The Greco-Roman Rhetorical

Features in Hebrews

John R. Neal, Sr.

NT9331A – New Testament Text-Hebrews

December 2013

i

Contents

I. Various Outlines ……………………………………………………..iii-xii

A. Thematic Outline ………………………………………………………iii-iv

B. Complex Outline ………………………………………………………..v-vii

C. Vanhoye’s Outline ………………………………………………………viii

II. Abbreviations ……………………………………………………………...ix-x

III. Terms/Definitions …………………………………………………………xi

IV. Introduction ………………………………………………………………1

V. Structure …………………………………………………………………..2

A. Types of Rhetoric ………………………………………………………3

B. Hebrews: Epistle or Homily …………………………………………… 3-7

C. Vanhoey’s Rhetorical Analysis ………………………………………..7-8

D. Similarities with other NT Books ……………………………………...8-9

E. Christological Themes ………………………………………………….9-10

F. Eschatological Themes …………………………………………………10-12

VI. Use of Periodic Sentence ……………………………………………….. 12-16

A. Definition and Usage of Term …………………………………………12

B. Usage of “Synkrisis” or Comparison in Hebrews ……………………..13

C. Usage of Inclusio in Hebrews ………………………………………….13-16

D. Chiasmus ………………………………………………………………16-17

E. Use of Rhetorical Persuasion …………………………………………. 18

ii

VII. Conclusion ………………………………………………………………18-19

VIII. Bibliography ……………………………………………………………20

iii

Outline of Hebrews

Simple Thematic Outline

Theme: The Supremacy of Christ

I. Christ Superior to the prophets: his absolute uniqueness as Divine Son, Incarnate

Redeemer, and Exalted Lord (1:1-3).

II. Christ Superior to Angels (1:4-2:18).

A. Proved from the Old Testament (1:4-2:18).

B. First Warning: the peril of neglecting such a great salvation (2:1-4).

C. Christ the true Man exalted above the angels (2:5-9).

D. The purpose and consequence of the Incarnation (2:10-18).

III. Christ Superior to Moses (3:1-4:13).

A. Moses and Christ compared (3:1-6a).

B. Second Warning: the peril of copying the example of the Israelites in the

wilderness (3:6b-4:2).

C. Necessity of faith and obedience to enter into God’s rest (4:3-11).

D. The sharp and penetrating discernment of God’s word (4:12-13).

IV. Christ Superior to Aaron (4:14-10:18).

A. Our compassionate High Priest (4:14-16-going back to the subject covered and

introduced in 2:11-3:1).

B. High Priesthood.

1. General Qualifications (5:1-4).

2. Christ’s Qualifications (3:5-10).

C. Third Warning: the peril of stagnation and apostasy (5:10-6:8).

D. Encouragement to persevere (6:9-20).

E. The order of Melchizedek (6:20b-7:28-already mentioned in 5:6, 10; the

priesthood of Jesus in 2:17; 4:14).

1. Significance of Melchizedek (7:1-10).

2. Imperfections of Levitical Priesthood contrasted with the perfection of

Christ’s priesthood (7:11-28).

F. The shadows of the old covenant superseded by the realities of the new covenant

(8:1-9:10).

G. The redemption procured by Christ’s sacrifice all-sufficient and eternal (9:11-

10:18).

iv

V. Christ Superior as the New and Living Way (10:19-12:29).

A. Encouragement to enter boldly into the true sanctuary (10:19-25-compare with

4:14-16).

B. Fourth Warning: the peril of despising the gospel (10:26-31).

C. Encouragement to endure (10:32-39).

D. The triumph of faith and perseverance illustrated by the example of the believers

of the former age (11:1-39).

E. The supreme example of Christ (12:1-4).

F. The significance and value of discipline (12:5-11).

G. Encouragement to resume the struggle (12:12-14).

H. Fifth Warning: the peril of following the example of Esau (12:15-17).

I. Mount Sinai and Mount Zion compared (12:18-24).

J. Sixth Warning: the perils of refusing him who speaks from heaven (12:25-29).

VI. Concluding Exhortations, Requests, and Greetings (13:1—25).1

1Philip E. Hughes, A Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979, Repr.

1990), 3-4.

v

Outline of Hebrews

Complex Schematic Outline

a. Heb. 1:1-4 - Exordium

I. Heb. 1:5-2:18 – “Christ exalted and humiliated, a suitable High Priest.”

A. Heb. 1:5-14 – “Christ exalted above the angels.”

B. Heb. 2:1-4 – “Paraenetic interlude: hold fast.”

C. Heb. 2:5-18 – “Christ the Savior, a faithful and merciful High Priest.”

II. Heb. 3:1-5:10 – Christ is “faithful and merciful.”

A. Heb. 3:1-4:13 – “A homily on faith.”

i. Heb. 3:1-6 – Introduction: the faithfulness of Christ and Moses.

ii. Heb. 3:7-11 – “Citation of scripture: the faithless generation.”

iii. Heb. 3:12-4:11 – Exposition

a. Heb. 3:12-19 – “The failure of faithfulness.”

b. Heb. 4:1-5 – “The nature of the promised rest.””

c. Heb. 4:6-11 – “Faithfully enter the rest “today.””

iv. Heb. 4:12-13 – “Concluding flourish: God’s powerful Word.”

B. Heb. 4:14-5:10 – Christ as a “merciful High Priest.”

i. Heb. 4:14-16 – “Paraenetic prelude: hold fast and approach.”

ii. Heb. 5:1-5 – “The characteristics of high priests.”

iii. Heb. 5:6-10 – “Christ as High Priest “According to the Order of Melchizedek.””2

III. Heb. 5:11-10:25 – “The difficult discourse.”

A. Heb. 5:11-6:20 – “Paraenetic prelude.”

i. Heb. 5:11-6:3 – Progression towards “maturity.”

2Harold W. Attridge, The Epistle to the Hebrews, A Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews, Hermeneia

(Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1989), 19.

vi

ii. Heb. 6:4-12 – “Warning and consolation.”

a. Heb. 6:4-8 – “The danger of failure.”

b. Heb. 6:9-12 – “Hopeful assurance.”

iii. Heb. 6:13-20 – “God’s oath: a sure ground of hope.”

B. Heb. 7:1=28 – “Christ and Melchizedek.”

i. Heb. 7:1-3 – “Introduction and scriptural citation.”

ii. Heb. 7:4-25 – Exposition

a. Heb. 7:4-10 – “Melchizedek superior to the Levites.”

b. Heb. 7:11-19 – “The new priest and the new order.”

c. Heb. 7:20-25 – “The priesthood confirmed with an oath.”

C. Heb. 8:1-10:18 – “An exegetical homily on Christ’s sacrificial act.”

i. Heb. 8:1-6 – “Introduction: earthly and heavenly sanctuaries.”

ii. Heb. 8:7-13 – “Citation of scripture: a new, interior covenant.”

iii. Heb. 9:1-10:10 – “Thematic exposition.”

a. Heb. 9:1-10 – “The old, earthly sacrifice.”

b. Heb. 9:11-14 – “The new, heavenly sacrifice.”

c. Heb. 9:15-22 – “The new covenant and its sacrifice.”

d. Heb. 9:23-28 – “The new, heavenly, unique sacrifice.”

e. Heb. 10:1-10 – “The new, earthly-heavenly sacrifice.”

iv. Heb. 10:11-18 – “Concluding flourish on Christ’s sacrifice.”

D. Heb. 10:19-25 – “Paraenetic application: have faith, hope, and charity.”

IV. Heb. 10:26-12:13 – “Exhortation of faithful endurance.”

A. Heb. 10:26-38 – “Paraenetic prelude.”

i. Heb. 10:26-31 – “A new warning against failure.”

ii. Heb. 10:32-38 – “Recollection of faithful endurance.”3

B. Heb. 11:1-40 – “An encomium on faith.”

3Ibid.

vii

i. Heb. 11:1-2 – An introductory definition of faith

ii. Heb. 11:2-7 – “Faith from creation to Noah.”

iii. Heb. 11:8-22 – “The faith of the patriarchs.

a. Heb. 11:8-12 – “The faith of Abraham and Sarah.”

b. Heb. 11:13-16 – “Faith’s goal: a heavenly home.”

c. Heb. 11:17-22 – “The faith of Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph.”

iv. Heb. 11:23-30 – “The faith of Moses and followers.”

v. Heb. 11:31-38 – “The faith of prophets and martyrs.”

vi. Heb. 11:39-40 – “Summary: faith perfected in Christians.”

C. Heb. 12:1-13 – “A homily on faithful endurance.”

i. Heb. 12:1-3 – “Jesus, the inaugurator and perfecter of faith’s race.”

ii. Heb. 12:4-6 – “Citation of scripture.”

iii. Heb. 12:7-11 – “Suffering as discipline.”

iv. Heb. 12:12-13 – “Brace for the race.”

V. Heb. 12:14-13:21 – “Concluding exhortations.”

A. Heb. 12:14-17 – “Paraenetic prelude: a final warning against failure.”

B. Heb. 12:18-29 – “The serious, but encouraging situation.”

i. Heb. 12:18-24 – “Not Sinai, but a Heavenly Zion.”

ii. Heb. 12:25-30 – “An unshakeable kingdom.”

C. Heb. 13:1-21 – “The life of the covenant.”

i. Heb. 13:1-6 – “Mutual responsibilities.”

ii. Heb. 13:7-19 – “The implications of Christ’s sacrifice.”

b. Heb. 13:20-25 – “Concluding benediction and greetings.”4

4Ibid.

viii

Complex Structure by

Albert Vanhoye5

a. 1:1-4 Introduction

I. 1:5-2:18 The name superior to the angels (Eschatology)

a. 1:5-14 Christ the Son of God

b. 2:1-4 Paraenesis

c. 2:5-18 Christ the brother of human beings

II. 3:1-5:10 Jesus faithful and compassionate (Ecclesiology)

A. 3:1-4:14 Jesus is faithful

B. 4:15-5:10 Jesus compassionate high priest

III. 5:11-10:39 The central exposition (Sacrifice)

a. 5:11-6:20 Preliminary exhortation

A. 7:1-28 Jesus is high priest according to the order of Melchizedek

B. 8:1-9:28 Jesus perfected

C. 10:19-39 Jesus cause of eternal salvation

b 10:19-39 Final exhortation

IV. 11:1-12:13 Faith and Endurance (Ecclesiological Paranesis)

A. 11:1-40 The faith of the ancients

B. 12:1-13 The requisite endurance

V. 12:14-13:19 The peaceful fruit of justice (Eschatology)

a. 12:14-29 A warning

b. 13:1-6 Christian attitudes

c. 13:7-19 Dietary observations and fidelity

z. 13:20-21 Conclusion

5Ibid., 16.

ix

ABBREVIATIONS6

Traditional Shorter Full Name

Acts -------- Acts of the Apostles

Apoc. -------- Apocalypse (Revelation)

Col. Col Colossians

1 Cor. 1 Cor 1 Corinthians

2 Cor. 2 Cor 2 Corinthians

Eph. Eph Ephesians

Gal. Gal Galatians

Heb. Heb Hebrews

James Jas James

John Jn John (Gospel)

1 John 1 Jn 1 John (Epistle)

2 John 2 Jn 2 John (Epistle)

Jude ------- Jude

Luke Lk Luke

Mark Mk Mark

Matt. Mt Matthew

1 Pet. 1 Pt 1 Peter

2 Pet. 2 Pt 2 Peter

Phil. Phil Philippians

Philem. Phlm Philemon

Rev. Rv Revelation (Apocalypse)

Rom. Rom Romans

1 Thess. 1 Thes 1 Thessalonians

2 Thess. 2 Thes 2 Thessalonians

6Kate L. Turabian, A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations, Chicago Style For

Students And Researchers, 7th

ed, rev by Wayne C. Booth, Gregory G. Colomb, Joseph M. Williams, and The

University of Chicago Press Editorial Staff (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 342-43. This

paper will utilize the abbreviations in the Traditional column.

x

1 Tim. 1 Tm 1 Timothy

2 Tim. 2 Tm 2 Timothy

Titus Ti Titus

xi

Terms/Definitions

Types of Rhetoric:

Judicial: “seeking to convince an audience of the rightness or wrongness of a past action.”

Deliberative: “trying to persuade or dissuade certain individuals concerning the expediency of a

future action.”

Epideictic: “using praise or blame to urge people to affirm a point of view or set of values in the

present.”

Components of a Complete Rhetorical Address:

Exordium: “stated the cause and gained the audience’s attention and sympathy.”

Narratio: “related the background and facts of the case.”

Propositio: “stated what was agreed upon and what was contested.”

Probatio: “contained the proofs based on the credibility of the speaker; appealed to the hearers’

feelings and/or logical argument.”

Refutatio: “refuted opponents’ arguments.”

Peroratio: “summarized argument and sought to arouse hearers’ emotions.”7

7Dr. William W. Klein, Dr. Craig L. Blomberg, and Dr. Robert L. Hubbard, Jr. Introduction To Biblical

Interpretation, Kermit A. Ecklebarger, Consulting Ed (Dallas: Word Publishing, 1993), 357.

xi

xii

1

The Greco-Roman Rhetorical Features

In Hebrews

Introduction

Some of the various themes covered in this course on Hebrews deals with such important

issues as the authorship of the Hebrews (whether one accepts a Pauline or non-Pauline view of

authorship), the date of this epistle (written prior to or after the destruction of the temple in

Jerusalem in A.D. 70), and even the destination/audience the author intends to target (written to

or from Rome, or perhaps Jerusalem, and is the letter addressed to struggling Jewish Christians,

or to a mixture)? While all of these questions are helpful in placing the letter to the Hebrews in

the proper historical context, more recent studies focus on looking at Hebrews from the

standpoint of Greco-Roman rhetorical features. This is based upon the development of literary

criticism, more on the text as opposed to examining the letter from a form-critical approach.

These newer literary approaches do merit consideration and may help find arguments the

author is making that may not be obvious to the modern reader. Caution must be met that one

does not read a rhetorical approach into Hebrews or any other New Testament book that the

original author did not intend. In other words, every New Testament document may not be

written from this rhetorical milieu. The theologian must decide if the evidence merits such a

reading on a particular text. Does a rhetorical reading of Hebrews seems to be in line with the

background of the author (even though he is unnamed)?

2

Structure of Hebrews

There are two basic approaches to studying Hebrews. One viewpoint interprets Hebrews

from a thematic scheme. A thematic structure builds an outline around the “expository sections

of the text,” focusing upon the Christological claims, and often comparing or contrasting Christ

with various Old Testament characters. This approach, however, does “little to indicate the

function of the various sections of the text and often skew the interpretation of the text as

primarily a dogmatic work.”8 Many of the older commentaries read Hebrews through this pair of

glasses. A secondary way of interpreting Hebrews is by using a non-thematic approach. Most

recent commentaries adopt this tool to understanding Hebrews and see three basic structures (or

some variation) to the main body of the book. The rhetorical analysis helps the interpreter find

the overall structure of the book.9 Yet Attridge cautions against any of the above two

approaches, but especially a structural analysis perspective. He warns: “Structural analyses are,

however, notoriously subjective, and what is articulated is often simply the critic’s prejudices or

perceptions of thematic coherences.”10

Whoever the author, there is evidence he uses the Hellenistic rhetorical techniques which

are common to the first century world. Many scholars take for granted that authors of the New

Testament would be well aware of these rhetorical devices and use them in their letter writing to

various Christian communities. We want to begin be examining what rhetoric is and notice the

different types of rhetorical devices used in different situations.

8Attridge., 14.

9Ibid., 14-15.

10Ibid., 14.

3

Types of Rhetoric

There are three basic types of rhetoric used in Greek and Roman speaking and writing.

First, there is the judicial type which tries to persuade or “convince” a jury that a person’s actions

are “true or false.” Second, there is the epideictic feature which heaps the praises of “famous

people from the past” and utilizes them as roles of “virtues and values.” Some find hints of

epideictic rhetoric in Hebrews. Yet arguing that Hebrews is epideictic “tends to put emphasis on

the comparison of the Son of God with the heroes of old in the expository parts of Hebrews and

thus on the book’s theological content.” Third there is the deliberative rhetorical device that tries

to “persuade a legislative assembly to take a certain course of action.” Saying that Hebrews is

deliberative “gives pride of place to the hortatory parts of Hebrews and thus to its practical

appeal for perseverance.”11

Hebrews: Epistle or Homily

Cockerill argues that the ongoing debate over whether Hebrews is epideictic or

deliberative is misguided. He notes that no scholar can “force Hebrews into the context of public

celebration appropriated for epideictic rhetoric or into the legislative assembly for deliberative

rhetoric.”12

Although some consider Hebrews as a letter, many scholars today view the work

more as a homily than an epistle.13

The difficulty in identifying the genre of Hebrews is best

summed up in Marshall’s statement that the book of Hebrews “begins majestically like a speech

11

Garreth Lee Cockerill, The Epistle to the Hebrews The New International Commentary on the New

Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2012), 12. 12

Ibid. 13

Eric Mason, “You Are A Priest Forever”: Second Temple Jewish Messianism and the Priestly

Christology of the Epistle to the Hebrews (Leiden: Brill, 2008), 3.

4

and ends personally like a letter.”14

No wonder Attridge refers to Hebrews as a “literary riddle,”

in that the introduction does not read like the conclusion or postscript. Even though the book is

early on incorporated into the Pauline corpus, “the work does not begin as an epistle with the

standard protocol including salutation and naming of the sender and addressees.” The traditional

letter greetings or salutations are also found in nearly every New Testament epistle and is also a

standard formula of epistles of the Greek and Roman era. The only similarity Hebrews has with

this typical epistolary style is the “benediction, personal remarks, and a final farewell” in Heb.

13:20-25.15

While there are some affinities between Hebrews and ancient letters, referring to

Hebrews as a letter based solely upon the conclusion or “postscript” is neither helpful nor

convincing.16

Another author even argues that Hebrews should be compared to the Jewish

midrash or the running commentaries such as one finds at Qumran (he argues that the text for his

overall argument is Ps. 110).17

Perhaps Hebrews is to be understood best “as an example of the kind of homily or

sermon typical of the synagogue and thus used in early Christian worship.”18

The main “body of

the text, which the epistolary postscript” refers to the book as a “word of exhortation,” is

normally viewed as the “product of rhetorical art.”19

The author blends a sermon in “written

form” on one “single theme” he sends to a community of believers for a specific problem.20

The

author of Hebrews is able to bind “exposition and exhortation to form a close-knit appeal,” a true

“word of exhortation” as described in Heb. 13:22, the same term used to describe the apostle

14

I. Howard Marshall, New Testament Theology: Many Witnesses, One Gospel (Downer (Bristol Je 1949)

(Brown 1998)s Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press; Nottingham, England: Apollo, 2004), 605. 15

Attridge, 13. 16

Ibid., 14. 17

George Wesley Buchanan, To The Hebrews, Translation, Comment, and Conclusions The Anchor Bible,

ed Raymond E. Brown (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976), xix-xxi. 18

Cockerill, 12-13. 19

Attridge, 14. 20

Marshall, 605.

5

Paul’s “homily” or “sermon” at Antioch of Pisidia in Acts 13:15. Willis argues that the

Hellenistic rhetoric was adapted by rabbis and used in the synagogues and eventually into

Christian preaching as one finds in Acts.21

While some scholars may hesitate to refer to

Hebrews as a homily, yet one cannot doubt the way in which the book of Hebrews does not

begin with the tradition “epistolary introduction” one normally finds in the letters of Paul or

Peter, the author’s “sustained exposition of Scripture,” his “repeated concern with, and weaving

together of, exposition and exhortation, the oral character of the material, the way the author has

skillfully arranged his material to persuade his hearers, and his deep pastoral concern all betray

the presence of a master homiletician.”22

The work of C.H. Dodd in his early twentieth century book, The Apostolic Preaching and

its Developments, point to some of the key features of early apostolic preaching that one finds in

the book of Acts, especially in the preaching of Peter. One of the key components of their

preaching is the use and quotation from the Old Testament. The sermons Peter preached, as

recorded by Luke in the book of Acts (2:14-26, 38-39; 3:19-26; 4:8-12; 5:29-32; 10:34-43),

focus upon the Old Testament scriptures that hasten the “coming of the Messiah who is now

identified with Jesus of Nazareth.”23

These passages which Peter selects have “messianic

application.”24

When a person compares the book of Hebrews with the sermons in the book of Acts, one

notes that the Hebrew epistle quotes from the Old Testament passages that predict “the coming

of the Messiah together with the arrival of the age of fulfillment which will reach its climax in

21

Cockerill, 13. 22

Ibid., 14. 23

Lyle O. Bristol, “Primitive Christian Preaching And The Epistle To The Hebrews,” Journal of Biblical

Literature 68, no 2 (Je 1949): 89. 24

Ibid., 89-90.

6

the Parousia.”25

The author of Hebrews quotes from various Old Testament passages that speak

of the Messiah as being the Son (Heb. 1:5-13; 2:6-3); Jesus is this Messianic Son. When looking

for passages from the Jewish Bible that speak to the last day of judgment, the author uses the

illustration of those who wandered in the wilderness for forty years as a warning for Christians

not to miss out on that Heavenly Promised Land (Heb. 3:7ff.). The Levitical “sacrificial system”

points to the atoning death of Christ (Heb. 4:16ff.). The prophet Jeremiah foresees the day of a

new covenant (Jer. 31) “that is fulfilled in Christ” (see Heb. 8:1ff.).26

The numerous quotes Peter makes in his sermons clearly point to Jesus as being the

fulfillment of the Messianic prophecies. In Hebrews the author alludes to many passages, some

not as obvious as others, but all proving that Jesus is the expected one. The Hebrew epistle

compares Jesus to being like the high priest Melchizedek (Heb. 7:1ff.). This Melchizedek is a

“shadowy-figure” who serves as both priest and king. The patriarch Abraham offers to

Melchizedek “a portion of the plunder of the battle and who in return gave Abraham bread and

wine” (according to Gen. 14:18-20).27

The writer of the Hebrew epistle uses this typology to

show that, while Jesus is not a high priest from the lineage of Aaron or Levi (because he

descends from Judah), yet he fulfills the requirements to be a priest after the order of

Melchizedek (Ps. 110:4).28

Comparing Hebrews use of the Old Testament with the sermons in the book of Acts

supports the argument that Hebrews is originally a sermon or speech that is written down for a

particular audience and a specific situation.29

Bristol states, “There can be no doubt of the

25

Ibid., 90. 26

Ibid. 27

Ibid. 28

Ibid., 90-91. 29

Ibid., 91.

7

influence of primitive Christian preaching concerning the place of the OT in providing the source

of proof that all the emphasis of Christian salvation has had its prediction in OT writings.”30

While there are similarities between the use of Old Testament scripture in Paul’s and Peter’s

sermons with that of Hebrews, yet some of the passages such as those dealing with “Melchizedek

have no parallel in any other” New Testament book.31

While Hebrews is similar to a synagogue homily, yet the letter is much more than a

sermon addressed in the synagogue. The book is a “Christian synagogue homily.” The homily

in the synagogue is based upon the “ancient rhetoric for the purpose of interpreting and applying

an inspired and authoritative Scriptural text.” Hebrews uses this technique to make an

“Christological interpretation and application of that text.”32

While some point to the epistolary

ending in Heb 13:22-25 as evidence of more of a letter than a sermon, yet this ending “does

nothing to dissipate this sermon’s power.” The preacher’s homily is “sent as a letter to be read in

the assembled worship of the congregation about whom the pastor was concerned.33

Cockerill

finds three main parts or sections to the author’s written sermon: (1) 1:1-4:13; (2) 4:14-10:18);

and (3) 10:19-12:29.34

Vanhoey’s Rhetorical Analysis

Yet not everyone agrees with Cockerill’s conclusions. Scholars such as Vanhoey and

Attridge see in the book of Hebrews elements of both an “epideictic oration” and “deliberative

30

Ibid., 91. 31

Ibid., 92. 32

Cockerill, 15. 33

Ibid., 15-16. 34

Ibid., 62.

8

rhetoric.”35

Vanhoey analyzes the structure of Hebrews as consisting of “an elaborate concentric

composition” which consists of “an Introduction (1:1-4) and Conclusion (13:20-21),” with five

chiastic sections sandwiched in between the beginning and ending of Hebrews. These five

chiastic sections are: (1) Heb. 1:5-2:18 – the name of Jesus is “superior” to that of the angels

(Eschatology); (2) Heb. 3:1-5:10 – Jesus is both “faithful and compassionate” (Ecclesiology); (3)

Heb. 5:11-10:39 – the “central exposition” (Sacrifice); (4) Heb. 11:1-12:13 – “Faith and

endurance” (what Vanhoye calls “Ecclesiological paranesis”); and (5) Heb. 12:14-13:19 – “The

peaceful fruit of justice” (Eschatology).”36

Hebrews both begins and ends with the fitting

bookends of eschatology.

Some scholars like Vanhoey’s analysis because he is able to bring out the “alternation

between exposition and exhortation” while at the same time finding the “formal balance” within

the main body of the text.37

Still others look for a more simplistic layout of the epistle.

Nevertheless, there can be a danger in taking “too formal” of an approach to Hebrews and run

the risk of separating the book “from the clear apologetic goal” that the author intends to

“achieve by stressing the superiority of Christ” to the old covenant.38

Similarities with other NT Books

From a structural standpoint, there are some definite parallels between Hebrews and the

other New Testament books. There are parallels between Stephen’s speech in Acts and the

Hebrew epistle. Both the Acts 7 speech and Hebrews portray the children of God “as on the

35

Raymond E. Brown, An Introduction to the New Testament The Anchor Bible Reference Library (New

York: Doubleday, 1998), 690. 36

Ibid. 37

Attridge, 15. 38

Brown., 691.

9

move” and fulfilling the Old Testament promises.39

The opening verses of Hebrews (1:1-4) are a

reminder of the description of Jesus in the opening verses of the Gospel of John (1:1-5). John

and Hebrews spend much time focusing upon Jesus as the Son, the Son of God.40

The epistle of 1 Peter and Hebrew are also similar in that “bother were written to

encourage perseverance in the face of persecution.” Hebrews and 1 Peter both refer to Christians

as pilgrims (Heb. 11:8-16; 12:22; 13:14; 1 Pet. 1:1; 2:11). Both authors refer to Jesus as the

“Shepherd” (Heb. 13:20; 1 Pet. 2:25; 5:4).41

Pfitzner uses the above examples, plus internal

evidence, to show that the Hebrew utilizes epidictic rhetorical devices. This type of rhetoric

“extolled the greatness of a person” or even “promoted values” that others should follow.

“Amplification by means of comparison was a standard feature of epideictic oratory.”42

Pfitzner

makes reference to Aristotle’s use of amplification in Rhetoric 1.9, 38-40. Jesus in Hebrews is

compared to the angels, Moses, Aaron, Melchizedek, and the old law to the new. Epideictic

oratory also deals with both “praise and blame. As an example, he notes the use of blame in

Heb. 5:11-6:8 which is “followed immediately by praise” in Heb. 6:9-12.43

Christological Themes

Another advantage of a literary approach to the General Epistles, such as Hebrews, is

how the study of rhetorical devices helps shed light on various themes in the New Testament

letters. One such theme that is peculiar to Hebrews is the author’s Christology. The writer of

39

Cockerill, 24. 40

Ibid. 41

Ibid. 42

Victor C. Pfitzner, Hebrews Abingdon New Testament Commentaries (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1997),

21. 43

Ibid.

10

Hebrews depicts Christ’s role as High Priest more than any other New Testament writer. One

finds in Revelation 1:13 where “Christ appears in high-priestly attire.”44

Paul speaks of Jesus’

role as intercessor for prayer (Romans 8:34), which “suggests a high-priestly ministry.”45

Several passages in the New Testament “affirm the sacrificial nature” of Jesus’ death (see Matt.

26:27; Jn. 1:29; Rom. 3:25; 8:3; 1 Cor. 5:7; 1 Pet. 1:19-21; Rev. 5:12). However, in the book of

Hebrews, the author develops the idea of Jesus as being the “eternal,” obedient Son who

selflessly offers himself as an offering and thus fulfilling “all that the Aaronic priesthood

anticipated.”46

Eschatological Themes

The use of a literary approach also sheds light on Hebrews’ emphasis on eschatology.

Even though Hebrews is not an apocalyptic book, yet the author does argue for the tradition of

“the futuristic two-age eschatology characteristic of the apocalyptic writings.” The prophets of

the Old Testament hastened the coming of God’s “saving act” where he would usher in his

kingdom. The apocalyptic authors stress the evil that exists in this world/age “dominated by

Satan and the cataclysmic, world-changing nature of God’s coming salvation that would

inaugurate the new age of divine rule.”47

The book of Hebrews concurs with the authors of the New Testament that God’s

“intervention” takes place in “two stages.” The first stage takes place when Jesus comes to

fulfill the Levitical “sacrificial system” and completely removes sin (Jer. 31). The second stage

44

Cockerill, 24. 45

Ibid., 25. 46

Ibid. 47

Ibid.

11

is when Jesus comes again, the “second coming,” where “he will usher his own into the final gift

of salvation” (see Heb. 1:13; 2:5-9; 9:26-28). “At this time will be the final Judgment Day-

punishment of the wicked and reward of the righteous who will enter “into God’s eternal

kingdom (12:25-29).””48

The book of Hebrews seems to have some connection with the Jewish

apocalyptic, non-canonical books such as 1 Enoch, 2 Baruch, and 4 Ezra. These three books

“tended to combine belief in an already existing heavenly eternal world with commitment to a

future, world-shaking in-breaking of the kingdom of God.” The various texts that are part of the

Dead Sea Scrolls “confirm this combination.”49

While there may not be any connections between Hebrews and the Neo-Platonism and

dualism of Philo, a first-century contemporary Jewish exegete, both Hebrews and Philo seem to

utilize the same variants of the Greek text of the Old Testament not found in the LXX.50

The

author of Hebrews quotes extensively from the Old Testament, some twenty-eight times he

quotes from the Greek Old Testament using “an introductory formula” such as ‘somewhere it

says.’ The preacher “quotes twenty-five of these passages once, two of them (Ps 2:7; Jer 31:31-

34) twice, and one (Ps 110:4) three times, making a total of thirty-two quotations.”51

The

quotes the preacher makes helps “contribute to the rhetorical structure of this sermon.”52

These

quotes “form the basis for his teaching on Christ and salvation.” These passages “undergird his

warnings.” In accordance with the rest of the New Testament “pattern,” the book of Hebrews

48

Ibid., 25-26. 49

Ibid., 26. 50

Ibid., 26-34, 29. 51

Ibid., 42. 52

Ibid., 42-43.

12

“may allude to or echo other literature but quotes only from the canonical books” of the Hebrew

Old Testament canon.53

Use of Periodic Sentence

Definition and Usage of Term

The term periodic sentence refers to a “carefully structured statement in which a balance

is created by word order, or syntax, that may be described in terms of a path “around” or literally

to go around in a circle and return back where the “sentence began.” According to the rules of

the ancient “rhetorical handbooks,” the foundation stones of the “periodic sentences are the

clauses (kommata = brief phrases and kola = complete clauses) antithetically, while others

employed parallelism or a series of subordinate clauses.” Most of these handbooks (written by

men such as Aristotle, Theophrastus, Demetrius, and Cicero) all “gave attention to the periodic

sentence.”54

Demetrius argues, in his Elco. 16-18, that “the periodic sentence is composed of

two to four clauses” or kola. This “refined style gives grandeur to a speech,” according to Eloc.

45-47, but the literary style is “inappropriate for letters” (Elco. 229). While the apostle Paul does

occasionally demonstrate such “stylistic refinement” (see 1 Cor. 13; 2 Cor. 4:16-18), yet “he

does not employ the periodic sentence.” One finds in Luke’s prologue to his gospel a “good

example of this style.” The author of book of Hebrews also uses the “periodic sentence” in Heb.

4:12-13; 5:7-10; 7:1-3; and 12:18-24.55

53

Ibid., 43. 54

James W. Thompson, Hebrews, Paidea Commentaries On The New Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker

Academic, 2008), 6. 55

Ibid.

13

Usage of “Synkrisis” or Comparison in Hebrews

No other New Testament book uses comparison more than that of the book of Hebrews

( , better than). The ancient Greek and Roman “rhetorical theorists” defined synkrisis

as a “comparison for the purpose of evaluation.”56

The particular comparisons could take the

form of comparing the “good with good,” or the “bad with bad,” or even the “good with bad.”

The synkrisis rhetorical device “could be used in speeches of either praise or blame.” The fourth

century B.C. rhetorician Aphthonius helped develop synkrisis in such a sway so he could

compare “fine things with good things or poor things beside poor things” (according to Prog. 3).

Nicolaus claimed, “Our subjects will be great when they seem greater than the great” (Prog.

61).57

The topics rhetoricians would cover in using this method of “comparison” or synkrisis of

individuals would be “birth, ancestry, education, health, strength, and beauty.” This rhetorical

technique was taught to young teenagers in the academy. In the Parallel Lives of Plutarch, he

made a “comparison of Greek and Roman leaders,” which was a “major example of extended

synkrisis.”58

Usage of Inclusio in Hebrews

The term inclusio or “inclusion” comes to us from the Latin and means “imprisonment,”

“confinement,” or a “shutting off.” This “literary term” is used for “similar wording placed at

the beginning and end of a section as a framing device.”59

This rhetorical feature is a “signal to

56

Ibid., 13. 57

Ibid. 58

Ibid. 59

Ibid. Richard N. Soulen and R. Kendall Soulen, Handbook of Biblical Criticism, Fourth Edition

(Louisville: Westmister John Knox Press, 2011), 35.

14

the reader that the unit is complete.”60

In some cases an inclusio marks off the “place for a

digression from a subject to which the speaker returned, while in other instances the repetition

was helpful as emphasis in oral address.”61

At times inclusion sets off smaller units of scripture,

as in Matt. 6:19-20: “Do not lay up for yourselves treasures … but lay up for yourselves

treasures …”62

The usage of inclusio also sets apart larger units, as in the case of Matt. 7:16-20,

where Jesus “begins and ends” with the phrase, “from their fruits you shall know them.” The

teaching that falls in the center or middle of an inclusion is like the ham inside of a ham

sandwich. The “beginning” and end act like the “bread on the outside of a sandwich.”63

The book of Hebrews “contains” several “long” and “short sections” set off by inclusio.

The author of Hebrews does “not always place the key words at the very beginning and the very

end of a unity,” since the writer often follows the end of the inclusio “with a connecting

sentence” that relates “one unit to the next.” These connecting clauses often affect the beginning

“sentence of a unit in the same way.” In other words, the author often repeats the same word at

the end of a unit to bring the reader’s mind back to the beginning.64

An example of such a

connecting unit or “clause” is in Heb. 1:4 (

’ ), which connects Heb. 1:1-3

with vv. 5-13. The catchword that ties these two units together in v. 4 is ,66

Other

examples of inclusio from the book of Hebrews are: Heb. 1:3, 13 (right hand of God), 3:12, 19

60

Buchanan, xxv. 61

Thompson, 13. 62

Buchanan, xxv-xxvi. 63

Ibid., xxvi. 64

Neil R. Lightfoot, Jesus Christ Today, a commentary on the Book of Hebrews (Grand Rapids: Baker,

1980), 47. 65

Barbara Aland, Kurt Aland, Johannes Karavidopoulos, Carlo M. Marini, and Bruce M. Metzger, The

Greek New Testament, Fourth Rev Ed (Stuttgart: Duetsche Bibelgesellschaft/United Bible Societies, 1994), 741. 66

Buchanan, xxvi.

15

(“unfaithfulness”), 4:14; 5:10 (“high priest”), 8:7-13; 10:16-17 (“new covenant”). In the first

two major sections of Hebrews (1:1-4:13 and 4:13-10:31), these sections are “framed” by using

inclusio.67

There are also examples of longer or more extended inclusions. In Heb 3:1-4:14, this

unit contains terms like “heavenly,” or “Jesus,” or “high priest,” and “confession.” This same

“section” finishes up with almost the exact “same” terms such as “high priest,” “heavens,”

“Jesus,” and even “confession.” The use of extended inclusio is also found with “high priest” in

Heb. 5:1-10, “sluggards” in Heb. 5:11-6:12, the use of “Melchizedek” and “met” in Heb. 7:1-10,

and the term “peace” in Heb. 12:14-13:20.68

Hook words or key phrases are often used along

with inclusion at the beginning and ending of sections to tie the theme together and also as a lead

in to the next section. An example of such hook words are:

(1:4) “angels” … “angels” (1:5)

(2:13) “children … “children (2:14)

(2:17) “faithful” … “faithful” (3:2)

(2:17) “high priest” … “high priest” (3:1)

(3:19) “enter” … “entering” (4:1)

(4:5) “enter” … “enter” (4:6)

(4:14) “have” … “have” (4:15)

(6:12) “promises” … “promise” (6:13)

(8:13) “the first” … “the first” (9:1)

(9:23) “heavenly” … “heaven” (9:24)

(10:39) “faith” … “faith” (11:1)

(11:7) “heir” … “inheritance” (11:8)

(11:39) “having been witnessed to” … “witnesses” (12:1)

67

Thompson., 15. 68

Lightfoot, 48.

16

(11:40) “us” … “us” (12:1)

(12:24) “speaking” ,,, “speaking” (12:25).69

The use of inclusio and these hook words act like book ends on a book shelf to help keep the

thoughts and arguments of the author in line. Without the use of rhetorical analysis in New

Testament Studies, the reader or interpreter would miss out on this literary nuance. One can

easily see how a thematic approach would not follow the flow of an author’s arguments in a

letter.

Chiasmus.

Another important rhetorical device is known as chiasmus, based upon the Greek letter

which is used “to symbolize the inverted sequence or crossover of parallel words or ideas in a

bicolon (distich), sentence, or larger literary unit.” Others prefer the term inverted parallelism to

describe this feature.70

“Like the inclusion, these form a sandwich-like expression, but in a much

more precise way than the inclusion requires.”71

The basic pattern of chiasm is: a, b, b’, a.’ In

Matt. 19:30, Jesus proclaims, “many first ones will be last/ and the last first.” In this passage,

‘first ones’ (A) and ‘first’ (A’) parallel one another, and in the second part ‘will be last’ (B) and

‘the last’ (B’) parallel each other. Here in Matt. 19:30 the chiasm occurs again in Matt. 20:16,

“thus forming an inclusion with a chiasm at both ends” (another example of this feature is Matt.

10:28; Matt. 12:49-50).72

69

Ibid., 48-49. 70

Soulen and Soulen, 35. 71

Buchanan, xxvi. 72

Ibid., xxvi-xxvii.

17

In Heb. 4:16b, we find an example of Buchanan’s definition of chiasmus in the Hebrew

epistle. The text reads: (A) (B)/ (B’) (A’).73

Roughly translated, ‘So that we might receive (A) mercy (B) and grace (B’) we might find (A’).’

The phrase “we might receive” parallels “we might find,” and the term “mercy” is

“synonymous” with that of “grace” and both “from a hendiadys here.”74

The chiasm can also

take the form of a, b, c, c’, b’, a’ (four parallels instead of just three). In Heb. 12:2, there is also

example of chiasmus with the pattern of a, b, c, d, d’, c’, b,’ a.’

A

B

C

D

*

D1

C

1

B

1

A

1

73

The Greek New Testament, 749.

74Buchanan., xxvii.

75Ibid., 41. The Greek New Testament, 4

th Rev. Ed., 773. Estella B. Horning, “Chiasmus, Creedal

Structure, and Christology,” in Biblical Research 23 (1978): 38.

18

Use of Rhetorical Persuasion

The way orators crafted their speeches (both oral and written) help in persuading or

convincing their audience of their position. Books were written training rhetoricians in this art.

First of all, in ancient speeches there is the “introduction” or “exordium” where the speaker

intends to “introduce” his particular “topic and make the audience favorably disposed.”

Secondly, there is the “narration” or narratio of the speech that consists of the “facts pertaining

to the case.”76

Third, there is the probatio or the “main body of the argument” where the orator

would give his “proofs” and then finally the preoratio or the “concluding section” where the

speaker would summarize the speech, “often with increased emotional intensity.”77

Orators would use a technique known as hook words in lengthy speeches or literary

writings to tie the message into one unit. The term “hook word” refers to the device of linking

“apparently unrelated topics together by concluding one section with the topic for the next unit

of the book.” Hebrews does this rather well.78

Conclusion

The traditional approach to understanding the structure from a thematic perspective

seems to lack the tools needed to interpret such a complex literary work. The newer literary

approaches see the need to read the New Testament through the lenses of rhetorical criticism.

There is much evidence that points to ancient writers using rhetorical techniques to persuade

their audience. If there is any example of this going on in the New Testament, there is no doubt

76

Thompson., 16. 77

Ibid. 78

Ibid., 14.

19

the author of the Hebrew epistle does utilize rhetoric to persuade Jewish-Christians not to

abandon their faith and go back into Judaism.

While some scholars may disagree on how the book should be outlined and even some

approaches may press the rhetorical point of view too far, still this approach far outweighs the

past hermeneutical stance. The book of Hebrews is much more than an apologetic or dogmatic

work. This letter is a Christian homily in written form that borrows somewhat from each of the

three types of rhetoric: judicial, epideictic, and deliberative. Such a complex book deserves to be

read from the point of view of the original author so that the modern interpreter does not reach

conclusions never meant by the inspired writer.

20

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