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Tema-1 LANGUAGE AS COMMUNICATION: ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE. FACTORSDEFINING A COMMUNICATIVE SITUATION: LISTENER, CODE, FUNCTIONALITYAND CONTEXT

In this unit we are going to study language and its major functions:

*We will show how Comm!"#a$"o!is one of these F!#$"o!%.

*We will show how learning a language is not only a grammatical process but also a So#"a&'(o#e%%.

*We will also analyse the differences between W("$"!) a! S+ee#.

*We will discuss some important Comm!"#a$"e Teo(defining their key factors.

*Finally, we will show how important it is to create Rea& Comm!"#a$"o! S"$a$"o!%in ourC&a%%(oom%in order to improve language teaching.

A conclusionsumming up what has been said throught the unit will follow, ending up with

the bibliographyused for the elaboration of this discussion.

I!"#$%&!I#


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We must point out that language is not just a 'subject( in the sense of a package of

knowledge. It is not just a set of information and insights. It is a fundamental part of

being human. !raditional approaches used to treat a language as if it were a free)standing

package of knowledge by analysing and observing it. *any of us learnt a language that way.+ut this process is a very abstract one and eperience has shown that it does not appeal to

everyone. !o learn to use a language at all well for ourselves rather than for tetbookpurposes, most of us have to become involved in it as an eperience. We have to make it a

human event not just a set of information. We do this by using it for real communication,for genuine giving and receiving of messages.

*ow that we have introduced this particular topic we are going to deal with the study oflanguage as Comm!"#a$"o!, its functions and the concept of communicative competence.

!he word languagehas prompted many definitions. For eample-apirsaid that ' language is a purely human and non instinctive method of commicatingideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols '.

/alldefined language as ' the institution whereby humans communicate and interact witheach other by means of habitually used oral)auditory symbols '


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As we can see with these two definitions it is difficult to make a precise and

comprehensive statement about formal and functional universal properties of language, so

some linguists have tried to identify the various properties that are thought to be its

essential defining characteristics.

!he most widely acknowledged comparative approach has been that proposed by &harles

/ockett.!his set of 01 design features of communication using spoken language are asfollows:

0. Auditory)vocal channel:sound is used between mouth and ear.

2. +roadcast transmission and directional reception:a signal can be heard by any auditorysystem within earshot and the source can be located using the ear3s direction finding.

1. "apid fading:auditory signals are transitory.

4. Interchangeability:speakers of a language can reproduce any linguistic message they can

understand.

5. !otal feedback:speakers hear and can reflect upon everything they say.

6. peciali7ation:the sound waves of speech have no other functions than to signal

meaning.

8. emanticity:the elements of the signal convey meaning through their stable associationwith real world situations.


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9. Arbitrariness:there is no depency between the element of the signal and the nature ofthe reality to which it refers.

. $iscreetness: speech uses a small set of found elements that clearly contrast with eachother.

0;. $isplacement:it is possible to talk about events remote in space or time from thesituation of the speaker.

00.


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which language is used. everal other functions may be identified where the

communications of ideas has a marginal or irrelevant consideration.

#ne of the most common uses of language, the epressive or emotional one, is a means of

getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress, when we are angry, afraid, etc.We do not try to communicate because we can use language in this way whether we are

alone or not.

*alinowskitermed the third use of language we are studying


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) epression of regional, social, educational, seual or occupational identity.

!he +ritish linguist /allidaygrouped all these functions into three *etafunctions, whichare the manifestations in the linguistic system of the two uni=ue manifestation purposes

which underline all uses of language, combined with the third component >tetual? whichbreathes relevance into the other two.

0? !he Idealistic Funtion:is to organise the speaker3s or writer3s eperience of the real or

imaginary world.

2? !he Interpersonal Function:is to indicate, establish or maintain social relationships

between people.

1? !he !etual Function:which serves to create written or spoken tets which cohere

within themselves and which fit the particular situation in which they are used.

ow we shall study the function of communication or what is named Comm!"#a$"eCom+e$e!#e.

&homskydefined language as a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out

of a finite set of elements. An able speaker has a subconcious knowledge of the grammer


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rules of his language which allows him to make sentences in that language. /owever,$ell/ymesthought that &homskyhad missed out some very important information:

!he "ules #f %se. When a native speaks, he does not only utter grammatically correct

forms, he also knows where and when to use the sentences and to whom.

For /ymesthe Comm!"#a$"e Com+e$e!#e had four aspects:

0? ystematic


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ducation nation)wide, sees #omm!"#a$"e #om+e$e!#e as comprising fivesubcompetences:

13 G(amma( Com+e$e!#e.!he ability to put into practice the system of grammar rules by which a language operates.

43 So#"o&"!)"%$"# Com+e$e!#e.!he ability to produce appropriate utterances in different sociolinguistic contetsdepending on contetual factors such as status of participants, purpose of the

interaction....

53 So#"o#&$(a& Com+e$e!#e.!his is understood to be the knowledge of the social and cultural contet in which the

language is used.

63 D"%#o(%e Com+e$e!#e.!he ability to produce unified written or spoken discourse that shows coherence and

cohesion in different types of tets.

73 S$(a$e)"# Com+e$e!#e.!he ability to use verbal and non)verbal strategies to compensate for breakdowns incommunication, or to improve the effectiveness of communication, as for eample, the use

of paraphrase, tone of voices or gestures.


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#n the other hand, &analedefined D"%#o(%e Com+e$e!#e as the aspect of communicativecompetence which describes the ability to produce unified written or spoken discourse

that shows coherence and cohesion and which conforms to the norms of different genres.

*%p to this point we have studied the concept of language as means of communication,amongst other functions.ow, let us move onto another important aspect of this unit, which deals with the main

differences between 8("$"!) a! %+ee#.

+efore summarising the main differences between spoken and written language we will

outline their main features independantly.

#n the one hand we have spoken language, which is the most obvious aspect of language.

peech is not essential to the definition of an infinitely productive communication system,

such as is constituted by language. +ut, in fact, speech is the universal material of

language. *an has almost certainly been a speaking animal. !he earliest known systems of

writing go back perhaps some 5;;; years. !his means that for many hundreds of thousands

of years human languages have been transmitted and developed entirely as a spoken meansof communication.

!he description and classification of speech sounds is the main aim of phonetics. ounds

may be identified with reference to their production, their transmission and their

reception. !hese three activities occur at the physiological level, which implies the action


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of muscles and nerves. !he motor nerves that link the speaker3s brain with his speech

mechanism activate the corresponding muscles. !he movements of the tongue, lips, vocal

chords, etc, constitute the articulatory stage of the speech chain, and the area of

phonetics that deals with it is articulatory phonetics.

!he movement of the articulation produces disturbances in the air pressure called sound

waves which are physical manifestations. !his is the acoustic stage of the chain, duringwhich the sound waves travel towards the listener3s ear. !hese sound waves activate the

listener3s ear drum.

#n the other hand we have written languagewhich evolved independently at different

times in several parts of the world.

We can classify writing systems into two types:

0? on)


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In a syllabic system each grapheme corresponds to a spoken syllable. Alphabetic writing

establishes a direct correspondance between graphemes and phonemes.

In a perfect regular system there is one grapheme for each morpheme. /owever, most

alphabets in present day use fail to meet this criteria. At one etreme we find such

languages as panish, which has a very regular system- at the other we find such cases asnglish and Baelic where there is a marked tendency to irregularity.

ow let3s study the main differences between writing and speech. !he most obvious is the

contrast in physical form.

peech uses phonic substance typically in the form of air)pressure movements, whereas

writing uses graphic substance, typically in the form of marks on a surface. As writing can

only occasionally be thought of as an interaction, we can establish the following points of

contrast:

0? !he permanence of writing allows repeated reading and close analysis. !he spontaneity

and rapidity of speech minimises the chance of comple pre)planning, and promotes

features that assisst speakers to think standing up.

2? !he participants in written interaction cannot usually see each other, so they cannot

make clear what they mean. /owever, in speech interactions feedback is possible.

1? !he majority of graphic features presents a system of contrasts that has no speeche=uivalent. *any genres of written language, such as tables, graphs and comple formulae,

cannot be conveyed by reading aloud.


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4? ome contructions may only be found in writing, others only occur in speech, such as in

slang and swear words.

5? Finally we can say that writing tends to be more formal and so it is more likely toprovide the standard that society values. Its performance provides it with a special status.

$espite these differences, the written and spoken language have mutually interacted in

many respects. We normally use the written language in order to improve our command ofvocabulary, active or passive, spoken or written.

Coan words may come into a country in a written form, and sometimes everything we know

about a language is from its written form eg: Catin. It is true that writing has derived from

speech in an historical sense, but nowadays their independance is mutual.

*ow we have eamined the differences between speech and written languagewe shall concentrate on the $eo(of communication, and those factors defining a

communicative act.

According to Ivor Armstrong "ichards, 'communication takes place when one mind so actsupon its environment that another mind is influenced, and in that other mind an eperience

occurs which is like the eperience in the first mind, and is caused in part by that

eperience.(


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*any studies of classroom language have shown that in most native speaker E is used for

function rather than for direct teaching. !hese etra functions include: greetings,

discussion, health, attendance,the weather and so on.

+arnes>06?, in his description of classroom language, labelled these functions 'social(.ocial interaction also takes placein foreign language and 2nd language classrooms, but in

many such classrooms native language is used for this purpose.

Fanselow>088? attempted to set up a system for observing and recording different types

of communication in the language classroom. /e established five headings in the form of

=uestions:

0? Who communicates E

2? What is the pedagological purpose of the communication E

1? What mediums are used to communicate content E

4? /ow are the mediums used E

5? What areas of content are communicated E

All of these =uestions are useful in thinking how language is used in the classroom.


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!he first of these areas, Canguage, concerns those times when a teacher is eplaining or

illustrating the language, or when the pupils are asking =uestions about the language, or

practising pronunciation or structures. In most nglish language classes, this part of the

lesson is conducted in nglish.

!he second,


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in nglish, it is important, as it is when they are learning their first language, to support

communication through the use of gesture, facial epression and action because this gives

children clues to the meaning of what they hear and so draws their attention to and helps

them to become familiar with the sounds, rhythm and stress of the second language.

trategies that parents use intuitively to draw children into the use of the first language

must be used deliberately by the teachers to draw children into using the second language."esearch has shown that parents generally speak more slowly, articulate more carefully,

and use gesture, facial epression and tone when talking to young children to aid theirunderstanding and to encourage them to produce.

&C%I#

!o conclude, we could bear in mind that an important aspect of interaction in the nglish

classroom is that it must be managed by the learners as well as by the teacher. !hat is to

say that learners must be confident enough to initiate communication in nglish, and not

merely respond when they are addressed by the teacher. A pupil that has something to

say, an apology or a re=uest to make, a =uestion to ask, a greeting to give, should beencouraged to epress himherself in nglish. If resources are not to be wanted and

opportunities to be missed, children must learn nglish in the same way they learnt theirmother tongue, as a living language that can be used for active communication as much as

for establishing personal relationships.


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+I+CI#B"A


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1.*. C&++n$)a%$! )&+-!%!n)!.

(. SPOEN AND /RITTEN LANGUAGE.

(.1. S-&!n angag!.

(.(. /2$%%!n angag!.

(.*. 3$'%&2$)a A%%$%"!'.(.4. D$##!2!n)!' 5!%6!!n 62$%$ng an" '-!!)7.

*. COMMUNICATION T3EORY.

*.1. C&++n$)a%$&n "!#$n$%$&n.

*.(. Ma$n M&"!'.

*.*. !8 #a)%&2'.

4. 9I9LIOGRAP3Y.


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0. INTRODUCTION.

Traditional foreign language teaching concentrated on getting students consciously to learn itemsof language in insolation. These bits of information would be mainly used to read texts and onlyoccasionally for oral communication. The focus was not on communication but on a piece of language.

Following Krashens distinction between acquisition and learningwe can say that people got to knowabout the language (learning) but could not use it in a real context (acquisition).

The ritish applied linguist !llwright tried to bridge this dichotomy when he theorised that if delanguage teachers management acti"ities were directed exclusi"ely at in"ol"ing the learners in sol"ingcommunication problems in the target language# then language learning wil take care of itlself. $e may ormay not agree with this extreme rendering of the %ommunicati"e approach# but we all agree nowadays onthe importance of letting ous pupils use &nglish for real communication during at least# the productionstage.

'n this unit we are going to study language and its functions to see that communication is one ofthes functions. $e wil then posit that learning a language is not only a grammatical and lexical processbut also a social process. $e also analye the differences between writing and speech and finally we willdiscuss the most important communication theory models# defining their key factors.

1. LANGUAGE AS COMMUNICATION.

1.1. Langag! D!#$n$%$&n'.

The word language has prompted innumerable definitions. *ome focus on the general concept oflanguage (what we call lengua or lenguaje) and some focus on the more specific notion of a language(what we call lengua or idioma).


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*!+', (-/-) said that 0language is a purely human non1instincti"e method of communicatingideas# emotions and desires by means of "oluntarily produced symbols2. 3!44 (-56) defined languageas 0the institution whereby humans communicate and interact whith each other by means of habituallyused oral1auditory arbitrary symbols2. !s we can see in these two definitions it is diffi cult to make aprecise and comprehensi"e statement about formal adn functional uni"ersal properties of language sosome linguists ha"e trien to indentify the "arious properties that are thought to be its essential definingcharacteristics.

The most widely acknowledged comparati"e approach has been the one proposed by %harles

37%K&TT. 3is set of -8 design features of communication using spoken language were as follows9

- A"$%&28&)a )7ann!9 sound is used between mouth and ear.

- 92&a")a'% %2an'+$''$&n an" "$2!)%$&na 2!)!-%$&n9 a signal can be heard by any auditory systemwithin earshot# and the source can be located using the ears direction1finding ability.

- Ra-$" #a"$ng9 auditory signals are transitory.

- In%!2)7ang!a5$$%89 speakers of a language can reproduce any linguistic message they can understand.

- T&%a #!!"5a)9 speakers hear and can reflect upon e"erything that they say.

- S-!)$%a$;a%$&n9 the sound wa"es of speech ha"e no other function than to signal meaning.

- S!+an%$)$%89 the elemens of the signal con"ey meaning through their stable association with real1world situations.

- A25$%2a2$n!''9 there is no dependence of the element of the signal on the nature of the reality to whichit refers.

- D$')2!%!n!''9 speech uses a small set of sound elements tha clearly contrast whith each other.


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- D$'-a)!+!n%9 it is possible to talk about e"ents remote in space or time from the situation of thespeaker.

- P2&")%$$%89 ther is an infinite capacity to express and understand meaning# by using old setenceelements to produce new sentences.

- T2a"$%$&na %2an'+$''$


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$e may also finde other functions such as9

- recording facts.- 'nstrument of thought-

&xpression of regional# social# educational# sexual or occupational identity.

The ritish linguist 3!44'@!> grouped all these functions into three metafunctions# shich are themanifestation in the linguistic system of the two "eryu general purposes shich underlie all uses oflanguage combine whith the rhird component (textual) shich brethes rele"ance into the other two.

-.1 The $"!a%$&na #n)%$&nis to organie the speakers or writers experience of the real or imaginaryworld# i.e. language refers to real or imagined persons# things# actions# e"ents# states#etc.


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/.1 The $n%!2-!2'&na #n)%$&n is to indicate# establish or mantain social relationships betweenpeople. 't includes forms of address# speech function# modality ...

8.1 The third component is the %!=%a #n)%$&nwhich ser"es to create written or spoken texts whichcohere within themsel"es and which fit the particular situation in which they are used.

1.*. C&++n$)a%$! )&+-!%!n)!

%37 (-AB) defined language as Ca set of sentences# each finite in length and constructedout of a finite set of elements. ! capable speaker has a subconscious knowledge of the grammar rules ofhis language which allows him to make sentences in that language. 3owe"er# @ell 3>


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*etting+articipants+urpose%hannelTopic

O))22!n)! means that the nati"e speaker knows how often something is said in the language and actsaccordingly.

F!a'$5$$%8means that the nati"e speaker knows whether something is possible in the language. &"en if

there is no grammatical rule to ban /D1ad:ecti"e prehead construction# we know that these constructionsare not possible in the language.

These 6 categories ha"e been adapted for teaching purposes. Thus# the ,oyal @ecree -DD5E-- of-6 une (7& /A une)# which establishes the teaching requirements for +rimary &ducation nationwide#sees communicati"e competence as comprising fi"e subcompetences9

- G2a++a2 )&+-!%!n)!(competencia gramatical# o capacidad de poner en prGctica las unidades yreglas de funcionamiento del sistema de la lengua).

- D$')&2'! )&+-!%!n)!(competencia discursi"a o capacidad de utiliar diferentes tipos de discurso yorganiarlos en funciHn de la situaciHn comunicati"a y de los inetrlocutores).

- S&)$&$ng$'%$) )&+-!%!n)!( competencia sociolingIJstica o capacidad de adecuar los enunciados aun contexto concreto# atendiendo a los usos aceptados en una comunidad lingIJstica determinada).

-

- S%2a%!g$) )&+-!%!n)! ( competencia estratgica o capacidad para definir# corregir# matiar o en

general# realiar a:ustes en el curso de la situaciHn comunicati"a).-

- S&)$&)%2a )&+-!%!n)! ( competencia sociocultural# entendida como un cierto grado defamiliaridad con el contexto social y cultural en el que se utilia una determinada lengua).

The terms grammar# sociolinguistic and sociocultural competence are quite self explanatory so we willonly analye discourse and strategic competence.


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disturbances in the air pressure called sound wa"es# which are physical manifestations. This is the acousticstage of the chain# during which the sound wa"es tra"el towards the listeners ear1drum. The study ofspeech sound wa"es correspons to a)&'%$) -7&n!%$)'. The hearing process is the domain of a"$%&28-7&n!%$)'. This can be seen in the following table9

SPEEC3 9RAIN SPEEC3 SOUND EAR 9RAIN

C3AIN MEC3ANISM /AVES

!cti"ity psychological physiological physical physiological psychologicals stagelinguistic production transmission perception linguistic

+honetics articulatory acoustic auditoryphonetics phonetics phonetics

'n this table we can see how phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds.This is not the most important task for linguist# howe"er. ! linguist must study the way in which alanguages speakers systematically use a selection of theses sounds in order to express meaning. 'n thisacti"ity he is helped by phonology. +honology is continually loking beneath th surface of speech todetermine its underlying regularities. 't is not interested in sounds but in phonemes# ie. *mallestcontrasti"e phonological units which can produce a difference in meaning. The study of speech istherefore# the field of both +honetics and +honology.

(.(. /2$%%!n angag!.


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+honological systems do show a clear relationship between the symbols and the sounds oflanguage. $e can distinguish syllabic and alphabetic systems.

'n a system of syllabic writing# each grapheme corresponds to a spoken syllable# usually aconsonant1"owel pair. This system can be seen in apanese Kataka.

!lphabetic writing establishes a direct correspondence between graphemes and morphemes. Thismakes it the most economic and adaptable of all the writing systems. 'n a perfectly regular sustem there isone grapheme for each morpheme. 3owe"er# most alphabets in present day use fail to meet this criterion.

!t one extreme we find such languages as *panish# which has a "ery regular system at the other# we findsuch cases as &nglish and Naelic# where there is a marked tendency to irregularity.

(.*. 3$'%&2$)a a%%$%"!'.

3istorically speaking# written language was considered tobe superior to spoken language for manycenturies. 't was the medium of literature# and literature was considered a source of standards of linguisticexcellence. $itten records pro"ide language with permanence and authority and so the rules of grammarwere illustrated exclusi"ely from written texts.

7n the other hand# spoken language was ignored as an ob:ect unworthy of study. *poken languagedemostrates such a lack of care and organiation that cannot be studied scientifically it was said to ha"eno rules# and speakers ha"e thought that# in order to speak properly# it was necessary to follow the correctnorm. !s this norm was based on written standards# it is clear that the prescripti"e tradition restedsupremacy of writing o"er speech.

This "iewpiont became widely criticied at the turn of our century. 4eonard loomfield insistedthat Owriting is not language but merely a way of recording language by means of "isible marksO. Thisapproach pointed out se"eral factors# some of which we ha"e already mentioned9

- *peech is many centuries older than writing


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- 't de"elopes naturally in children- $riting systems are mostly deri"ati"e# ie# they are based on the sounds of speech.

'f speech is the primary medium of communication# it was also argued that it should be the mainob:ect of linguistic study. !ctually# the ma:ority of the worldPs culturesP languages ha"e ne"er been writtendown and this has nothing to do with their e"olutionary degree. 't is a fallacy to suppose that thelanguages of illiterate or so1called primiti"e peoples are less structured# less rich in "ocabulary# and lessefficient than the languages of literate ci"iliation. &. *apir was one of the first linguistics to attack themyth that primiti"e peoples spoke primiti"e languages. 'n one study he compared the grammatical

equi"alents of the sentence Ohe will gi"e it to youO in six !merindian languages. !mong many fascinatingfeatures of these complex grammatical forms# note the le"el of abstraction introduced by the followingexample9

*outhern +aiute


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(.4. D$##!2!n)!' 5!%6!!n 62$%$ng an" '-!!)7

,esearch has begun to in"estigate the nature and extent of the differences between them.


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A.1 Finally we can say that written language tends to be more formal and so it is more likely topro"ide the standard that society "alues.

@espite these differences# there are many respects in which the written and the spoken languageha"e mutually interacted. $e normally use the written language in order to impro"e our command of"ocabulary# acti"e or passi"e# spoken or written. 4oan words may come into a country in a written form#and sometimes# e"erything we know about language is its writing.

*. COMMUNICATION T3EORY.*.1. D!#$n$%$&n

%ommunication# the exchange of meanings between indi"iduals through a common system ofsymbols# concerned scholars since the time of ancient Nreece. 'n -/? the &nglish literary critic andauthor '"or !rmtrong ,ichards offered one of the first definitions of communication.

*ince about -/D the growth and apparent influence of communication technology ha"e attractedthe attention of many specialists who ha"e attempted to isolate communication as a specific facet of theirparticular interest.

'n the-5Ds#


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/.1 +ersuasi"e communication and the use of technology to influence dispositions8.1 +rocesses of interpersonal communication as mediators of information6.1 @ynamics of "erbal and non1"erbal (and perhaps extrasensory) communicationA.1 +erception of different kinds of communication5.1 ses of communication technology for social and artistic purposes# including educationB.1 @e"elopment of rele"ant critism for artistic endea"ours employing modern communication

technology.

'n short# a communication expert may be oriented to any number of disciplines in a field of inquiry

that has# as yet# neither drawn for itself a conclusi"e roster of sub:ect matter nor agreed upon specificmethodologies of analysis.

8./.


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message for the recei"er. =egati"e entropy may also occur in instances where incomplete or blurredmessages are ne"ertheless recei"ed intact# either because of the ability of the recei"er to fill in missingdetails or to recognie# despite distortion or paucity of information# both the intent and the content of thecommunication.

ut not only negati"e entropy counteracts entropy. ,edundancy# the repetition of elements within amessage that pre"ents the failure of communication of information# is the greatest antidote to entropy.,edundancy is apparently in"ol"ed in most human acti"ities# and# because it helps to o"ercome the"arious forms of entropy that tends to turn intelligible messages into unintelligible ones# it is an

indispensable element for effecti"e communication.$e can see that the model# despite the introduction of entropy and redundancy# is conceptually

static. To correct this flaw# =orbert $iener# the father of cybernetics# added the principle of feedback# ie#sources tend to be responsi"e to their own beha"iour and to the context of communication. 'nteractionbetween human beings in con"ersation cannot function without the ability of the message sender to weighand calculate the apparent effect of this words on his listener.

$e will now analye each of these key factors.

*.*. !8 #a)%&2'

This unit title mentions some of the key factors affecting any communicati"e interaction such asthe sender and the recei"er. !fter putting them in the broader framework of the


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these are referred to as noise or entropy negati"e entropy and redundancy counteract entropy. For somocommunication systems the components are simple to specify as# for instance9

- information source9 a man on the telephone- transmitter9 the mouthpiece- message and signal9 the words the man speaks- channel9 the electrical wires- recei"er9 the earpiece- destination9 the listener

'n face1to1face communication# the speaker can be both information source and transmitter# whilethe listener can be both recei"er and destination.

8.8.-. *peech acts.

.4. !ustin (---1-5D) was the first to draw attention to the many functions performed byutterances as part of interpersonal communication. 3e distinguishes two main types of functionalpotential9

- performati"e- contati"e

! performati"e is an utterance that perform an act9 to say is to act# as we ha"e already seen whenstudying language functions. +erformati"es may be explicit and implicit performati"es# which do not

contain a performati"e "erb.

%onstati"es are utterances which assert something that is either true or false.

'n speech act analysis the effect of utterances on the beha"iour of speaker and hearer is studiesusing a threefold distinction9


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! locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood. Forexample# saying the sentence Cshoot the snakeR is a locutionary act if hearers understand the words CshootR# CtheRand CsnakeR and can identify the particular snake referred to.

!n illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform a function. For example Cshoot the snakeRmaybe intended as an order or a piece of ad"ice.

! perlocutionary act is the result or effect that is produced by means of saying something. Forexample# shooting the snake would be a perlocutionary act.

!ustinRs three1part distinction is less frequently used than a two part distinction between thepropositional content of a sentence and the illocutionary force or intended effects of speech acts. There arethousands of possible illocutionary acts# and se"eral attempts ha"e been made to classify them into a smallnumber of types9

- representati"es- directi"es- commisi"es- expressi"es- declarations

'n declarati"es the speaker is committed in "arying degrees# to the truth of a proposition.

'n directi"es the speaker tries to get the hearer to do something.

'n commissi"es the speaker is committed# in "arying degrees# to a certain course of action.

'n expressi"es the speaker expresses an attitude about a state of affairs.

'n declarations the speaker alters the external status or conditions of an ob:ect or situation solely bymaking the utterance.


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- 3alliday#


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From a psychological point of "iew# oral communication is a two1way process in which both speaker(encoder) and hearer (decoder) must be presentin the same situational context at a particular time andplace (unless we talk about special cases of oral communication such as phone con"ersations). Thefunctions of oral communication are# as we said before# to communicate or exchange our ideas or tointeract with other people. nlike written communication# in oral interaction we can monitor the reactionsof the hearerthrough the feedback so that we can our speech in the course of the communication# as wellas use different linguistic and non1linguistic features (gesturing# intonation...) to make our messagesclearer. 3owe"er# as it takes place in a particular place and time# the interlocutors ha"e to make theircontributions at a high speed# without much time to think# unlike writing.

!long history# the study of spoken language has not much tradition # unlike written language# due tose"eral reasons9

- it was considered a secondary type of language as it was not reser"ed only to culti"ate people.-

- unlike written language# there was a lack of permanent records of oral language during our pasthistory.

-

- it presents more mutability in the understanding and interpretation of what it is said than inwritten lg.

-

3alliday was among the first linguists to study oral language# saying that it was not a formless andfeatureless "ariety of written language. *ince then# there has been an increasing interest to which it hascontributed the in"entions of audio# "ideo and computer de"ices. 'n oral communication# we distinguish

two different types9

+repared speech The formal setting is organised as writing (syntax# lexis Y discourseorganisation) 't is memorised or written down before (lectures# speech# oral poetry)

*pontaneous speech *peaker has not thought or memorised the message beforehand. 't maypresent inaccuracies# hesitations# silences and mistakes


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!s spontaneous speech is the main form of oral communication# and directly reflects real communicationprocesses with different demands and situations# and prepared speech does not allow for feedback andmonitoring# the analysis and study of oral communication should concentrate on spontaneous speech #where the negotiation of meaning plays an important role for the communication purpose to be correctlyachie"ed.

ut because of its per"asi"e and e"eryday nature# its scientific study has pro"ed particularly complex . 'thas been difficult to obtain acoustically clear# natural samples of spontaneous con"ersation# especially ofits more informal "arieties. $hen samples ha"e been obtained# the "ariety of topics# participants# and

social situations which characterise con"ersation ha"e made it difficult to determine which aspects of thebeha"iour are systematic and rule1go"erned.

(.1. ELEMENTS AND NORMS T3AT RULE ORAL DISCOURSE

L$ng$'%$) !!+!n%'

*T,&** $hen we talk we ha"e to bare in mind there is a regular distribution of accents alongwords and sentences. 3owe"er# if we want to gi"e special emphasisto a particular word orphrase# we change that regular pattern of stress and accent in order to make more prominentwhat we want.

,3>T3


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'=T7=!T'7= is the falling and rising of "oice during speech. !ny departure fromwhat it isconsidered 0normal2intonation shows special effects and expresses emotions and attitudes.=ormally# falling tones show conclusion and certainty# whereas rising tones may showinconclusion or doubt ('Rll do it E 'Rll do it... )

Pa2a$ng$'%$) !!+!n%'

$e cannot consider oral "erbal communication without remembering that the whole body takes

part. 'n fact# many times# a person can express sympathy# hostility or incredulity by means ofbody and facial gestures. This 0body language2 is normally culturally relatedY is learnt the sameway as "erbal beha"iour is learnt# although it allows for spontaneity and creati"ity9 we use head#face# hands# arms# shoulders# fingers...

7ther linguistic features that characterise con"ersational language are9

*peed of speech is relati"ely rapid there are many assimilations Y elisions of letters compressions ofauxiliary sequences (gonna) it can be difficult to identify sentence boundaries in long loose passagesinformal discourse markers are common (you know, I mean) great creati"ity in the "ocabulary choice#ranging from unexpected coinage (Be unsad) to use of "ague words ( thingummy).

(.(. RULES

$hen we use language# we do not only utter grammatically correct sentences# but we know where# whenand to whom we are addressing our utterances . This is the reason why a speaker needs to knownot onlythe linguistic and grammatical rules of a language (%homskyRs linguistic competence) or rules of usage#but also how to put into effect these rules in order to achie"e effecti"e communication# so that we alsoneed to be familiar with rules of use.


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,ules of usage 'n order to produce and understand messages in a particular language we need to befamiliar with9

+37=747N> $e need to know the organisation# characteristics and patterns of sounds tocommunicate.

$e need to know the word formation rules and types of combinations of basesY affixes.

*>=T!U $e need to know how words are put together to form sentences and which are theirrelationships.

*&


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process through which we acquire ritual competence being perhaps the most important socialisation wemake of language.

nderstanding routines Y formulae require shared cultural knowledge because they are generallymetaphorical in nature and must be interpreted at a non1literal le"el. +eople are often quite opposed toroutines# formulae and rituals because they are meaningless and depersonalise our ideas# because literalsemantic "alue is largely irrele"ant. *ome typical routines and habitual formulae are used in funeralcondolences# religious ceremonies# weddings# graduation ceremonies...

(.4. STRATEGIES SPECIFIC OF ORAL COMMUNICATION

+articular attention has been paid to the markers of con"ersational turns9 how people know their turn tospeak. 'n formal dialogue# there are often explicit markers# showing that a speaker is about to talk indebate# the person in the chair more or less controls speakersR turns. 'n con"ersation# howe"er# the cuesare more subtle# in"ol"ing "ariations in the melody# rhythm# and speed of speech# and in patterns of eyemo"ement.

$hen people talk in a group# they look at and away from their listeners in about equal proportions# butwhen approaching the end of what they ha"e to say# they look at the listeners more steadily# and inparticular maintain closer eye contact with those they expect to continue the con"ersation. ! listener whowishes to be the next speaker may indicate a desire to do so by showing an increase in bodily tension#such as by leaning forward or audibly drawing in breath. 'n addition# there are many explicit indications#"erbal and non1"erbal# that a speaker is coming to an end (ast ut not least...)# wishes to pass thecon"ersational ball ("hat do you think?# staring to someone)# wishes to :oin in (#ould I just say that...$,lea"e ("ell, that is all...)# change the topic (%peaking of &ary...)# or check on listenersR attention orattitude ('re you with me?).

The sub:ect1matter is an important "ariable# with some topics being 0safe2 in certain social groups (inritain# the weather# pets# children# and the locality)# others more or less 0unsafe2(religious and politicalbeliefs# questions of personal income such asHow much do you earn(). There are usually some arbitrary


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di"isions9 for example# in ritain# it is polite to comment o the taste and presentation of a meal# butusually impolite to enquire after how much it cost.

'n G2$)!Rs "iew# we cooperate in a con"ersation in order to produce a rational and efficient exchange ofinformation# so that to reach a good final result in a communicati"e process# we apply 6 cooperati"eprinciples or maxims9

1


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language of immediate communication# and writing is a type of communication with a distance inbetween. This is the reason why written texts present the following formal elements9

L$ng$'%$) #!a%2!' 62$%%!n angag! ! good writing system must be fixed# flexible# and adaptableat a time# so that9

- it must pro"ide a codified expression for the elements expressed by oral language 9 each idea Qa written form

-

- it must pro"ide means for creating expressions for elements not codified yet9 neologisms#borrowings...-

S8n%a)%$) #!a%2!' 62$%%!n angag! The syntactic elements which make writing different fromspeech are9

- markers and rhetorical organisersfor clauses relationships and clarity (written texts are morepermanent)

-

- use of hea"ily pre1modified =+s # *V7 ordering and use of passi"e constructions andsubordinate phrases

-

L!=$)a #!a%2!' 62$%%!n angag! 'n order to compensate the absence of paralinguistic de"ices andfeedback9

- more accuracy in the use of "ocabulary# a"oiding redundancy and ambiguity (due to itspermanent nature)

-

- use of anaphoras and cataphoras# repetitions# synonyms... to signal relationships betweensentences

-


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- there is more lexical density in writing than in speech (more lexical items than grammaticalones)

-

G2a-7&&g$)a $+-$)a%$&n' Texts can be presented in different ways# as our culture "alue many timesmore the form than the content. To compensate for the absence of feedback and paralinguistic de"ices#written texts need to be accurate in spelling# punctuation# capital letters to mark sentence boundaries#indentation of paragraphs# different fonts to call attention (italics# bold...) and in poetry or texts to drawattention# exploitation of resources such as order and choice of words# "ariations in spelling (iba lakurtura).

'n any case# what is most characteristic of written communication is that 6! '!! $% (the organisation#length...).

*.(. TYPES OF /RITTEN TEXTS: NORMS GOVERNING T3EM, ROUTINES ANDFORMULAE

'n writing# communication also takes place following system and ritual constraints9 this is the reason whywhen we look at a text we can distinguish and obtain information regarding different types oforganisation# different purposes and different lengths.Traditionally# written texts were di"ided following the classification of genres. Then# linguists linkedtheir rhetorical mode to the syntactic structures# routines and formulae that characterised them# andestablished the following classification9

P&'%)a2"' +ieces of writing normally directed to friends or family when tra"elling #and sometimesused for congratulations and greetings. $e :ust write on one side and the language used iscolloquial.

L!%%!2' They can be formal (to enterprises or someone we are not closed to) and informal (tofriends or family) There are some routines to write letters9 apart from the writerRs addresson the top right1hand corner# the date# the first line (dear Z nameEsirEmadamE


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closing (>ours...) and the signature# present in both types of letters# each type of letterfollows this structural organisation into paragraphs9

)ormal* -stQ reason why writing# /ndQ what you want from addressee# 8 rdQconclusion.

Informal9 -stQ introduction# /ndQ reason# 8rdQ additional info# 6thQ conclusion.There are also directive letters# to pro"oke some reaction on the reader# using imperati"esY remarks.

F$$ng$n #&2+' %onsist of answering what you are asked# as briefly as possible# so no writing style

is needed to do so.C22$)+ $%a! %onsists of a clear summary to gi"e the academic knowledge and experience

someone has on a certain matter# so it includes personal details# current occupation#academic qualification and professional experience.

S++a2$!' rief rsums of articles# booklets and books that due to their special form of compositionand writing they allow the reader to gather the main information about the original workwithout reading it.

R!-&2%' They are used to present clearly and with details the summary of present and past facts oracti"ities# and sometimes of predictable future facts from checked data# sometimescontaining the interpretation of the writer but normally with the intention of stating thereality of an enterprise or institution without deformati"e personal "isions# and can bee+positive, interpretative Y demonstrative

Na22a%$! %!=%' The most uni"ersal of all the types of written texts# refer back to the story1tellingtraditions of most cultures. 'n fact there seem to be some basic uni"ersal structure thatgo"erns this type of texts9

1 rientation (time# place and character identification to inform reader of the storyworld)# -oal. rolem./esolution. #odaand sometimes a morale at the end.


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For this characteristic structure# some of the routines and formulae used are presentati"es(there is...)# relati"es# ad:uncts of place and time# flash1backs# different narrati"e p.o.".#narrati"e dialogues# etc...

D!')2$-%$! %!=%' They are concerned with the location and characterisation of people and things inthe space# as well as pro"iding background information which sets the stage for narration.This type of texts is "ery popular in 4/ teaching# and all types ha"e the same pre1established organisation. $ithin descripti"e texts we might find9

10+ternal descriptions# presenting a holistic "iew of the ob:ect by an account of all

its parts1 )unctional descriptions, which deal with instruments and the tasks they mayperform

1sychological descriptions, which express the feelings that something produces insomeone

*ome of the most characteristic structures are presentati"es (there...)# ad:uncts of location#stati"e "erbs (look# seem# be...)# use of metaphors# comparisons# qualifying ad:ecti"es andrelati"e sentences.

E=-&'$%&28 %!=%' They identify and characterise phenomena# including text forms such as definitions#explanations# instructions# guidelines# summaries# etc...They may be sub:ecti"e(an essay)and ob:ecti"e (definitions# instructions)# or e"en ad"ice gi"ing. They may be analytical#starting from a concept and then characterising its parts# and ending with a conclusion.

Typical structures are stati"e "erbs# 0in order to2# 0so as to2# imperati"es# modals and "erbsof quality.

A2g+!n%a%$! %!=%' They are those whose purpose is to support or weaken another statement whose"alidity is questionable.The structures we find are "ery flexible# being this the reason for the existence of se"eraltypes9


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#lassical1ros 2 cons 3ig3ag1ne4sided arg10cclectic appro1pposition5s arg first1therside questioned

There are sometimes when we choose how# when and why not to be creati"e with language to repeat whatis normally used in a gi"en situation9 we use linguistic routines and formulae. These are "!#$n!" a' #$=!"%%!2an)!' &2 '!@!n)!' %%!2an)!' 67$)7 +'% 5! )&n'$"!2!" a' '$ng! n$%', 5!)a'! %7!$2+!an$ng )ann&% 5! "!2$!" %7!+ n!'' )&n'$"!2!" a' a 67&!.

'n written texts we find different types of routines and formulaic expressions# which "ary depending on

the type of text# as we ha"e been pre"iously seeing. nderstanding them usually requires sharing culturalknowledge# because they are genarally metaphorical in nature and must be interpreted at a non1linguisticle"el(for instance#6ear in a letter does not always carry affecti"e meaning).

!ll those phrases and sentences that# to some extend# ha"e a prescripti"e character# can be considered asroutines and formulaic expressions9 to consider all the different existing routines would take too long# butsome examples are# in letters Y postcards (7ours sincerely) in %.VRs# the organisation of info in differentblocks# in narration (nce upon a time) in descriptions (on the left, high aove$,etc...

A $n a, 6! )an 'a8 %7a% %7!8 a2! '&+!%$+!' !28 '!# 5% %!n +!an$ng!'' "!-!2'&na$'! &2!=-2!''$&n' $"!a'.

4. T3E COMMUNICATION PROCESS

D!#$n$%$&n

Nenerally speaking# communication is the !=)7ang! +!an$ng' 5!%6!!n $n"$$"a' %72&g7 a)&++&n '8'%!+ '8+5&'# and this has been the concern of scholars since the Nreeks.%ommunication refers to the %2an'+$''$&n $n#&2+a%$&n Ba +!''ag! 5!%6!!n a '&2)! an" a2!)!$!2, '$ng a '$gna$ng '8'%!+.


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!t the turn of the century# the &nglish literary critic '"or !rmstrong ,ichardsoffered one of thefirst definitions# saying that communication takes place when one mind so acts upon itsenvironment that another mind is influenced, and in that other mind an experience occurswhich is like the experience in the first mind, and is caused in part by that experience.

The study of human communication in all its modes is known as semiotics. There are se"eral types ofcommunication# and although in principle any of the fi"e senses can be used as a medium ofcommunication# in practice only three (%a)%$!, $'a and a2a) are implemented in both active4e+pressive andpassive4receptiveways.

Tactile communication in"ol"es touch (e.g. shaking hands# grasping the arm) and the manipulation ofphysical distance and body orientation in order to communicate indifference or disagreement# and isstudied by proxemics. Visual communication in"ol"es the use of facial expressions (smiling# winking...#which communicate a wide range of emotions) and gestures and body postures of "arying le"els offormality (kneeling# bowing...). Visual non1"erbal communication is studied by kinesics. 7ften# "isualand tactile effects interact closely with "erbal communication# sometimes e"en con"eying particularnuances of meaning not easy to communicate in speech (such as the drawing of in"erted commas in theair to signal a special meaning)# and most of the times culturally related.

The chief branch of communication studies in"ol"es the &2aa2a +&"!# in the form of speech# and itssystematic "isual reflex in the form of writing. These are the !25a a'-!)%' of communication#distinguished from the non1"erbal (kinesics and proxemics) aspects# often popularly referred to as odylanguage.

The term angag!, a' 6! n"!2'%an" $%#$' 'a8 2!'%2$)%!" %& '-!!)7 an" 62$%$ng# because thesemediums of transmission display a highly sophisticated internal structure and creati"ity. =on1"erbalcommunication# by contrast# in"ol"es relati"ely little creati"ity. 'n language# it is commonplace to findnew words being created# and sentences "arying in practically infinite complexity. 'n this respect#languages differ markedly from the "ery limited set of facial expressions# gestures# and body mo"ements.


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!ccording to 3armer# the characteristics apply to e"ery communicati"e situation is that a speakerEwriterwants to communicate# has a communicati"e purpose# and selects language# and a listenerEreader wants tolisten to something# is interested in a communicati"e purpose# and process a "ariety of language.


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the relationship between the schemata of the interlocutors is to be managed. $e find that there areoccasions in which we use procedures to clear up and make more explicit and e"ident the #2a+! !#!2!n)!# or use 27!%&2$)a 2&%$n!'to specify more accurately our $&)%$&na28 a)%' (the intendedeffects of our utterances) or that felicity conditions are not satisfactory so that we must use thoseprocedures.

7ther procedures# this time on the part of the addressee# are $n%!2-2!%a%$!(as in'48I have two tickets forthe theatre9 B4 8I5ve got an e+am tomorrow9). 'n some occasions# howe"er# negotiation is too long# toodifficult or e"en fails (as in interethnic interaction) because the schemata are "ery different# so that

interlocutors may use other signalling system (e.g. pictorial)# or use B2!#&2+a%$&n procedures (%owhat you say is... :ow let5s put it straight..$

. CONCLUSION

%ommunication is # therefore# the main purpose of a language# and the use and function that fulfilsdepends greatly on the characteristics of the information or the form of the message. 'n any case# for acommunication process to be complete# it is necessary that both addresser and addressee negotiate themeaning of what is being transmitted# o"ercoming any possible obstacles difficulting that process.

H. 9I9LIOGRAP3Y

3a$"a8, M. A. . 'n Introduction to )unctional -rammar %hapter -?A

Tann!n, D. #onversational %tyle %hapter ? -?6

Ma)A2%72, T. ;he +ford #ompanion to the 0nglish anguage 7+ 7xford -/


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3!"g!, T. "riting. 7+. 7xford. -8

UNIT (: COMMUNICATION IN T3E LANGUAGE LESSON. LINGUISTIC AND NONLINGUISTIC COMMUNICATION

1. COMMUNICATION%ommunication abilities at a "ery early stage are one of the primary aims of foreign language teaching.


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Nets practice in e"eryday acti"ities4earners can understand much more that they can speak# so current language ca be used in the classroom.

*. COMMUNICATIVE LEARNING AND TEAC3ING ACTIVITIESThere is almost an unlimited range of acti"ities within the communicati"e approach (information sharing#negotiation of meaning and interaction)


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4earning "ocabulary and structures by heart Finding out strategies# making hypotheses# contrasting them and getting the knowledge=on "erbal reactions to messages in different contexts9 Names9 guessing games# drawing games#[ @rama9 acting# miming# [ ,ole play9 using sentences as a nati"e speaker# which is funny and "i"idly remembered. Total +hysical ,esponse9 is a teaching method built around the co1ordination of speech and action. 't

attempts to teach language through physical acti"ity.The more intensi"ely a memory connection is traced the stronger the memory association will be and themore likely it will be recalled.'t makes second language learning a process like first language acquisition. %omprehension abilitiesprecede producti"e skills but they transfer from one to others.The speech directed to children consists mainly of commands.


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,eading and writing acti"ities (blackboard# notebooks# [). $riting# reading and acting out thesentence.

't is "ery suitable for our primary lessons. 't is only "alid for beginners. $hen our pupils knowledge is"ery limited we do not expect them to talk9 they ha"e to watch# listen and act.7ur main ob:ecti"e is to pro"ide children as much understable listening as we can while they are doing anen:oyable acti"ity.The use of gesture allows them to talk when they cannot speak. %ommands can be responded by physicalactions (e.g.9 point)

>COMMUNICATION IN T3E FOREIGN LANGUAGECLASSROOM: VER9AL AND NONVER9ALCOMMUNICATION. EXTRALINGUISTIC STRATEGIES:NON VER9AL REACTIONS TO MESSAGES IN DIFERENTCONTEXTS?.

INTRODUCTION.

%ommunication is a key word for us as &nglish teachers. =ot only is it the essenceof human interaction# it is the centre of language learning.


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C7&+'8was one of the first language in"estigators to try to explain why a childlearns language he says that the enfant begins to produce language by a process ofdeduction using the input recei"ed and with natural resources construct an internalgrammar.

ut later# linguists such as 38+!'# noted that a child doesnRt know :ust a set ofrules. 3eEshe learns how and when to use them# and to whom.3e says that when a nati"e

person speaks# he or she takes into account factors such as9

-. %ystemic potential. $hether something (word# structure...) works grammaticallyor not if it fits into the grammatical system.

/. 'ppropriacy. $hether a word or structure is suitable in the context accordingfactors such as the relati"e social class of the speakers# regional "ariations# ageand status differences# the topic being discussed and so on.

8. )easaility. Knowing whether a construction is possible or not. 't may bepossible grammatically but seem ridiculous in real use such as the use of si+advers together.

6. ccurence. ! knowledge of how often something appears in the language(example9foreign learners of 0nglish from latin countries often use more latin4

sounding words than a typical native speakers).

3a$"a8considers that language is# indeed# learned in a functional context of use.To summarie all the abo"e# a communicati"e context go"erns language use# and languagelearning implies an acquisition of these rules of use.

Nrammar is not enough# as we can be grammatically correct and socioculturallyincorrect or with ill1designed strategies. !nd so communication breaks down.


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!ll material used in teaching sounds and meaning should be based on its usefulnessin real communicati"e interaction.

There are many ways of presenting material so that it can be a means of helpingchildren in oral1comprehension. $e may use flash1cards# real ob:ects# pictures frommagaines# gestures# mime# language laboratory# radio# t.".# fims# tape1recorder and so on.

%0'


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!s heEshe learns some simple expresions# he or she begins to see that there arerecurring sounds# and heEshe associates them with meaning. *o# he or she is starting torecognise familiar elements# but doesnRt see all the relationship. 3eEshe does not reallyunderstand.

!s he or she becomes more familiar with the language# heEshe recognies thedifferent elements# but doesnRt remember what heEshe recognied. This is because heEshe is

recogniing single elements and not the whole message. The mind is eliminatinginformation which it canRt take at first only a certain amount can be taken into short1termmemory.

The recepti"e system in the brain then takes these selected elements into long1termstorage. ut only a small part of the total message will be remembered# this is why pupilsseem to be able to understand "ery little at first. They ha"e to concentrate "ery well to beable to take in not only the sounds# but their meaning# the brain is not able to do this toofast# and we must remember this.

ThatRs why we help our pupils by gi"ing them short sequences of sounds so that theycan get the meaning easily and store it automatically. *o# ,&+&T'T'7= is essential foracquiring this process

The 47N* in its ob:ecti"es of the curricular design# reflects the importance ofproficiency in these skills.

=o child can e"er really communicate in &nglish without some ability to listen andspeak. 'n traditional 0Nrammar Translation2 these skills were often neglected.


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The reason for this neglect was that some people consider speaking and listening tobe primiti"e skills. They saw that children acquired these abilities naturally and so it wasfelt that "erbal communication was less sofisticated than the written form of the language.

*o# more importance was gi"en to a study of the written language and for manyyears "erbal communication was nor considered to be worthy of study.

This is reflected in the approaches to teaching of languages wich followed a classicalmethodology imitating latin and greek approaches which by their "ery nature center onreading and writing.

'n this century howe"er# and thanks to the contributions on social anthropologistsand linguistics we ha"e come to understand that the spoken form of a language is a"aluable communication tool full of sophisticated rules of use and which is a "ehicle forsocial interaction.

$e can think of Vigotsky studies on ethnic groups where he demonstrates howcomplex the "erbal communication is within societies which some people consider to be

primiti"e.

*o# speaking and listening are complex skills and e"en though they are acquired inan apparently natural way there is a process in"ol"ed which is intricate.

!s an example of this we can look at some of the features which are unique to "erbalcommunication.


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Noffman highlited some of these.

$e could mention that in "erbal communication there are signals which the adresserand adressee recognie as open1close signals such as the word 0well2 or a cough to openand there are other non1"erbal signalssuch as hand mo"emet to open or close acon"ersation. $e could also think of the fact that in "erbal communication there is aninmediate and constant response from the adressee which we donRt ha"e in writtencommunication. This leads to the possibility of the speaker using strategies to ensure the

message is being recei"ed.

These strategies include back signals such as the hearer nodding hisEher head orexpressions such as 0really2 or 0umhm2.

These demonstrate to the hearer that the message is being recei"ed.

'f he or she feels that the adressee is ha"ing difficulty in recei"ing the messagebecause heEshe notes a lack of interests#comprehension# etc# heEshe may choose to usestrategies such as raising the "oice# repetition or gestures to impro"e attention orunderstanding.

$e can not do this in written communication because the adressee is not usually

present and we canRt :udge the recei"erRs response and then react.

Further to this in "erbal communication speakers and listeners pay attention to thenorms of what is acceptable in a gi"en context as regards quantity# for example.$e couldimagine that a ritish con"ersation consists of shorter exchanges than in an anaerobiccontext.There are also# of course# complex rules of what is socially and culturally


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acceptable in specific contexts depending on the relati"e age# social class and regionalorigin and so on of speaker and hearer. For example# the speaker is aware of taboo wordsor topics and of con"entions which are appropiate in a gi"en situation.'t would beinappropiate# for example# to use some swearwords in polite company.

'n written communication the writer does not always know who will read themessage and cannot always select suitable exppressions# topics and "ocabulary.

Taking the abo"e into account we can affirm that when a child begins to listen withunderstanding and to speak with intelligibility heEshe is acquiring "ery useful social skillsfor e"eryday use.

These skills are not primiti"e instruments but elaborate competences which societydemands and "alues.

$ithin "erbal communication we recognie that there are non "erbal elements. $ewill now look at these aspects of spoken communication.

=7= V&,!4 %7


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Knapp clasifies the non "erbal aspects as follows9

-. ody mo"ements9 includes gestures# mo"ements of the body# limbs# hands# head#feet# facial expressions (smiling)# eye beha"iour such as blinking# direction ofsight and also posture.

/. +hysical characteristics9 includes physical appearance# general attraction# bodyscents# height# hair# skin ton (these characteristics are constant).

8. +aralanguage9 refers to how something is said and not what is said. 't uses the

non "erbal "ocal signs surronding speech (tone# qualities of the "oice# rythm).6. +roxemics9 is the manner in which man uses space as specific cultural product#

the study of use and perception of social and personal space. The indi"idualdetermines his own space base on social and personal rules (perception and useof personal and social space).

A. Tactile conduct9 kissing# hitting# guiding ...5. !rtifacts9 include the manipulation of ob:ects# which can act as non1"erbal

stimuli# with interacting persons.These artifacts can be9 perfume# clothing#lipstick ...

B. *urroundig factors9 this category includes those elements that inter"ine in humanrelations which are not a direct part of it9 furniture# interio decoration.

The purpose of non "erbal communication is to be part of the functional aspect

of communication9a) to communicate emotions

b) to regulate communicationEcon"entions.c) To interpret.d) To identify social status# etc.


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/) $e shoul put children in different situations of "erbal communication and helpthem to de"elop non "erbal aids with games and acti"ities which link non1"erbalelements with the context and communication need.

8) This acquisition of language skills and non1"erbal strategies requires anatmosphere of relaxation# with no tension# ridicule# pressure.

6) %hildren should see how language "erbal and non "erbal changes in differentcontext# ruled by situation#climate# social class# age# formality and informalityand so on.

7ne method which focuses on the aid of non1"erbal communication is Total+hysical ,esponse. &"ery extralinguistic resource its use is de"eloping communication

beginning with the listening skills# where imperati"es are inferred by mo"ements# actions#etc.

Though we may not wish to use a T+, methodology with all its implications# thecontributions it makes to the teaching1learning process as part of our methodological planin an eclectic approach can be "aluable.

!s teachers we will be aware that elements such as furniture# space# decorations and

so on can help or hinder communication. There will be occassions when we will want tore1arange desks# chairs# decorations# posters or other ob:ects# so that they can help in acommunicati"e process. For example# if we are perfoming a play we can set up "ariousob:ects as scenary so that the children fell contextualied. For instance# in a play aboutNoldilock and the three bears we could put a table in the centre of the classroom with three


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different1sie chairs beside it.This extralinguistic elements help children# who can use themas aids in communication.

To gi"e an example of a Total +hysical ,esponse methodology which usesextralinguistic strategies we can consider for instance the game of 0*imon says2 where# inthe context of a game# children learn to understand simple imperati"es along withassociated parts of the body. They obey the orders of the teacher only when he or shespeaks on behalf of *imon. To help the children the teacher performs the action# which the

children initate. &"entually they do not need this extralinguistic back1up.

From the "ery first days of learning a foreign language# children become accostumedto deducing meaning from the context# which is full of extralinguistic clues. $hen we say91 0 close the door# please2 pointing to the open door and miming a closing mo"ement. Thisis a "ery simple but effecti"e T.+.,. acti"ity.

=ot only do children learn to understand spoken messages in this way. They begin totry to communicate using non1"erbal and stralinguistic strategies at their disposal# fromgestures to mime and with the use of other artifacts.

CONCLUSION.

'n this topic we ha"e attempted to demonstrate the nature of "erbal communication.

The spoken language in each producti"e and recepti"e forms depends not only onthe understanding of sounds or the creation of these sounds.


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The context of this communication includes many elements which are aids in theprocess and we should be aware of how we can maximied "erbal and non1"erbal items toencouraged children to infer meaning and to use all sorts of extralinguistic strategies toimpro"e communication.

y means of meaningful# moti"ating acti"ities which use aspects such as body1mo"ement# gestures# artifacts# the fi"e senses# we can moti"ate our young learners of&nglish to belie"e that communicating in the &nglish language is within their reach.


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TOPIC 3$HC#


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are promoted, school resources and vocational guidance

programmes are improved. *#" %F%C $%&A!I#: a new model of vocational training

with greater practice knowledge and with a greater relation with

the labour market are proposed, and the necessites of our present

society.

In the Beneral #rganic Act 0; of 1rd of #ctober of ducative ystem,we can find in the 2nd &hapter, article 01)b that, in


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Within this communicative competence, we as teachers have to develop the

four main skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing.

!hus, in this topic, I will talk about them in the following points:0. $HC#


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1. L"%$e!"!) o( &ea(!"!) $o &"%$e! "! o(e( $o ea( a! !e(%$a!+(o+e(&.

)First of all, there are several general principles in teaching learning

listening comprehension, and these principles are:

I. Cistening comprehension lessons, it must have definite goals,carefully stated. !hese goals should fit into the overall curriculum.

II. Cistening comprehension lessons, it should be constructed, with a

carefully step)by)step planning. !his implies that the listeningtasks progress, from simple hearing based activities, to more

comple understanding based ones as our pupils gain in language

competence.

III. Cistening comprehension lessons should teach not testIH. Cistening comprehension lessons structure it should demand active

pupil participation. And finally

H. !hese lessons should stress conscious memory work.)We can use several !"A!BI in order to develop listening

comprehension such as: &AIB, I**IB, "!"%&!I# #F#"AC $I%",


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2. I**IB or to identify the principal ideas. F. instance, we want

that our pupils ask themselves, what is this tet aboutE. And to

guess the type tet >poem, folk tale?, settings >place, street?,characters >formal, informal, neuter?, and key words.

1. "!"%&!I# #F #"AC $I%": after we refer to the

first listening, the teacher can make a conceptual map on theblackboard, considering a word or sentence as the listening key.

4.


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listen for pleasure and interest. !his strategy, can be used

for the representation of already known material in a new

environment and it can also serve the function of introducingnew language.

I!IH CI!IB is closer to ear training, and it3s

the most widely used for listening practice in classroom.tudents are asked to listen a passage, with the aim of

collecting and organi7ing the information it contains. !his

strategy, can be used for the focus of language items as partof language teaching programme, and for general

comprehension and understanding.

) And, finally, in this point, I will talk about


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also needs to encourage them to use pictures and their general knowledge

about a topic to work out the meaning of unfamiliar words.

)And "BIJIB $I%"


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4. +efore preparing our activities we have to consider several

aspects as *


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b? licit the new language.

c? Focus our pupils3 attention on the model sentence, and >to? get the

repetition both chorally or individually.d? And, check students3 understanding.

!he teacher3s main role during this stage is as IF#"*A!In


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minimums changes which have been practised previously in class to complete a

=uestionnaire, posters, etc M

For instance, an activity type could be:Cook, listen and repeat: the teacher shows a picture, says the word and pupils

repeat: lookO An elephant. "epeat.

When the teacher is satisfied with her pupil3s pronunciation she can moveanother word.

#nce several new items have been introduced, the teacher can check by

showing a picture and asking, what3s thisE And pupils reply.


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adventures of the animal and human heroes in these books ecite the

interest of the children and encourage them to read on. We have !W# !G


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A!!I!%$, $$%&IB *AIB F"#* !K!, and "BIJIB

$I%"


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they have to write about

what they see? and


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1. !he third stage is F" *by using connectors such as 'first(, 'finally(

4. B"A*A!I&AC ICC refer to our pupils3 ability to usesuccessfully a variety of sentence patterns and construction

and >negatives or affirmative sentences?

5. "/!#"I&AC ICC refer to pupils3 ability to use cohesiondevices in order to link part of a tet into logically related

se=uences >more or less as organi7ational?An activity type could be: nap:*aterials: 24 playing cards with common words written on them. !he words

need to be grouped into families which have two or three letters in common,

for eample: at, hat, mat, cat- the, other, mother, another.


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*ethod: the cards are divided e=ually between two players. ach player places

the card face down in the usual way. When a player says 'snap(, she he has to

say why the two cards are linked. o single letter matching is allowed. !hewinner is the first player to collect all the cards.

And with that I finish the first main point in this topic.

ow, I will talk about the other main point.

4. T9E COMMUNICATIVE COM'ETENCE IN ENGLIS9

&homsky defined language as a set of sentences each finite in length and

constructed out of a finite set of elements

/e said that a native speaker has a subconscious knowledge of thegrammatical rules of his language, which allows him to make sentences in that

language. !his is what &homsky called **%I&A!IH *


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G!*A!I&


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'!he &ambridge ncyclopaedia of Canguage( by &rystal. d.

&ambridge. %niversity


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4anguages promote understanding# tolerance and respect for the cultural identity# rights and "alues ofothers. They broaden our minds# because we find other ways of thinking about things.

Foreign language learning prepare students to cope with an e"er1changing en"ironment. They face upto social and personal demands.

4inguistic awareness is getting more and more accurate with foreign language studying.


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*ociocultural distinctions (dri"ing on the left) %elebrations (3alloween)

T3EME 4

T3E SECOND LANGUAGE AS A MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

AMONG PEOPLE AND NATIONS. GENERATING AN INTEREST INLINGUISTIC DIVERSITY T3ROUG3 ANOT3ER LANGUAGE AND

CULTURE

OUTLINE

+!,T 7=&9 T!4& 7F %7=T&=T*

-. '=T,7@%T'7=

/. %7=T&=T*

/.-. 4anguage and communication

/./. 4anguage and different cultures/.8. 4anguage as an instrument of holistic learning

/.6. The importance of ha"ing materials in the resource room to achie"e a good intercultural

atmosphere

/.A. M'mmersion approach to second language learning


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PART ONE: TA9LE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION


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3ence# communication should begin in the school where the learning of a second language is taking place.

+orcher maintains that since all teaching is itself a message# 0't must therefore be suitable for those for

whom it is in fact intended (-).2 For the author# a language is a social practice# a part of a peoples

history. Thus# it becomes necessary to educate pupils in the socio1cultural context which is characteristic

of the countries in which the foreign language is the mother tongue. 't is e"ident that inter1culturism is fast

becoming an essential dimension in all teaching.

The


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social agent when it comes to learning a different language to communicate differently with a different

set of people# it is a fair assumption that the changes and the in"ol"ement will be all marked (86).2

(.(. Langag! an" "$##!2!n% )%2!'

%hristopher &delhoff feels the attitude of learners is as important as their linguistic knowledge and

skills. 0Teachers teaching a communication curriculum must be ready to accept that communication is

free interaction between people of all talents# "iews# races and socio1cultural backgrounds and that foreignlanguage communication# especially# is there for international understanding# human rights# democratic

de"elopment and indi"idual enrichment.2 'n order to achie"e this end the learner needs to ha"e an attitude

which reflects open1mindedness and respect for others attitude must also include respect for the history#

en"ironment# and "iews of other people (B5).2

,ume ergentoft reminds us# 0'n the final !ct of the %onference on *ecurity and %o1operation in

&urope# signed in 3elsinki in -BA by the heads of state of the participating nations# the latter expressed

their con"iction regarding the role now played by a knowledge of languages in connection among other

things with closer international cooperation. 't was decided that a wider knowledge of languages was

needed to promote world peace and cooperation (88).

Finally# . 4. Trim warns of the 0classical paradigm2 of language teaching and 0elitism2 in

traditional language teaching at school. 0The Mclassical paradigm continued to dominate grammar schools

until recently# and is till strong in many member countries...2 The author explains that the Mclassical

paradigm tends to extend certain "alues and attitudes# which reflect the classics to the languages and


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cultures of modern &urope. 3e points out that from this perspecti"e# the study of a foreign language is but

an intellectual discipline# based on the translation of passages from the classics which ha"e little bearing

on the real world in which learners actually li"e. Trim further declares# 0This Mclassical paradigm is

a"owedly elitist.2 3e feels that it creates barriers to communication which tend to reinforce and perpetuate

di"isions in society. 3owe"er# Trim concludes that# though the classical paradigm continues to be

powerful# contemporary creati"e writing no longer employs the criteria of clarity and refined taste 0to

which the classical paradigm attaches the greatest importance (p. UU1UU').2

7ther authors ha"e taken similar positions. &arl $. *te"ick refers to a language class as being

0one area in which a number of pri"ate uni"erses intersect one another (-?D9 B).2 3e feels that each

learner# though a total indi"idual# is in fact affected by what the others do. The teacher should be aware L

and sympathie with the fact1 that there are times when a learner will resist learning something which

"iolates certain peer norms. For example# learners may at first re:ect the language simply because of its

foreignness. Teachers should therefore be aware that the fear of losing support from those closest to the

learner (peers# parents# etc.) may be an inhibiting factor. *te"ick refers to a 0world of meaningful action2#

which# he says# tends to draw peers# family members# and life1goals during the language learning process.

3e concludes# 0Foreignness# shallowness# irrele"ance# and the subordinate position of the student Lall may

be obstacles to a learners feeling of Mprimacy in a world of meaningful action (-D).2

(.*. Langag! a' an $n'%2+!n% 7&$'%$) !a2n$ng

+aul N. 4a forge affirms# 04anguage learning is people9 this is the basic social process in learning (

-?89 "iii).2 y this he means that the acquisition of second language is the result of an interpersonal


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relationship which includes the teacher and the group of students. For 4a Forge# the interactions are

dynamic and contribute to a personal growth for all in"ol"ed. Their relationship becomes modified as a

result of the learning of a new language. Furthermore# he recognies the significance of the social process

in twentieth1century language de"elopment9 0! process "iew of language has opened the route to an

understanding of mankind# social history# and the laws of how a society functions (-).2 This means that

&F4 learning in"ol"es social# historical# cultural# and indi"idual interconnections.

Nertrude


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(.4. T7! $+-&2%an)! 7a$ng +a%!2$a' $n %7! 2!'&2)! 2&&+ %& a)7$!! a g&&"

$n%!2)%2a a%+&'-7!2!

rumfit and Finocchiaro suggest that acquiring a language also implies acquiring 0enough

knowledge about the culture of the target community to participate fully in a con"ersation at the beginning

of a stay in a foreign country2. !dditionally# they hold that &F4 teaching should pro"ide 0the implicit and

explicit learning of culture and language "arieties through a multi1media approach and an acti"emethodology based on creati"e use of language (-?A9 /5)2. 'n order to achie"e this they suggest using

the following resources9 radio broadcasts# tele"ision# tapes# cassettes# documentary# recreational films#

pictures# and short dialogs dealing with e"eryday situations. Furthermore# paralinguistic features need to

be considered as well as gestures and facial expressions. The authors insist that learners cultural insights

are a must in &F4 learning.

(.. I++!2'$&n a--2&a)7K %& '!)&n" angag! !a2n$ng

3. 3. *tern alludes to an area of in"estigation# language teaching for younger children# which

came to the fore around -5D when =&*%7 organied meetings in 3amburg in -5/ and -55 with the

purpose of stimulating comparati"e research in different countries. 3owe"er# he sadly concludes that

within ten years most of the resulting enquiries had 0not always produced the clear1cut finding that had

perhaps been expected from them when they were initiated (-?69 A5)2. The two =&*%71sponsored

international meetings were intended to promote research on early language teaching and on the

effecti"eness of an early start. These meetings centred on the feasibility of an early start in school systems

and re"ealed that young children responded to second language teaching in a positi"e way (856).


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7n a similar note# *tern asserts that two of the most interesting research endea"ours in the

se"enties were the %ouncil of &urope


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strips# pro"erbs and pictures a table or shelf with ob:ects such as stamps# money# artifacts# and a library

corner. *he also recommends the carrying out of 0pro:ects related to &nglish1speaking culture which will

then ser"e for class reporting and discussion (A)2. *uch pro:ects might include the following9 preparation

of maps# tra"el itineraries# floor plans# menus# calendars indicating holidays# scrapbook# flimstrips or

pictures# play readings# a book fair. !dditionally# culture may be experienced through songs# festi"als#

poems# multimedia resource material. *he also suggests# 0! pen pal pro:ect should be initiated "ery soon

after the students learn to write (B)2.

*. 9I9LIOGRAP3Y

F'=7%%3'!,7# ork9 ,egents.

F'=7%%3'!,7


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