The Hashemite UniversityThe Hashemite UniversityFaculty Of EngineeringFaculty Of EngineeringDepartment Of Allied Department Of Allied Engineering SciencesEngineering Sciences

Chapter 4 : Ethical Problem-Chapter 4 : Ethical Problem-Solving TechniquesSolving Techniques

Participated namesParticipated names::الرحال نعمان الرحال روال نعمان 938380938380روال

الجعيدي نائل الجعيدي كاميليا نائل 933462933462كاميلياالمالحيم محمد المالحيم عمران محمد 10311251031125عمران

طحل محمد طحل منى محمد 10314191031419منى

عبدالله رشاد عبدالله يزن رشاد 10380801038080يزنشتلوني محمد شتلوني لين محمد 11336821133682لين

سليمان مهنا سليمان مجد مهنا 11333941133394مجدالتميمي محمد التميمي منال محمد 12149601214960منالخالد خالد معتصم معتصم

OutlinesOutlines

In This Chapter:

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Analysis of issue in ethical problem

4.3 Line drawing

4.4 Flow charting

4.5 Conflict problems

4.6 An application of problem-solving methods

ObjectivesObjectives

We will be able toWe will be able to:: * *Put ethical problems in the proper perspective and obtain Put ethical problems in the proper perspective and obtain

the correct solution by some special techniquesthe correct solution by some special techniques..

**See how flow charting can be used to solve ethical See how flow charting can be used to solve ethical problem, and learn what bribery is and how to avoid itproblem, and learn what bribery is and how to avoid it..

**Examine methods for analyzing ethical problems and see Examine methods for analyzing ethical problems and see how to apply themhow to apply them..

4.1 Introduction

Scenario :In the early 1990s, newspapers began to report on studies indicating that living near electrical-power distribution systems leads to an increased risk of cancer.

The risk :It was attributed to the effects of the weak, low frequency

magnetic fields present near such systems. Further reports indicated that there might also be some risk associated with the use of common house hold items such as electric blankets and clock radios .

Solution: Power companies began to look into methods for reducing

the fields, and many engineers sought ways to design products that emitted reduced amounts of this radiation.

(cont). Introduction•Since in designing products & processes, engineers frequently

encountered scenarios like the one just described & nearly everything in engineer designs has some healthy or safety risk associated with it, we may have some questions like -:

•How then dose an engineer decide whether it is ethical to work on a particular product or process?

•What tools are there for an engineer who needs to decide which is the ethically correct path to take?

•

To answer these questions we will ddevelop analysis and evelop analysis and problem-solving strategiesproblem-solving strategies. .

(cont). Introduction

Engineering analysis problems which has formulas full Engineering analysis problems which has formulas full of numbers is less useful for ethical problem- of numbers is less useful for ethical problem- solvingsolving..

There are theories that help us to frame our There are theories that help us to frame our understanding of the problem , but there are no understanding of the problem , but there are no formulas to obtain a solutionformulas to obtain a solution..New key termsNew key terms::

Line drawingLine drawing Flow chartingFlow charting

Conflict problemsConflict problems

4.24.2 ANALYSIS OF ISSUE IN ANALYSIS OF ISSUE IN ETHICAL PROBLEMETHICAL PROBLEM

A first step in solving any ethical problem is to completely understand all of the issues involved .

Once these issues are determined, frequently a solution to the problem becomes apparent.

Understanding these issues helps to put an ethical problem in the proper frame work and often helps point the way to a solution.

FactuFactualal

ConcepConceptualtual

MoralMoral

4.2.1 Types of issues

11 . .Factual IssuesFactual Issues::

Factual issues involve what is actually known about Factual issues involve what is actually known about a cases, what the facts area cases, what the facts are..

Although this concept seems straightforward, the Although this concept seems straightforward, the facts of a particular case are not always clear and facts of a particular case are not always clear and may be controversialmay be controversial..E.g. : Abortion rightsE.g. : Abortion rights. .

In engineering, there are controversies In engineering, there are controversies over facts as well.over facts as well.

For example , global warming is of great For example , global warming is of great concern to society as we continue to emit concern to society as we continue to emit greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

Engineers might be required to design Engineers might be required to design new products or redesign old ones to new products or redesign old ones to comply with stricter environmental comply with stricter environmental

standardsstandards . .

Factual issues can often be Factual issues can often be resolved through research to resolved through research to establish the truth. It is not establish the truth. It is not always possible to achieve a always possible to achieve a final determination of the final determination of the “truth” that every one can “truth” that every one can agree onagree on..

(cont). Types of issues

22 . .Conceptual IssuesConceptual Issues::Conceptual issues have to do with the meaning or applicability Conceptual issues have to do with the meaning or applicability

of an ideaof an idea . . e.g.: Briberye.g.: Bribery. .

Like Factual issues, Conceptual issues are not always clear-Like Factual issues, Conceptual issues are not always clear-cut and will often result in controversy as wellcut and will often result in controversy as well..

Conceptual issues are resolved by agreeing on the meaning Conceptual issues are resolved by agreeing on the meaning of terms and concepts. Sometimes agreement isn’t possibleof terms and concepts. Sometimes agreement isn’t possible

(cont). Types of issues

33 . .Moral IssueMoral Issue::

Resolution of moral issues is often more obvious. Once the problem is Resolution of moral issues is often more obvious. Once the problem is defined, it is usually clear which moral concept applies, and the correct defined, it is usually clear which moral concept applies, and the correct decision becomes obviousdecision becomes obvious..

Moral issue are resolved by agreement as to which moral principles are Moral issue are resolved by agreement as to which moral principles are pertinent and how they should be appliedpertinent and how they should be applied..

all that is required to solve a particular ethical problem is a deeper all that is required to solve a particular ethical problem is a deeper analysis of the issues involved according to the appropriate principles.analysis of the issues involved according to the appropriate principles.

Once the issues are analyzed and agreement is reached on the Once the issues are analyzed and agreement is reached on the applicable moral principles. applicable moral principles.

It is clear what the resolution should be.It is clear what the resolution should be.

4.2.24.2.2 Application to a Cases Study: Application to a Cases Study: Paradyne ComputersParadyne Computers

**ScenarioScenario::In 1980, Paradyne, a computer company, bid to supply the Social Security Administration with new computers systems.

**The Factual IssuesThe Factual Issues::The request for proposals clearly specified that only The request for proposals clearly specified that only existing systems would be consideredexisting systems would be considered..

Paradyne did not have any such systems running and had Paradyne did not have any such systems running and had never tested the operating system on the product the never tested the operating system on the product the actually proposed to sell to the Social Security actually proposed to sell to the Social Security Administration (SSA)Administration (SSA)..

The employment of a former SSA worker by Paradyne to The employment of a former SSA worker by Paradyne to help lobby SSA for the contract is also clearhelp lobby SSA for the contract is also clear . .

**In this case, the factual issues do not appear particularly In this case, the factual issues do not appear particularly controversialcontroversial..

Application to a Cases Application to a Cases Study: Paradyne Study: Paradyne

ComputersComputers•The Conceptual IssueThe Conceptual Issue::

The Conceptual issues involve whether bidding to provide an off-the-shelf The Conceptual issues involve whether bidding to provide an off-the-shelf product when the actual product is only the planning stages is lying or is an product when the actual product is only the planning stages is lying or is an acceptable business practiceacceptable business practice . .

Is placing a Paradyne label over the real manufacturer's label deceptive? Is placing a Paradyne label over the real manufacturer's label deceptive? Does lobbying your former employer on behalf of your current employer Does lobbying your former employer on behalf of your current employer

constitute a conflict of interestconstitute a conflict of interest? ?

Indeed, Paradyne asserted that it had done nothing wrong and was simply Indeed, Paradyne asserted that it had done nothing wrong and was simply engaging in common business practicesengaging in common business practices..

The issues of the conflict of interest is so hard to decide that laws have been The issues of the conflict of interest is so hard to decide that laws have been enacted making it illegal for workers who have left government employ to enacted making it illegal for workers who have left government employ to lobby their former employers for specified periods of timelobby their former employers for specified periods of time..

Application to a Cases Study: Application to a Cases Study: Paradyne ComputersParadyne Computers

•The Moral IssuesThe Moral Issues : :

TThe moral issues then include the followinghe moral issues then include the following:: Is lying an acceptable business practice? Is it alright to be Is lying an acceptable business practice? Is it alright to be

deceptive if doing so allows your company to get a contractdeceptive if doing so allows your company to get a contract??

-the answers to these questions are obvious : lying and deceit the answers to these questions are obvious : lying and deceit are no more acceptable in your business life than in your are no more acceptable in your business life than in your personal lifepersonal life..

-So, if conceptually we decide that Paradyne's practices were So, if conceptually we decide that Paradyne's practices were deceptive, then our analysis indicates that their actions were deceptive, then our analysis indicates that their actions were unethicalunethical..

4.34.3 LINE DRAWINGLINE DRAWING

•Line drawing is performed by drawing a line along which various examples and hypothetical situation are placed.

•At one end “positive paradigm,” an example of something that is unambiguously morally acceptable.

•At the other end, the “negative paradigm,” an example of something that is unambiguously not morally acceptable, is placed.

•Those examples that more closely conform to the positive paradigm are placed near it, and examples closer to the negative paradigm are placed near paradigm.

•Placing the moral problem under consideration in the appropriate place along the line.

Line drawingFor ExampleFor Example: :

•Problem:It is proposed that our company dispose of a slightly hazardous waste by dumping into a lake. A nearby town takes its drinking water supply from this lake. The research shows that with the amount of waste in the lake will be 5 parts per million (ppm). The EPA limit for this material has been set at 10 ppm.

•Analysis problem :

positive paradigm: The water supply for the town should be clean and safe.

Negative paradigm: Toxic levels of waste are put into the lake.

•Line Drawing:start by drawing line and placing the positive and negative paradigms on it.

Positive paradigm )PP(Negative paradigm )NP(

Water should be clean and safe

Dump toxic levels of waste in lake

And let’s establish some other hypothetical examples for consideration:1.. The company dumps the chemical into the lake. At 5 ppm, the chemical will be harmless, but the town’s water will have unusual taste.

2.The chemical can be effectively removed by the town’s exiting water treatment system.

3.The chemical can be removed by the town with equipment that will be purchased by the company4.The chemical can be removed by the town with equipment for which the taxpayer will pay.5.Occasionally, exposure to the chemical can make people feel ill, but this only lasts aweak.6. At 5 ppm, some people can get fairly sick, but the sickness only lasts a week, and there is no long-term harm.

• But the exercise should be continued with more examples until it is clear what the proper resolution is. So redraw our line with the examples inserted appropriately:

• After setting up the examples, it may be clear that there is a gap in the knowledge. For example in our case, we might need more information on seasonal variation waste concentration and water usage of town.And use information on potential interactions of the chemical with other pollutants. NP

So we have to denoting our problem by a “P” and inserting it at the appropriate place along the line.

6

6

5

5

1

1

7

7 p 2.3

2.3 4

4

pp

pp

NP

NP

NOTENOTE• And now, if the problem far from the positive paradigm, then there are probably And now, if the problem far from the positive paradigm, then there are probably

better choices that can be made.better choices that can be made.

• It should be noted that although this action seems ethically acceptable. There It should be noted that although this action seems ethically acceptable. There are many other considerations that might be factored into the final decision.are many other considerations that might be factored into the final decision.

• Although this problem-solving method seems to help with problem analysis and Although this problem-solving method seems to help with problem analysis and can lead to incorrect results, for example, line drawing can easily be used to can lead to incorrect results, for example, line drawing can easily be used to prove that something is right when it is actually wrong. prove that something is right when it is actually wrong. (line drawing is only (line drawing is only effective if it is used objectively and honestly)effective if it is used objectively and honestly)

the choice of where to put the examples and how to define the paradigms is up the choice of where to put the examples and how to define the paradigms is up to you.to you.

• You can reach false conclusion by using incorrect paradigms, by dishonest You can reach false conclusion by using incorrect paradigms, by dishonest placement of the example along the line, and by dishonest placement of the placement of the example along the line, and by dishonest placement of the problem within the examples.problem within the examples.

4.3.1 Application Of Line Drawing To The Pentium Chip

Case •Scenario:

In 1994-95, it was discovered and widely reported that the latest version of the Intel Pentium chip had flaws. At first, Intel sought to hide this information, but later came around to a policy of offering consumers chips in which the flaw had been corrected.

•Analysis problem :-negative paradigm will be “knowingly sell products that are defective and that will negatively affect customers’ application”-positive paradigm will be “that product should be advertised

•Examples:1. There is a flaw in the chip, but truly is undetectable and won’t affect any customer’s applications.2. There are flaws in the chip, the customer is informed of them, but no help is offered.

3. A warning label says that the chip should not be used for certain applications.

4. Recall notices are sent out, and all flawed chips are replaced.

5.Replacement chips are offered only if the customer notices the problem.

1.43 25p

Products should be as advertised

Sell defective products

ppNP

• According to this line-drawing analysis, the approach taken by Intel in this case wasn’t the best ethical choice.

4.44.4 FLOW CHARTINGFLOW CHARTING

•Flow charts are most often used by engineering student, especially in developing computer programs.

•In engineering ethics, flow charting will be very helpful for analyzing a variety of cases, especially those in which there is a sequence of events to be considered or a series of consequences that flows from each other.

•There is no unique flow chart that is applicable to a given problem. So, different flow charts can be used to analyze the same problem.

•Advantages of using flow charts:- Gives a visual picture of a situation.- Allows you to readily see the consequences that flow from each decision.

•It is essential to be objective and honest as possible in flow charting to solve a problem.

•For example, Union Carbide Bhopal disaster where a toxic substance, MIC, was mixed with water creating toxic fumes.

Union Carbide would like tobuild plant in Bhopal

Are safety laws in Indiaas restrict as

in U.S?

Are local Laws adequate

For safeOperation?

Design plant as in U.S

Design accordingto local standards

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

No

No

Decide on minimalstandards that willensure local safety

Is this cost-effective?

Invest else where

Build plant any way and assume risk

Build plant

• Application of a simple flow chart to the Bhopal case.

FLOW CHARTING (cont.)FLOW CHARTING (cont.)

•This chart emphasizes safety issues for the surrounding community .

•As indicated on the chart, there were several paths that might have been taken and multiple decisions that had to be made.

• so, flow chart helps you to decide which choice is ethical and which is not.

•The key to effective use of flow charts is to be creative in determining possible outcomes and scenarios and also not to be shy about getting a negative answer and deciding to stop the project.

4.54.5 Conflict ProblemsConflict Problems

Some ethical problems us a choice between two conflicting moral values, each of which seems to be correct. How do we make the correct choice

in this situation?

•Often, there are conflicting moral choices, but one is more significant than the other.

for example, protecting the health and the safety of people is more important than your duty to your employer.

• A second solution is something called the “creative middle way”. It’s an attempt at some kind of compromise that will work for everyone.

• This solution takes a great deal of creativity and diplomacy to find a middle ground that is acceptable to everyone and sell it to them.

Conflict Problems (cont.)Conflict Problems (cont.)

An example:creative middle grounds for dumping toxic waste into a local lake :

•Find ways to redesign the production process to minimize the waste product.

•Find ways to pretreat the waste to minimize the toxicity.

•Offer to pay for and install the equipment at the municipal water system necessary to treat water and remove the toxic chemicals before it sent to homes.

•Finally, when there is no easy choice and no middle grounds could be found, then you have to make the best choice possible with the information available at the time. Frequently, you must rely on “gut feelings” for which path is the correct one.

Conflict Problems (cont.)Conflict Problems (cont.)

An example :The Challenger explosion.

-The conflict in this dilemma was clear:•There was unknown probability that the shuttle will

explode.• Bob Lund, the engineering manager, had

responsibility to his company and workers .•There were consequences of postponing the launch,

potentially leading to loss of future contracts from NASA, and loss of jobs to many Thiokol workers.

-The easy choice is not to launch, because it’s impossible to balance jobs against lives.

Conflict Problems (cont.)Conflict Problems (cont.)

The creative middle ground might involve delaying the launch until the temperature have warmed up. This might not be possible for many reasons. So, instead, the astronauts could be informed of the engineer’s concerns and be allowed to make the choice whether to launch or not. This might somewhat relieves the company of the responsibility if an accident occurs.

Conflict Problems Conflict Problems (cont.)(cont.)

•Lund made the hard choice to risk the launch. Perhaps because the data were ambiguous, he also wanted to save the jobs of Thiokol workers and help ensure the future health of shuttle program.

•However, the shuttle explode and the astronauts were killed. That caused lengthy delays in the shuttle program, political problems for NASA, and business difficulties for Thiokol.

4.64.6 AN APPLICATION OF PROBLEM SOLVING AN APPLICATION OF PROBLEM SOLVING METHODS METHODS

(BRIBERY/ ACCEPTANCE OF GIFTS)(BRIBERY/ ACCEPTANCE OF GIFTS)

•In this section we will look at what bribery is and see how some of problem-solving technique can be used to decide when a gift is a bribe.

•The difficulty comes because of the potential for gifts to become bribes or to be perceived of as bribes.

•Bribery is illegal but there are some places where bribery may be overlooked or even expected.

((contcont).).

•There is a fine line between bribery and a simple gift. The distinction has to do with the value of the gift and the intent of the gift.

•A bribe: is something, such as money or favor, offered or given to someone in a position of trust in order to induce him to act dishonestly.

•What are the ethical reasons for not tolerating a bribery?

-First, bribery corrupts the free market economic system and is anticompetitive. Unlike the practice of buying the best product at the best price, bribery does not reward the most efficient producer.

((contcont).).

-Second, bribery is a sellout to the rich. It corrupts justice and public policy by allowing rich people to make all the rules, and that leads to the domination of powerful, large corporations, since they are more capable of providing bribes.

-Finally, bribery treats people as commodities that can be sold and bought, and this is degrading to us as human beings and corrupts both buyer and seller.

4.6.14.6.1 When a Gift Is a When a Gift Is a BribeBribe??

•The boundary between a gift and a bribe is very subtle. Gifts of nominal value, such as coffee mugs or calendars with vendor’s logo on it, are really just an advertising tool. So, there is no problem accepting these items.

•It is important from the point of view of both suppliers and customers that good relations be maintained so that good service can be provided.

•social interaction, such as eating together, often facilitates close and successful interactions required by both sides.

4.6.24.6.2 Examples of Gifts vs. Examples of Gifts vs. BribesBribes

•During a sales visit, a sales representative offers you a five dollars mug with his

company’s logo on it. Can you accept it?

-Does the answer change if it is a 350$ crystal bowl with company’s name on it?

-How about if there is no engraving on it?

Examples of Gifts vs. Bribes Examples of Gifts vs. Bribes (cont.)(cont.)

•A company sales representative would like you to attend a one-day seminar in Cleveland. Your company will pay for your

trip. Should you go ?How about if the meeting is in Maui?

What if the sales representative’s company is going to pay for you to go?

What if your family is invited as well?

Examples of Gifts vs. Bribes Examples of Gifts vs. Bribes (cont.)(cont.)

•Keep in mind that gifts accepted even after the purchase of something from a company might be a bribe directed at securing future sales from you or aimed at engineer at other companies.

•An employee of a company like yours might become aware of the gift that you received.He now realizes that if he orders parts from the same supplier that you did, he will receive gift

similar to yours .

4.6.34.6.3 Problem SolvingProblem Solving

•Factual, Conceptual, and Moral issues:The facts will be obvious: who offered the gift, what its

value was, and what its purpose was.

Conceptual issue: it must be determined whether is sufficient value to influence a decision or whether the influence is the intent of the gift.

The moral issue is very clear once the conceptual issues are determined. So, you can make your decision.

Problem Solving (cont.)Problem Solving (cont.)

•Line drawing technique can be used effectively analyzing this problem.

•We can visualize a line based on:The value of the gift.The timing of the gift.The intent of the gift.

So that we can decide whether accepting this gift is ethical or not.

4.6.44.6.4 Avoiding Bribery Avoiding Bribery ProblemsProblems

•How does one ensure that accepting a gift doesn't cross the line into bribery?

•First, look at the company policy. Most of companies have very clear rules about what is acceptable.

some companies say that employees are not allowed to accept any thing and any social interaction with vendors or customers must be paid for by your company.

Avoiding Bribery Avoiding Bribery Problems (cont.)Problems (cont.)

• On the other hand, some companies realize the importance of social interactions and allow their employees more discretion in determining what is acceptable.In the absence of strict corporate guidelines, a preapproval from one’s management is the best guideline to what is acceptable.

• In the absence of any corporate guidelines, another method referred to as the “New York Times Test” could be applied. if you can’t stand to see your name in a newspaper in an article about the gift you received, then you probably shouldn’t do it.

Case 1

Cellular phones and cancer This case will seem different from many of the other cases

we will study, since there is no disaster or wrongdoing that has to be analyzed after the fact.

Concerns about potential adverse health effects of cell phones began in1992 with a lawsuit filed in Florida In this suit ,David Reynard claimed that his wife’s fatal brain cancer had been caused by her use of a cell phone. Although the suit was dismissed in 1995 due to a lack of scientific evidence to support Reynard’s claim, this and other similar suits received a great deal media attention and caused some concern among frequent cell phone users.

Case 1

The possible problems with cell phones :

In using a cell phone, you are placing a source of electromagnetic radiation in close proximity to your brain. it doesn’t take much imagination to see the potential.

The human body evolved in an environment that did not contain significant levels of radio-frequency (rf) radiation, so it is plausible that the ubiquity of rf fields in our modern industrial world might cause some adverse health effects

Case 1

The goal of( The biological effects of rf energy) studies was to:

1 -try to determine the levels of exposure to rf radiation from cell phones of every person in the study

2-try to correlate the levels with subsequent health effects, especially cancers.

**The studies indicated that: there is no harm in cell phone use, problems remain.

**Many of the problems are due to the fact that the studies relied on self-reporting of cell phone use. They asked people to report how much time they spent talking on their phones. Of course, many people reported their phone use accurately, but many others either didn’t really know how much they used their

phones or misestimated their use .

Case 1

Epidemiological studies are also difficult to analyze ,since it is:

1 -hard to know the power levels each individual has been exposed to. the power emitted by the phone depends on what model of phone you use and how far you are from the base station while talking.

2 -brain cancers generally take a long time to develop .there may not have been enough time since the widespread use o cell phones for a significant number of cancer s to have developed. Solid links between cell phone use and brain cancers might not show up for another 10 to 20 years.

Case 1

Studies have also been performed on laboratory animals.

these are done by placing the animals in an environment containing (rf) fields designed to mimic those of cell phones .

Like the epidemiological studies, the research studies on laboratory animals have not indicated any significant increase in health problems for the animals. since laboratory animals are not humans, the results may not be directly applicable to humans.

Case 1

There have been some studies of the effects of rf radiation on laboratory tissue and cell cultures.

The results of these studies and their applicability to human health

are controversial.

Some theoretical studies have examined in how rf energy might be deposited into a human brain during cell phone use .

These studies are very difficult to benchmark because it is difficult to make measurements of energy deposition directly into a human brain

Case 1

The solution: What is an engineer working for a call phone company making products that emit (rf) radiation to do when confronted with the ongoing concerns about the health effects of (rf)

fields ?-Cell phone can certainly be redesigned to reduce or eliminate

this problem, but, of course, any design that will lead to reduced emission will probably cost more .

-We won’t know for many years what the final answer is regarding cell phone health effects. -For now, it seems that cell phones are probably safe to use.

Case 1

* What is the prudent and ethical thing to do in designing such products in an atmosphere where some doubt about safety

exists?

*This case illustrates the problems that engineers have in dealing with and managing the unknown.

*Many of the designs that engineers produce are experimental in nature or deal with effects that aren’t fully understood .

*It is incumbent on the designer to be informed about the potential risks to users of her designs and to seek to minimize these risks to the extent possible.