developed by Arizona State Univer
sity's (ASU) Job Language Training Program members, including myself.
Grouped codes involve the collection of codes which were in the same type
of category (See Table 1: an example of the coding system used by ASU
Language Training Program). The ASU Job Language Training Program
groups twenty five codes into six different categories. First, in the situation
category, there are five codes; 1) situation-physical, 2) situation-social, 3)
situation-temporal, 4) critical event, and 5) job change. Second, the follow
ing four codes are in the environment category; 1) quality improvement
team, 2) temporary, supplement, and other job status, 3) job advancement,
and 4) company policies. Third, there are three codes in the job category;
1) job tasks, 2) job coordination, and 3) job performance. Fourth, the next
four codes are grouped as participants; 1) participants/limited English
proficient workers, 2) participants/group leaders and trainers, 3) partici
pants/managers, and 4) participants/other workers. Fifth, there are four
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codes in the attitudes and values category; 1) cultural values, 2) age and
value gap, 3) attitudes, and 4) productivity. Sixth, the following five codes
are in the training category; 1) sleeting participants, 2) scheduling classes, 3)
other program ideas, 4) learning the job, and 5) training.
It is necessary to choose a specific code and analyze how to subcode
data. For example, the ASU Job Language Training Program uses the
major code "15" for limited English proficient (LEP) workers (See Table 1).
In a page of interview transcripts, the first and fourth paragraphs are coded
as "15" and other categories because they referred to LEP workers (See
Table 2). The researchers do this coding first in pencil and then enter it
into the computer.
Table 1
AN EXAMPLE OF THE CODING SYSTEM USED BY OUR ASU JOB
LANGUAGE TRAINING PROGRAM
SITUATION:
17. Situation-physical
18. Situation-social
19. Situation-temporal
41. Critical event
48. Job change
ENVIRONMENT:
26. Quality improvement team
TRAINING:
23. Sleeting participants
24. Scheduling classes
25. Other program ideas
32. Learning the job
35. Training
27. Temporary, supplemental, and other job status
28. Job advancement
42. Company policies
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THE JOB:
30. Job tasks
38. Job coordination
50. Company performance
PARTICIPANTS:
15. Participants/limited English proficient workers
34. Participants/group leaders and trainers
39. Participants/managers
43. Participants/other workers
ATTITUDE, VALUES:
29. Cultural values
36. Age/value gap
37. Attitudes
40. Productivity
(Coded by ASU Job Language Training Program members in 1985)
Table 2
DOCUMENT A
GROUP LEADER INTERVIEWS
< 1 > A : 15,9, 14, B : Y au have one person working for you from
Africa, don't you? When you tell him some
thing, does he understand your oral instruc
tions?
C: Yes.
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< 1 > A : 44, 45,
< 1 > A : 20,
Computer-Assisted Sociolinguistic Research Methods
B What about reading the planning packs?
C : He doesn't seem to have any trouble reading
English at all. He is very bright.
C : I just think it is hard for me to understand him
sometimes. He has such a strong accent.
B So is his pronounciation the problem?
C Yes, and he is very shy, too. He speaks very
quietly. You practically have to put your ear on
his mouth to hear what he is saying. That is a
big problem.
< 1 > A : 15, 18, 37 B How does he interact with the other workers?
C He stays by himself. He eats lunch with us but
he will not say a word the whole time.
B : Do you think that is because he is worried
about his English?
C I think he is just shy. His brother is very quiet,
too.
(Interviewed by one of our project members in 1984)
Retrieving Qualitative Data
After the coding process, the researchers get a page from the query of
everything coded "15" in their data. According to Glaser (1978), sorting data
should involve the following procedures:
1 • Start to sort anywhere.
2. Begin sorting all categories and properties that relate to one
core concept. This rule forces focus, selectivity, and delimiting
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of the core concepts.
3 . Promote one core idea at a time to the center and demote the
others to sub-core ideas.
4 . Memo any new ideas and then sort the memo into the outline.
5 • Carry forward to subsequent sorts any concepts that might
need to be used again.
6 . Integrate ideas; all ideas must fit somewhere in the outline or
the outline must be changed.
7 • Sort in stages; it is necessary to resort and constantly correct
and confirm the outline.
8 . Cut off rules including running out of memos, saturation of
core concepts, and personal saturation and completeness.
9. Cut up memos as often as necessary to increase sortability.
Write "pass on" notes on memos to be carried forward and
used again in other ideas.
10. Pace sorting. One good rule is to have a flexible but regular
schedule for sorting. {p. 111-112)
The ASU Job Language Training Program shows us that computers
can be used for the mechanical part of sorting. Their queries are done by
the computer such as the Word II computer. (However, other software is
available. They also use software called the Ethnograph, which will be
described in a subsequent section.) Then, they subcode a major code of "15"
into twenty-three categories (See Table 3).
Subcodes of the participants-LEP workers, consist of nine major sub
categories; 1) potential students, 2) attitudes of workers, 3) qualifications
and job performance of LEP workers, 4) work history, 5) language ability,
6) personal interests, 7) years in the country, 8) family, and 9) age. In
subcoding a major code of the participants-LEP workers, the researcher
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also needs to see the other five codes; 1) isolation of LEP workers, 2) other
workers who help LEP workers, 3) attitude toward the role of managers, 4)
attitudes toward work associated with age, and 5) attitudes towards
project-associated with age_ An example of subcoding is shown in Table 4_
The previous sentence "You have one person working for you from Africa,
don't you?" is subcoded into 103 and 108 because this sentence is indicating
nationality and specific individuality_
Table 3
SUBCODES OF (15)
102 _ potential students-number
103 _ potential students-langauge background and/or nationality
108 _ potential students-specific individuals
112 _ potential students-job position or status
115 _ potential students-other background characteristics (including educa-
tion)
110_ attitudes & participation of LEP workers in learning English
104 _ attitudes of others towards LEP workers-other workers
105 _ attitudes of others towards LEP workers-managers
109_ attitudes of others towards LEP workers-group leaders
113 _ attitudes of others towards LEP workers-trainers
127 _ attitudes of others towards LEP workers-liason
202_ qualifications & job performance of LEP workers
206 _ work history
214 _ language ability
218 _ personal interests
219 _ years in the country
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242. family
225. age
SEE ALSO:
107. (18) isolation of LEP workers
111. (43) other workers who help LEP workers
116. (39) attitudes towards the role of managers
119. (36) attitudes towards work-associated with age
192. (36) attitudes towards project-associated with age
(Subcoded by the ASU ] ob Language Training Project member in 1985)
Table 4
A : 15, 103, 108, B You have one person working for you from Africa,
9, 14 don't you? When you tell him something, does he
understand your oral instructions?
A: 15,18,37 B : How does he interact with the other workers?
C : He stays by himself. He eats lunch with us but he
will not say a word the whole time.
B Do you think that is because he is worried about
his English?
C I think he is just shy. His brother is very quiet, too.
(Interviewed by one of our project members in 1984)
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Computer-Assisted Sociolinguistic Research Methods
In summary, the ASU project organizes detailed sociolinguistic qualita
tive data systematically with the help of computers. The researchers, using
the data coded, can more effectively evaluate the participants and keep the
data much more organized. It is more advantageous for sociolinguists to
operate computers based on modern technologies, when sociolinguistic
qualitative data needs to be studied, examined and stored for future refer
ence. The next section presents a set of computer software programs for
data management and demonstrates how modern technologies can ease and
hasten steps for analyzing qualitative data.
IV. Modern Technologies in the Mechanical Phase of Field Work
This section briefly describes four steps involved in using the computer
software program called THE ETHNOGRAPH based on an article "THE
ETHNOGRAPH: A Computer Program for the Analysis of Qualitative
Data" (Seidel and Clark, 1984). The four steps are: 1) formatting the text,
2) numbering the lines of the text, 3) coding segments of the text, and 4)
sorting out coded segments.
1) Formatting the Text
In order to prepare files for THE ETHNOGRAPH, the researcher
must use a word processor such as W ordStar. He needs to convert the files
prepared by W ordStar into a special file called an ASCII text file. This file
has modified margins to assist in sorting out text by THE
ETHNOGRAPH. For the text file it is necessary to choose a root name
which ends with the extension ETH.
The text file stores the data in specific columns. The left margin is
eight spaces from the left and the right margin is forty four spaces from the
left. The text will be aliened according to these margins except in the case
of the file and section/speaker identifiers.
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In order to more easily recognize these identifiers, both the file and
section/speaker identifiers begin at six spaces from the left instead of eight,
and will be indicated by a plus sign in the left margin. The file identifiers
end at column forty-two and consist of up to thirty-five characters including
letters, numbers, and spaces. Their function is to represent the general
topics of the file. The section/speaker identifiers end at column sixteen and
are limited to ten characters. At the end of the section/speaker identifiers,
there must be a colon (The colon indicates the end of the section/speaker
identifiers). The extracted segment can be easily identified when all seg
ments are separated into categories. Formatting example is on Table 5.
Table 5
ID: Interviewing a manager of ABC company
+ Interviewing a manager of C area
EI: I went through the first and last
pages of the agenda with Tom and in
general he agreed that most of the
areas cited in the agenda were true at
ABC company, however Tom had some
specific concerns he wanted to raise
with me and a good part of the
interview dealt with these.
For example, he wanted to tell me
about what he called the new culture
of workers who want to run the shop
but really are not ready for it.
During work hours they waste time joking
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Computer-Assisted Sociolinguistic Research Methods
around. They are young. They are not
used to having much responsibility. Tom
talked about one new worker who was from
Germany. This worker had a hard time
accepting the way the young workers
behaved at ABC company.
Tom said this was especially true of
the supplemental and contract workers.
The supplemental workers said this
program was particularly aimed at
college students and housewives who had
never worked or had worked a long time
ago, and so they have a lot of trouble
getting used to the work environment.
(Intereviewed by one of our project members in 1984)
2) Numbering the Lines of the Text
THE ETHNOGRAPH software autimatically formats the data file
into a standard ASCII text file. But in order to select and manipulate text,
it is important to number the lines of the text. To number the lines of text,
use the "Number A File Procedure" of the "ETHNOGRAPH PROCEDURE
MENU." When numbering lines, remember that the ETHNOGRAPH
program disk must be in drive A, and the target disk containing the data file
must be in drive B.
This system for numbering the lines of text is an interactive program.
It requires the user to input information as the computer prompts. In order
to begin the program, type "B>A: ethno A; xnumber." Then the researcher
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needs to enter the already existing formatted file's name and the desired
name of the numbered file at the computer's request. Then the computer
will request the researcher to respond whether or not the file names are
correct. If the user confirms the information, the computer will request
what number to begin numbering by and then begin numbering the lines. If
the user indicates that the file names are incorrect, the computer will ask
him to enter the correct names. Through this step, any typographical errors
can be corrected. After the name has been correctly entered, the computer
will continue to the next step. For example, in the first file the researcher
can begin from number one and 201 for the following file. Numbering
example is on Table 6.
3) Coding Segments of the Text
After completing the numbered data file, the researcher must input
codes on a screen or on a printed hard copy. Coding segments on a hard
copy is much easier than on screen. First, it is necessary to separate the
printed copy into sections by category and mark these sections with the
desired code. These categories will form the basic outline of the final menu.
When coding on a hard copy, he uses pencil. This process is called
"code mapping." The coded information is put into the computer through
the "CODE A FILE" program on the "ETHNOGRAPH PROCEDURE
MENU." Like the "NUMBER A FILE," the "CODE A FILE" program is
also an interactive program.
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Computer-Assisted Sociolinguistic Research Methods
Table 6
NUMBERED VERSION OF FILE A: KUNI
ID: Interviewing a manager of ABC company 1
+Interviewing a manager of C area 2
EI: I went through the first and last 3
pages of the agenda with Tom and in 4
general he agreed that most of the 5
areas cited in the agenda were true at 6
ABC company, however Tom had some 7
specific concerns he wanted to raise 8
with me and a good part of the 9
interview dealt with these. 10
For example, he wanted to tell me 11
about what he called the new culture 12
of workers who want to run the shop 13
but really are not ready for it. 14
During work hours they waste time joking 15
around. They are young. They are not 16
used to having much responsibility. Tom 17
talked about one new worker who was from 18
Germany. This worker had a hard time 19
accepting the way the young workers 20
behaved at ABC company. 21
Tom said this was especially true of 22
the supplemental and contract workers. 23
The supplemental workers said this 24
program was particularly aimed at 25
college students and housewives who had 26
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N akakatsu Ohyama
never worked or had worked a long time 27
ago, and so they have a lot of trouble 28
getting used to the work environment. 29
(Intereviewed by one of our project members in 1984)
The program will ask the researcher to specify each category's bound·
ary in terms of number of lines and the number of codes to be contained
within that boundary. The program allows the user any length of combina
tions extending up to three seperate codes per category. Any single code
may be a combination of one to ten characters including spaces. The
computer can call up any one of the categories according to that code.
Typographical errors can be corrected through a program called
"CODE SUMMARY." Within the "CODE SUMMARY," the coding seg
ments of the text can be changed through reentering the code name and
resetting the length of the coded segments. Coding example is on Table 7.
4) Sorting out Coded Segments
After all the text is coded, the researcher can search for coded seg
ments from the file by typing specific codes he wants to collect. When
searching, the "SEARCH A FILE" procedure on the ETHNOGRAPH can
be used. The "SEARCH A FILE" is also an interactive program.
First, the researcher must enter the file name to use it through the
"CODE A FILE" program. Then the computer will call up and display that
file.
The researcher will have a second opportunity to alter the code as
mentioned in the previous "CODE SUMMARY" section. In order to identify
segments, the new name must be used through the "SEARCH A FILE"
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Computer-Assisted Sociolinguistic Research Methods
program.
The researcher may enter the code words for sorting out (e.g.,
"SEARCHING FOR SEGMENTS DEFINED BY CODE WORD:
WORKER"). Sorting example is on Table 8.
ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGES
1) Advantages
Some of the more major reasons why modern technology will simplify
the task of qualitative data analysis and magnify the effect of qualitative
analysis are: efficiency, reliability, and flexibility.
Table 7
CODED VERSION OF FILE A: KUNI
ID: Interviewing a manager of ABC company 1
+Interviewing a manager of C area 2
#-RAPPORT
EI: I went through the first and last 3-#
pages of the agenda with Tom and in 4
general he agreed that most of the 5
areas cited in the agenda were true at 6
$-WORKER
ABC company, however Tom had some 7-#-$
specific concerns he wanted to raise 8
with me and a good part of the 9
interview dealt with these. 10 -$
#-CULTURE
For example, he wanted to tell me 11-#
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Nakakatsu Ohyama
about what he called the new culture 12
of workers who want to run the shop 13
but really are not ready for it. 14
!-SOCIAL !-JOKE
During work hours they waste time joking 15-!
#-AGE-DIFF #-WORKER
around. They are young. They are not 16-#
used to having much responsibility. Tom 17
talked about one new worker who was from 18
Germany. This worker had a hard time 19
accepting the way the young workers 20
behaved at ABC company. 21-#
#-SUPP-CONT
Tom said this was especially true of 22-#
the supplemental and contract workers. 23
The supplemental workers said this 24
program was particularly aimed at 25
college students and housewives who had 26
never worked or had worked a long time 27
ago, and so they have a lot of trouble 28
getting used to the work environment. 29
(Intereviewed by one of our project members in 1984)
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Efficiency
Computer-Assisted Sociolinguistic Research Methods
Table 8
SORTED VERSION OF FILE A: KUNI
ID: Interviewing a manager of ABC company 1
+Interviewing a manager of C area 2
$-WORKER
ABC company, however Tom had some
specific concerns he wanted to raise
with me and a good part of the
interview dealt with these.
#-AGE-DIFF #-WORKER
around. They are young. They are not
used to having much responsibility. Tom
talked about one new worker who was from
Germany. This worker had a hard time
accepting the way the young workers
behaved at ABC company.
7-#-$
8
9
10 -$
16-# '
17 :
18 : '
19 :
20 :
21-#
Sociolinguists, using WordStar, can effortlessly type, delete, and edit
research memos. The qualitative information, having been input, can be
examined effectively through useful features such as editing text. This
software program also provides a simple method to save research memos.
Through this, sociolinguists can save many hours which might have been
spent transcribing research memos by hand and spending their time typing,
correcting, and editing them. This word processing system shortens the
turn-around time between accumulating the information and preparing the
information for examination.
In addition to WordStar, the Ethnograph provides the capability to
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format, number, and sort information files effortlessly. Without this type of
software, the sociolinguists would have to reread research memos every
time they need to retrieve the coded segments. In addition to this tedious
task, they also waste their time on continuous copying, splitting, pasting,
and filing for each code analysis. This software provides solutions to those
monotonous tasks by saving the researcher's time. Furthermore, it can sort
information queried by classifications including many pages of data since it
does not require the whole text to be input. As a result, the Ethnograph can
manage a large quantity of research memos, audio tapes, or video cassette
tapes, and efficiently retrieve queried information in those files.
Reliability
Another major strength of computer-aided sociolinguistic data analysis
is that the sociolinguist may effortlessly identify the coded segments and
sort those that satisfy some conditions without losing information (Conrad
and Reinharz, 1984). If sociolinguists examine qualitative information
without utilizing any software, they might make a mistake or miss various
potential linkages while splitting, pasting, copying, and filing in an effort to
analize the series of research data.
In contrast, Seidel and Clark (1984) say the most dependable measure of
the Ethnograph is its ability to do data retrievals based upon the co
occurence (or mixture) of classifications in each sentence. It enables one to
check all the relevant information without losing any data coded on the
same classification. Even if the researcher inputs additional classifications
for data retrieval, it enables them to be accessible to the researcher by
selectively sorting the classifications.
Flexibility
W ordStar facilitates the sociolinguist with deleting and altering
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Computer-Assisted Sociolinguistic Research Methods
research memos without any restrictions. The Ethnograph additionally
provides for the suitable coding and recoding of research memos as the
perception of the information alters. This has major strengths for meeting
the needs of sociolinguistic qualitative information analysis including the
accessibility of the raw information and the capability to sort information
selectively. It consistently allows the sociolinguist to do essentially any
thing involving research memos that can be done on paper, but much more
flexibly.
Additional Addvantages
Additional strengths of the advanced technology are: portability, in
expensiveness, ease of mastering, and confidentiality (Becker, et al., 1984).
The computer has been improved based on the modern technology and has
been created into a more powerful machine. The computer has been formed
in a smaller shape so that it can be moved around to anywhere the
researcher wants to carry it.
With regard to cost, the advanced technology has also brought costs
down due to mass production. In today's society, inexpensive computers
are available to most researchers.
Regarding the ease of mastering, the modern technology has provided
effortlessly mastered systems and an integrated data base system for the
convenience of the researcher. Namely, difficult and sophisticated opera
tions have been improved and simplified for the researcher.
With regard to protecting confidentiality, much effort has been made to
protect the researcher's right and obligation toward the qualitative informa
tion analysis. The computer protects confidentiality by prohibiting any
unauthorized use. The authorized researcher typically uses an ID number
for this purpose.
Upon examining advantages described above, the following comments
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can be made. The mechanical aspects of qualitative analysis are more
effortlessly done with the Ethnograph than contrasted to how they were
achieved in the past without this computer software. The computer
assisted qualitative research strategy can simplify and quicken the task of
the researcher and accelerate each step of the data analysis. This advanced
technology will release researchers from monotonous tasks in typing,
copying, pasting, and shuffling the data and allow them to concentrate on
the more analytic task of qualitative information.
2). Disadvantages
In spite of various promised strengths, computer-assisted sociolinguistic
data analysis must still conquer its weaknesses. Some of them are: the time
consumed for typing research memos, limited storage capacity, strict
directions for each margin space, and operation limitations. These follow
ing comments will focus on the weaknesses and the research for future
studies.
The major weakness of the Ethnograph is that the data must still be
input into the computer by hand. For the purpose of removing this
weakness, voice input to a word-processing software might be developed
(Becker, et al., 1984). For example, the sociolinguistic qualitative
researcher could transcribe the qualitative data without scretarial tasks,
utilizing the mechanical aspects of voice input. This mechanical task might
increasingly simplify the preparation of raw research notes.
Another weakness of the Ethnograph is that converting, numbering,
coding, modifying, and sorting program occupy a considerable percentage
of its memory. Also, the Ethnograph has strict directions about the size of
each margin space (Seidel and Clark, 1984). Since the text file stores the
qualitative information in limited columns (through eight to forty four
spaces from the left margin), the memory of the file quickly exceeds the
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storage capability of the Ethnograph. This software can store about 320k
per drive in its memory at each time. More qualitative information is
needed by most sociolinguistic studies and hence more memory storage
space is required.
The third weakness of this software is that it _also has rigid rules
concerning the length of combinations extending up to only three separate
codes per category_ Since any individual portion of information can only be
marked by up to three codes, information can only be retrieved three ways.
If the maximum number of possible codes per piece of information was
increased, the manipulation of these codes would also increase allowing for
a more complete retrieval of the input information.
The fourth weakness of this software is that sociolinguistic researchers
are asked to do analytical tasks in the process of coding, modifying, and
sorting the qualitative information. Its weakness stems from its incapabil
ity of analytic operation (Seidel and Clark, 1984). It only manages the
mechanical operation of data analysis. For example, it can neither code the
classification nor examine their continuing suitability. This software
constantly requires researchers to input information based on their analyti
cal thinking_ It, then, provides its prompt to do the mechanical operation of
qualitative data analysis. Its role for the qualitative researcher is to sort
and display the raw information for a certain classification coded by the
researcher. In no distant future, this is the area where artificial intelligence
might be applied (Gerson, 1984). A computer software might identify
incidents, concepts, or ideas, and it may be able to be utilized in making
rational data deductions. If it is possible, computer-assisted qualitative data
analysis can manage not only the mechanical application but also the
intelligent tasks for the qualitative researcher. Namely, the advanced
computer software could organize the qualitative information in place of a
research assistant or as a secretary_
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V. Summary
Computer-assisted sociolinguistic analysis has achieved considerable
tasks for qualitative researchers. The computer software has unbound
them from many tedious tasks and allowed them to concentrate their effort
on more analytic objectives. The Ethnograph, in spite of its some weak·
nesses, has made contributions to sociolinguistic qualitative information
analysis. It helps researchers to locate segments of the information and
code classifications. After classifying incidents, concepts, and ideas,
researchers can effortlessly and efficiently make rational deductions so that
they can generate interpretations of the qualitative data with this advanced
computer software.
*This paper used the data which had been collected by Arizona University
] ob Language Training Program members, including the author. This
paper is the revision of the oral presentation in the TESOL'86 conference
held in Los Angels.
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