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TEMA 52- EL INGLES COMO LENGIA INTERNACIONAL. EXTENSIN Y

VARIEDAD DE LA LENGUA INGLESA EN EL MUNDO: UNIDAD Y

DIVERSIDAD

TOPIC 52: ENGLISH AS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE. THE SPREADING AND VARIETY OF

ENGLISH IN THE WORLD: UNITY AND DIVERSITY

As first language, English is now spoken by over 375 million people in North America (including

Canada), Australia, New Zealand, The Caribbean and South Africa. Hundreds of millions of

others, especially in Africa and Southern and South-east Asia, speak it as a second language.

The spread of English beyond Europe is associated with four centuries of colonialism.

There are 3 strands in colonial expansion:

1. The activities oftrading companies brought speakersofEnglish into contact with people in

many different parts of the world, and this contact with West Africa in the 16th

century gave

rise to the Atlantic slave trade. One result of this was the formation of English-based pidgins,

some of which subsequently became Creoles of the Caribbean.

2. There was colonial settlementand so new varieties ofEnglishwere established in America,

Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.

3. 19th

century imperialism institutionalised English in certain older colonies, such as India and

newly-acquired ones principally in Africa.

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In dealing with English involvement with the world beyond Europe, we do not see a concerted,

systematic policy over the last 400 years. Different types of colony were established for

different reasons in different areas at various times. Sometimes it is more economic than

political or vice versa. Commercial exploitation, as in India, preceded any kind of coordinated

attempt by government to lay claim to a territory and then administer it. When governments

tried to do this, their policies were often ignorant of local conditions. As England was not the

only adventurer into the New World, it exploits were often governed by political rivalries, at

first with Spain, later with the Dutch, later the French and Germans.

English came into contact with an enormously wide range of languages and cultures

during this period. It was standard English that was taught in schools and colleges of the

old colonies, and that was spoken by the administrators of these territories.

But while attachment to the norms of England was strong, new standards have eventually

merged. The best example is that of the United States of America, which not only has the most

speakers of English in the world today, but whose variety has also been increasingly influential

in many parts of the world, like the Caribbean, Canada and Australia.

The rise of new standards:

The written standard of English is international. It used in the areas of colonial settlement we

have describe with hardly any modifications.

Among the most well known of these are American variations in spelling such as tire

for tyre, honor for honour. Differences in grammar and vocabulary are also minor and

again American examples will serve: the past participle form gotten is used as well as

got and instead of autumn, fall is used.

Divergence is most noticeable at the level of pronunciation. The United States, Canada,

South Africa, Australia and New Zealand are sometimes said to have their own national

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standards. Each area has its own norms of pronunciation, at times responding to local

circumstances.

The sound systems in each of these areas are closest to those of the South-East of

England. This reflects the origins of the earliest settlers.

An interesting feature of both Australian and South African pronunciation is that neither

has the stigmatized consonant pronunciations so common in the South-East of England.

Initial /h/ is sounded and neither the glottal plosive North Cockney substitution for the

initial sound in thin and of /v/ for medial consonant in words like other is widely heard.

Both Australian and South African English have Cockneyfied diphthongs in words like

mate (starting with a vowel more like that of mat than met) and might (starting with a

vowel more like that of mock). The vowel in words like dance, plant, also fluctuate as in

England. In South Africa and New Zealand the vowel in these words is along back one,

as it is in RP, but in Australian pronunciation a front vowel is common in these words,

although a back one is used in path and pass.

American English:

Only in America, have there been attempts to elevate the status of the colonial variety to

that of a language separate from the English of England.

American English can be best called a national variety of English, with its own norms.

The main differences between British and American English are the following ones:

1.

Grammar:

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a) Americans sometimes use a simple past tense when British people use a

present perfect

- He just went home (US)

- He has just gone home (GB)

b) Americans sometimes use the verb have differently from British people

- Do you have a problem? (US)

- Have you got a problem? (GB)

c) The American past participle of get is gotten in Br. E. is got

d) Americans use his where the British use ones

e) There are differences in the use of prepositions and adverb particles: stay

home, stay at home, meet s.o., meet with s.o., protest sth., protest against sth,

Monday through Friday, Monday to Friday, talk to, talk with.

f) Americans sometimes use adverb forms withoutly

-He looked at me real strange (US)

-He looked at me really strangely (GB)

g) Verb and noun collocations are different: to take a bath instead of to have abath

2. Vocabulary: cab/taxi, fall/ autumn, movie/film, mail/post, trunk/boot (of a car),

vacation/holiday, stingy/mean, cookie/biscuit, elevator/lift, gasoline/petrol,

schedule/timetable, truck/lorry, candy/sweet, clerk/shop assistant,

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3. Spelling:

a) l is not doubled in an unstressed syllable: AE traveler/ BrE traveller

b) Words ending in ter in AE and - tre in BrE: center /centre

c) Words ending in - or in AE and - our in BrE: color/ colour

d) Words ending in - og in AE and - ogue in BrE: catalog /catalogue

e) Many verbs ending in ize in AE but in ize or ise in BrE: realize/ realize or

realise

f) They use i for y: tire/tyre

g) They use s for c: defense/defence

h) They use e for ae and oe: anemia/ anaemia

i) They use dg for dge: judgment/ judgement

j) They use ction for xion: complection/ complexion

4. Pronunciation:

a) Stressed vowels are often lengthened more in A.E. than in BrE

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b) Vowels are often nasalized in A.E.

c) In A.E r is pronounced in all positions (rhotic) in a word not only before a vowel

as in BrE

d) In A.E t and d have voiced pronunciation between vowels writer /raid/ =

rider

e) U and ew after n, d and t are pronounced in BrE like ny, dy and ty but not in

A.E new /nu:/, BrE /nju:/

English as a universal language:

The emergence of a language that could unite the world is the realization of a dream that goes

back to the 17th

century and the beginnings of global consciousness itself.

The global English of our times has all the benefits of the standardizing process. There is a

recognized standard in Britain and America. There is also an agreed, standardized vocabulary

and spelling system. British or American, the language is basically the same and its global

structure is backed up by massive English language training programmes, an international

business that in textbooks, language courses, tape cassettes, video programmes and

computerized instruction is worth hundreds of millions of pounds or dollars to the economies

of the USA and the UK. The English language is now one of Britain s most reliable exports.

In countries like India and Nigeria, English is used at all levels of society: in local English

language newspapers and broadcasting, in public administration, in university education, in

the major industries, the courts and the civil service. Indeed with nearly 200 languages, India

needs English to unify the country. English in India is vital for science and industry.

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English has become the one foreign language that much of the world wants to learn. This is

nearly a universal aspiration. One basic force is an international need and desire to

communicate: the more English- speaking the world becomes, the more desirable the

language becomes to all societies. English is the language of the media industries: news,

journalism, radio, films and television.

Of the leading countries in world trade, eight are countries in which English either is an official

language or was an official language in colonial times. For a developing country like China,

Singapore or Indonesia, English is vital. As well as being the language of international trade and

finance, it is the language of technology, especially computers, of medicine, of the

international aid bodies like Oxfam and Save the children and of virtually all international

exchanges from Unesco to the Olympic committee and world summits.

The power of English is not confined to the invention and manufacture of new technology. All

major corporations advertise and market their products in English. English is the language of

international pop music and mass entertainment as a worldwide phenomenon.

The English language has 3 characteristics that can be committed as assets in its world state:

1. Unlike all other European languages, the gender of every noun is determined by

meaning and does not require a masculine, feminine or neutral article.

2. It has a grammar of great simplicity and flexibility. Nouns and adjectives have highly

simplified word-endings. This flexibility extends to the parts of speech themselves.

Nouns can become verbs and verb nouns in a way that is impossible in otherlanguages.

3. It has a huge vocabulary, 80% of which is foreign-born. Precisely because its roots are

so varied (Celtic, Germanic and Romance) it has words in common with virtually every

language in Europe.

Australian English:

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a) Phonology:

a) There is a tendency for the dark l in words like milk or pull to be realized as a

vowel. /miuk/

b) There is some aspiration on /t/ in word-final position /bath/

c) Word final /z/ is sometimes devoiced to /s/ buzz /bus/

d) The diphthong /ei/ is lowered and realized by many as /ai/ and /ai/ by /oi/:pay /pai/, might /moit/

b) Vocabulary: creeks means small river, forest landmeans grass not trees, mob (flock,herd)

c) Grammar:

a) There is a tendency to reduce the number of verb forms:

- I do- I done- I have done

-

I see- I seen- I have seen- I go- I went- I have went

b) The use of them as a plural demonstrative adjective.

- Gimme them boots. (these)

c) The tendency to distinguish between you (sing) and youce /juz/ (pl)

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Canadian English:

1. Phonology:

a) The entire country is rhotic (r-pronouncing) = post-vocalic r in hard

b) It follows the US model in the use of /u/ rather than /ju/ after /t, d, n/ news

/nu:z/, the voicing of t between vowels, /r/ and /t/

2. Vocabulary: Canadians tend to follow the US English usage in vocabulary: truck tolorry, gas to petrol, clerk to shop assistant but in spelling Canadian English tends to

follow UK norms

3. Grammar: Have you got is preferred to: Do you have?

Caribbean English:

1. Phonology:

a) The diphthongs /ei/ and /u/ as in gate and goat are monophthongized to /e/and /o/

b) Schwa rarely occurs in relaxed speech. In words ending in er the vowel isoften /a/ mother /ma/

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c) Consonant clusters in word-final position which end in /t,d/ are oftensimplified build /bil/, sand /san/

2. Vocabulary: Many English words have extended in meaning: mash up: destroy, ruin,passage: can mean money to pay the fare with

3. Grammar:

a) Structures involving active voice predominate. Where passive occur they

usually involve get.

-He got killed

b) Will is often replaced by would, especially when there is doubt about the

proposition.

- Would you buy me some clothes?

c) Serial verb constructions are common:

- Child run come go bring these hats

New Zealand English:

1. Phonology:

a) It is non-rhotic

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b) The vowel sound in words like bit, is, ship tend to be schwa

c) The vowel sound in nut is often identical with the sound in not.

d) The l sound tends to be dark in all contexts

2. Vocabulary: Much of New Zealand s vocabulary is shared with Australia, the UK andthe USA

3. Grammar: Standard New Zealand English is indistinguishable from the standardwritten language in Australia and in the UK. Many dialect features such as the use of I

done and them things occur in the speech of the less well educated members of the

community, but on the whole New Zealand English is homogenous and in grammar

close to media norms.

Nigerian English:

1. Phonology:

a) It is non-rhotic

b) The consonants /, / are realised as /t, d/ in the South and /s,z/ in the North.

c) The /d/ sound that occurs finally in orange is realised as / / in the North and/ S/ in the South.

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2. Vocabulary: Many words have been given additional meanings: battery charger aperson who repairs batteries, well done! Greeting to someone at work.

3. Grammar:

a) The use of could and would for can and will

b) The use of uncountable nouns as countable

c) The definite article is sometimes omitted

North African English:

1. Phonology:

a) The diphthongs /ei/ /ai/and /oi// are replaced by /e, a, o)

b) Initial p is often not aspirated and so p and b are not fully contrasted

c) The l sound tends to be clear in all positions

d) The velar nasal / / is realized as / k/, / /, / g/ and /n/

2. Grammar:

a) The copula is omitted: she teacher, we happy

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b) Adjectives are sometimes used as nouns:

- He didn t tell me the important

c) Intonation is often used to distinguish statements from Yes/No questions

- He has come?

d) A is sometimes omitted

- This is shop

South African English:

1. Phonology:

a) It is non-rhotic

b) The consonants /p, t, k/ are less strongly aspirated than in RP

c) The vowel /i/ is usually replaced by schwa in unstressed syllables

2. Vocabulary: It has adopted words from Afrikaans: boer (farmer)

3. Grammar:

a) Lend seems to be replacing borrow

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b) Check you is a colloquial equivalent of I ll meet you

c) Man occurs as a general term of friendly address to both women and men

- You should have seen me, man!

TEMA 53- VARIANTES SOCIOLINGSTICAS DE LA LENGUA INGLESA.

REGISTROS Y AMBITOS DE USO

TOPIC 53: SOCIOLINGUISTIC VARIANTS OF ENGLISH. LINGUISTIC REGISTERS AND CONTEXTS

FOR USE.

Types of variation:

There are numerous varieties of English, but we shall recognize five major types of variation.

Any use of language necessarily involves variation within all 5 types:

1. Region

2. Social group

3. Field of discourse

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4. Medium

5. Attitude

The first 2 types of variation relate primarily to the language user. People use a regional variety

because they live in a region or have once lived in that region. Similarly, people use a social

variety because of their affiliation with a social group. These varieties are relatively permanent

for the language user.

At the same time many people can communicate in more than one regional or social variety

and can therefore (consciously or unconsciously) switch varieties according to the situation.

And of course people move to other regions or change their social affiliations and may then

adopt a new regional or social variety.

The last 3 types of variation relate to the language use. People select the varieties according to

the situation and the purpose of the communication. The field of discourse relates to the

activity in which they are engaged, the medium may be spoken or written, generally

depending on the proximity of the participants in the communication; and the attitude

expressed through language is conditioned by the relationship of the participants in the

particular situation.

A common core is present in all varieties so that it has running through it a set of grammatical

and other characteristics that are present in all the others. It is this fact that justifies the

application of the name English to all the varieties.

1. Regional variation:

Varieties according to region have a well-established label: dialects. Geographical

dispersion is in fact the classic basis for linguistic variation, and in the course of time

such dispersion results in dialects becoming so distinct that we regard them as different

languages.

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It is pointless to ask how many English dialects there are: there are indefinitely many,

depending on how detailed we wish to be in our observations.

They are of course more numerous in long-settled Britain than in areas more recently settled

by English speakers such as North America or still more recently Australia and New Zealand.

2. Social variation:

Within each of the dialects there is considerable variation in speech according to education,

socio-economic group and ethnic group. Some differences correlate with age and sex. They are

called sociolects.

There is a frequency of certain linguistic features which are found in the groups.

Educated English tends to be given additional prestige of government agencies, the

professions, the political parties, the press, the law court and the pulpit, any institution which

must attempt to address itself to a public beyond the smallest dialect community. It is codified

in dictionaries, grammars, and guides to usage, and it is taught in the school system at all

levels. It is almost exclusively the language of printed matter.

As educated English is accorded implicit social and political sanction, it comes to be referred as

standard English. In contrast with standard English, forms that are specially associated with

uneducated use are generally called non-standard.

Standard English:

The degree of acceptance of a single standard of English throughout the world, across a

multiplicity of political and social systems, is a truly remarkable phenomenon. The more so

since the extent of the uniformity involved has increased in the present century.

Uniformity is greatest in orthography which is from most viewpoints the least important type

of linguistic organization.

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There is basically a single spelling and punctuation system throughout with 2 minor

subsystems:

a) The subsystem with British orientation (used in most English-speaking countries other

than the United States) with distinctive forms such as colour, centre, levelled.

b) The American subsystem with color, center, leveled.

In grammar and vocabulary, standard English presents somewhat less of a monolithic

character, but even so the world-wide agreement is extraordinary.

3. Varieties according to field of discourse:

The field of discourse is the type of activity engaged in through language. A speaker has

a repertoire of varieties according to filed and switches to use the appropriate one as

occasion demands.

The switch involves nothing more than turning to the particular set of lexical items

habitually used for handling the filed in question: law, football, engineering, business,

medicine, science etc.

4. Varieties according to medium:

The differences between spoken and written English derive from 2 sources. One is

situational: since the use of a written medium normally presupposes the absence of the

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person(s) addressed, writers must be far more explicit to ensure that they understood.

The second source of difference is that many of the devices we use to transmit language

by speech (stress, rhythm, intonation, and tempo) are impossible to represent with the

relatively limited repertoire of conventional orthography. In consequence, writers often

have to reformulate their sentences to convey fully and successfully what they want to

express within the orthographic system.

5. Varieties according to attitude:

They are often called stylistic. We are concerned here with choice that depends on our

attitude to the hearer or reader, to the topic and to the purpose of communication. We

recognize a gradient in attitude between formal (cold, polite, impersonal) and informal

(relaxed, casual, friendly). There is also a neutral English with no attitudinal colouring.

English dialects:

There are local forms of the language known as regional dialects.

In the newer countries where English has spread in modern times, these are not so numerous

or so pronounced in their individuality as they are in the British isles.

There are 6 dialectal regions in England:

1. Northern2. North-Midland3. West-Midland

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4. Southern5. South- Eastern6. South- Western

English in Northern England differs considerably from that of the South.

5. Pronunciation:

a) In words such as butter, cut, gull and some, the Southern vowel / / occurs in

the North as /u/

b) In words such as chaff, grass and path, the Southern retracted vowel /a:/

occurs as short /a/ in Northern dialects.

c) French borrowings which consist of a + nasal are /a:/ in the South and /o:/ in

the North: grant, dance, aunt.

d) Final l is in the South a dark l, and in the North a clear l: cool, oil, school.

e) ng- in medial position is // in the North and / g/ in the South: finger,

hungry

f) The spelling ound is pronounced /au/ in the South and /u/ in the North:

ground, pound.

g) I is pronounced /ai/ in the South and /i/ in the North: blind, climb, find.

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h) In the south-western dialect they do not pronounce the semi-vowels /w/ and

/j/ in initial position. /w/ before /u/: woman, wool, /w/ before /i/ and /e/: yes,

year, yesterday.

6. Some grammatical differences are:

a) In the north we have plurals ending in(e)n: een for eyes, shoon for shoes

b) In the north we have the possessive form without s: cow legs.

c) The 2nd

person singular pronoun is thou in the North and thee in the South

d) The 3rd

person singular does is do in the Southwest and also in the South of

Northern and Southern. Does in the rest of the dialects.

e) The past participle of put is in the North putten and in the rest put.

The dialect of Southern Scotland has claims to special consideration on historical and literary

grounds. In origin it is a variety of Northern English but it began to be strongly influenced by

Southern English in the time of Shakespeare. For instance ai (own), auld (old), lang (long), bairn

(child), bonnie (beautiful), braw (handsome), dinna (do not).

The dialect of Ireland (Gaelic) is distinct from the Standard English of England. The English

language in Ireland has not preserved so many old words as have survived in Scotland. But the

Anglo- Irish of the Southern part of the island has an exuberance of vocabulary that recalls the

lexical inventiveness of Elizabethan times, the period during which English began to spread

rapidly in Ireland. It has also been influenced by the native speech of he Celts (galore, blarney).

Although different varieties of the Irish dialect are distinguished, especially in the North and

the South, certain peculiarities of pronunciation are fairly general. In dialect stories we find

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spellings such as projuce (produce), fisht, (fist), butther, thrue. They write sh for s before a long

u.

Slang:

The line between colloquial and slang words is not at all clear and many words

considered colloquial by some people, would be considered slang by others. A slang

expression has a short life because what is slang today may have been in good use

yesterday and may be accepted in the standard speech of tomorrow.

Slang is a peculiar kind of language which is always hanging on the outskirts of legitimate

speech but continually forcing its way into it.

The word row /rau/ in the sense of disturbance or commotion was slang in the 18th

century

but today we find it in the works of reputable writers.

Slang results from an instinctive desire for freshness and novelty is a quality which soon wears

off, slang has to be constantly renewed.

Some instances of slang are: buzz off, beat it, clout, rip-off, antsy, laid-back, knee-jerk, trendy,

hassle, vibes, vamoose, skedaddle, scram, quid (pounds), smashing (wonderful), ta (thank you),

come off it (be serious), guts (courage), a do 8 (a celebration), jifft (moment), plastered

(drunk), pinch (steal), brolly (umbrella), tear-jerker (sentimental film), corny (unoriginal),

banger (dilapidated car), clapped out (worn out), classy (high-class), packet (lot of money), daft

(stupid), bonkers (mad), dead loss ( useless person), cat s wiskers (something very special), to

give someone the push (to dismiss).

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TEMA 54- DIFERENTES TIPOS DE LENGUAJE: CIENTFICO Y

TECNOLGICO, COMERCIAL Y ADMINISTRATIVO

TOPIC 54: DIFFERENT TYPES OF LANGUAGE: SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL; BUSINESS AND

ADMINISTRATIVE

The importance of English:

English is the worlds most important language for a number of reasons:

1. It is spoken by many people

2. It is spread over a wide geographic area

3. It is extensively used in science, business and culture

4. Its native speakers have economic and political influence

English is often the language in which business is conducted. In many areas it is a top

requirement of those looking for a job, the outward sign of its dominance in multi-

national companies. Many firms have contact with multi-national companies, so a

businessman is normally required to know some English.

If we are to teach and learnEnglish for a specific purpose, we have to be clear about our

goals; we have to consider the ways in which we hope to achieve this end. In other

words, we have to design a syllabus that will meet the necessities of the student and we

must adapt our methodology to teach the necessary skills. In order to design effective

courses, we must first investigate the uses to which the language will be put. We must

then translate these needs into linguistic and pedagogic terms in order to teach an

effective course.

Business and administrative English:

English is a top requirement of those seeking a new job and it is the language in which

much of the worlds business is conducted.

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Culture is inextricably tied up with economics f.i: television and music. Programmes

and CDs are manufactured and sold on the international market. In addition, a great

many technical innovations have been pioneered in America.

In language training for business there are 2 different groups of students:

1. The present employees of international companies

2. Future employees of such businesses

We must try to establish the language needs of a particular group of students as

accurately as possible. We should start by consolidating the students previous

knowledge of English and correcting their biggest errors in structure and pronunciation.

The teaching and practising of the formulas required for discussion and social purposes

is very important in a business-English course:

- I dont agree with this/ I disagree.

- Forgive me but...

- Im afraid that...

- I wonder if I might...

They are polite forms that are used to run a discussion.

One of the most difficult questions in a course on English for specific purposes is how

to write a formal letter:

Reference Your address

Date

Name

Position

Address

Dear..,

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.

Yours..,

If the name of the person to whom the letter is addressed is not known, we write Dear

Sir for a man, the feminine form is Dear Madam, Ms (pronounced /MIZ/) is used as

feminine ofMr., with no distinction being made between married or unmarried.

A letter can be ended with: Yours faithfully (when the opening is Dear Sir orDear

Madam). AfterDear Mr. orMrs.the ending can be Yours sincerely.

Notice the commas afterYours faithfully, and Yours sincerely,.

The addresses have an order:

- House name

- Number and street/avenue

- Name of block of flats town/ village

- Country or postcode

Understanding and speaking correct English are essential skills for succeeding in the

business world so they must be trained as an important part of the course.

Courses designed for future businessmen must be based on a prediction of probable

needs and should provide a balanced training in the basic skills of business English.

What objective to set?:

The English which is expected to be taught must be relevant for their jobs. When they

go to one of these courses it is because their company demands a high level of

competence in English. The company expects a result in terms of improved job

performance, a real return on their investment. In order to solve this problem, a course

syllabus must be devised from a lowest stage (where the student begins to learn English

and can carry out very few tasks) to the highest stage (where he becomes like a native

speaker).

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The company can select the target objectives with the teacher in order to get to that

level. The tasks should be related to the skills for the learning of English: listening,

speaking, reading and writing. Within each of these, additional tasks can be

differentiated:

Listening and speaking: (Oral skills)

1. Face-to-face dealing with customers

2. Internal meetings

3. Use of the telephone

Reading and Writing: (Written skills)

1. Filling in forms

2. Making reports for meetings

3. Statistics

There are 2 kinds of courses, each with a different emphasis on listening and speaking

and on reading and writing skills.

1. Employees in an introductory level course possibly have very little knowledge

of English. The course objective is to teach them to operate on their own.

Therefore, the course includes contents in the personal sphere like identifying

themselves and sorting out basic problems. The course also includes elements

about persuasion, disapproval, concession. The training is mainly oral. The

writing skill can be practised through short letters, emails and reports.

2. In an intermediate or advanced course, the employees will be able to work

efficiently in the company. They have to improve their knowledge of:

a) Reporting effectively to management

b) Completing logbooks.

c) Negotiating with management

d) Supervising employees

The content of the course must be designed after a pre-course investigation. The content

must be graded, organised and extended in such a way that the learner never wastes his

time at any moment.

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The results obtained are usually successful. Students learn to communicate directly and

much more clearly. They have more self-confidence at work.

Computers, language laboratories, audio recordings or videos are some of the materials

which can be used to simulate and practise the contents that the students are learning.

Using these materials, learners feel that they are dealing with problems from real life.

Scientific and technical English:

The general term scientific English could be applied to school science textbooks,

popular journalism in newspapers and magazines, and specialized articles in

professional journals.

There are now a large number of scientific English textbooks on the market. These

books fall into 2 main categories:

1. On one hand, they may be written by English teachers or linguists.

2. On the other, they may be written by scientists who assume that language is

neutral in relation to subject matter, that scientific concepts will be

understandable irrespective of language use.

Books of this kind could also involve collaboration between scientists and linguists at

the authorship stage.

Objectives:

Students of English drawn from industry expect the English they are taught in a

language course to be relevant to their jobs. They usually participate in an English

course not because they have any particular interest in English per se, but because their

career within their company demands a high level of competence in English.

Many teachers of students drawn from industry are faced with the question of what the

students and their company actually expect to be taught, what the students should be

able to do at the end of the course that they could not do at the beginning.

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The grammatical elements that writers most frequently choose in order to transmit much

of the scientific and technical information on which they base a given piece of technical

discourse are the following:

1. Passive and stative: Both passive and stative verbs are found primarily in therhetoric of instructions. By passive we mean those constructions with the verb to

be plus a past participle. A passive always indicates an activity, and can be used

with or without a stated agent to perform that activity. A stative always

describes the state or condition of the grammatical subject of the sentence.

2. Modal use in the rhetoric of instructions: Modals, especially passive modals, arecommonly found in scientific and technical discourse, especially in phrases such

as:

- It should be made clear that..

- It can be assumed that..

3. Problems with the definite article: There is an inconsistency in the use of thearticle in the rhetoric of instructions, especially with those sets of instructions

found in technical manuals and related material. It is found in the rhetoric of

description, most often when the functioning of a piece of machinery is being

described.

Lexical problems in the written discourse of scientific and technical English:

The vocabulary of a technical speech or piece of technical writing can have some wordswhich are rarely used in general English. It is important to know their meaning in order

to understand the whole subject. There are also many specialized words used in

scientific and technical English.

There are 3 lexical areas:

1. Technical vocabulary: There are a lot of new words used by scientists andtechnicians nowadays, as they find new words which can express the precise

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meaning of new discoveries. Many of these terms are adopted internationally

with slight variations.

English Spanish

Electrolysis Electrolisis

Many of these new words are made up of Latin and Greek roots.

2. Sub-technical vocabulary: This concept refers to those words which have certainwell-known meanings in general English, but which in technical contexts take

on extended meanings. These words can change their meaning depending on the

topic being discussed.

3. Compound Nouns: Students find it difficult to translate these complex

compounds from scientific and technical discourse into their native languages.

Expressions and structures:

Formal style is common to both written and spoken communication in scientific and

technical English. There are some expressions which are more common in technical

English, f.i: to come into operation. Some words have been incorporated into formal

scientific English because they avoid the ambiguity of more commonly used words f.i:

to determine is used instead ofto find out.

In technical language, impersonal sentences are preferred and the agent is not normally

mentioned if it is a person f.i:Houses have to be built.

When scientists make statements which they believe to be true always and everywhere,

they use the simple present

- Hydrogen reacts with oxygen

But the simple present is also used in formulae equations, definitions, laws of science.

The infinitive of the verb is commonly used to express purpose, function, and objective.

- The engine is designed to be run at high speed.

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The continuous present is used in descriptions of progress, plans, or actions which have

not been completed.

- We are getting better results.

The formula if.then is often used to indicate stages in actions or arguments. The word

then gives emphasis to the phrase that follows, but it is optional and adds nothing to

the meaning.

- If it is heated, (then) the bomb will explode.

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TEMA 55. LOS MEDIOS DE COMUNICACIN EN LENGUA INGLESA:

PRENSA, RADIO Y TELEVISIN. EL LENGUAJE PERIODSTICO Y EL

LENGUA PUBLICITARIO

TOPIC 55: THE MASS MEDIA IN ENGLISH: THE PRESS, RADIO AND TELEVISION. JOURNALISTIC

LANGUAGE AND THE LANGUAGE USED IN ADVERTISING

American mass media communication:

The American system of mass media communication has 3 characteristics that

distinguish it from systems in other countries:

1. Pervasive influence: America has an efficient system of mass mediacommunication that transmits information. Its function is to entertain, to inform,

to influence, and serve the economic system.

2. Freedom of press: The mass media play a central role in representativedemocracy. It is through the media that people get the information they need to

decide what they want their public officials to do. For this reason the firstamendment to the US constitution forbids the government to make any laws

abridging the freedom of the press. The American government, meanwhile,

restrains its media with the laws of libel, obscenity and privacy. Despite these

limitations, there is no mass media system in the world today that is freer from

government than the American system.

3. Big-business media: The United States is one of the few countries in the world

whose major media are all privately owned. Like every business, the mass media

have a product to sell.

Wires:

The Associated Press (AP) is one of the 2 major American wire services. The other one

is United Press International (UPI), which is smaller and younger, but almost as

influential. But AP and UPI are not only the most important wire services in the United

States, they are the most important ones in the world.

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Even the largest and most self-sufficient news operation in America (The new York

Times, the Washington Post, the three networks) rely on the wire services for much of

their day-to-day coverage.

Networks:

There are 4 commercial television networks in the United States: CBS, NBC, ABC and

CNN. All of them operate radio networks as well.

Newspapers:

There are about as many types of newspapers in the United States today as there are

newspapers. We have for instance the internationally-minded Christian Science

Monitor, the tabloidNew York Daily News, the suburbanNewsday, the weekly Country

Squire, the business-oriented Wall Street Journal or the alternative Los Angeles Free

Press.

The New York Times, The Christian Science Monitor, The St. Louis Post- Dispatch, The

Washington Post, The Milwaukee Journalare rated among the top dailies in America.

Magazines:

They are highly specialised, they usually provide a unique service to specialized

audiences. There are magazines for children, teenagers, executives, housewives,

educators, sportsmen, etc.

The most influential magazines in the Unites States are probably the 3 news weeklies:

Time, Newsweekand U.S. News and World Report. They share 3 characteristics:

1. Brevity: the weeks news is compressed into as few pages as possible 2. Subjectivity3. Group Journalism: dozens of researchers, writers and editors collaborate on

each major article.

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Television in America:

Nearly all the homes in the country have a television set. The typical TV station offers

four hours of non-entertainment programming a day, roughly 20% of the total.

Television news is incredibly powerful. The American public relies more on television

for its news than on any other medium.

Radio in America:

Throughout the 1940s, radio was the most important news medium in America, and

then came television. Today, radio competes with TV, cinema, and the Internet for

entertainment, and with TV, newspapers, and the Internet for news. In order to survive,

radio stations have been forced to adopt one or another formula, usually music.

The typical radio station subscribes to only one wire service the UPI or AP broadcast

wire, which moves the news in neat five-minute packages, ready to read.

Local news is pirated from local papers and the Internet. Larger metropolitan stations

may have a news staff of four or five reporters, but even there the emphasis is on the

headlines. Even the three major networks (ABC, CBS, NBC) carry little more than the

headlines and features.

The mass media in Great Britain:

The Press, the radio, and TV are for the most part London-based and London-oriented.

Broadcasting:

Broadcasting by television and radio in Britain is regulated by the Home Secretary

under The Wireless Telegraphy Acts 1949 and 1967, which prohibit the sending or

receiving of wireless communication, except under licence.

Two public bodies (the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) and the Independent

Broadcasting Authority (IBA) are licensed to provide television and radio broadcasting

services

- The BBC, which was established by Royal Charter in 1927, operates two

national television services, four national radio services and 20 local radio

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stations. It also broadcasts to countries abroad through its external services

division. It is a significant English-language presence on the Internet.

- The IBA originally established in 1954 as the Independent Broadcasting

Authority, controls the operations of the single independent television service

and has similar responsibility for the independent local radio stations.

Broadcasting authorities:

Both the BBC and the IBA are constitutionally required to provide a public service with

the purpose of disseminating information, education and entertainment. The BBC and

the IBA are independent authorities in the day-to-day operations of broadcasting,

including programmes and administration. The government, however, retains ultimatecontrol, and the home Secretary is answerable to parliament on broad questions of

policy and may issue directions to the BBC and the IBA on a number of technical and

other subjects. Both the BBC and the IBA are required to publish annual reports and

accounts.

The British Broadcasting Corporation:

The corporation consists of 12 governors (including a chairman, a vice-chairman and

separate national governors for Scotland, Wales and Northern Island) each appointed for

a period of not more than 5 years by the Queen on the advice of the government. The

governors are constitutionally responsible for the conduct of the whole broadcasting

operations, including the production and presentation of the programmes on television

and radio.

A number of committees advise them on such matters as the social effects of television,

religion, broadcasting, education, programmes for immigrants, science and engineering.

The governors appoint the Chief Executive Officer of the BBC, the Director General

with whom they discuss all major matters of policy and finance.

The Independent Broadcasting Authority:

It consists of a chairman, a deputy chairman and 8 members (three of whom have

responsibility for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland) appointed by the Home

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Independent Television:

The first regular independent broadcasts began in London in 1955. More than one third

of viewing time is devoted to serious programmes such as news and news magazines,

current affairs and documentaries, religion and education. The remainder includes a

high proportion of drama, light entertainment, music, sport and feature films. Three are

about 3 short advertising intervals an hour, in and between programmes.

BBC Radio:

BBC Radio provides listeners with four separate national channels, each of which has a

distinct character:

- Radio 1 provides a programme of pop music

- Radio 2 provides light music as well as being the principal channel for the

coverage of sport.

- Radio 3 provides classical music and in the evening offers adult education

programmes and works of artistic and intellectual interest

- Radio 4 provides the principal news and information service of the BBC. In

addition, it presents a wide range of drama, talks and entertainment programmes

as well as broadcasts to schools.

Independent Radio:

Much of the output of the independent local radio stations comprises entertainment

programmes but they are also expected to provide a national and local news service,

information and programmes on local affairs and community activities. The first two

began broadcasting in London in 1973: Capital Radioprovides a general entertainment

service while a specialist news and information service is broadcast by the London

Broadcasting Company whose associated company Independent Radio News supplies

national and international news to the other independent stations.

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BBC External services:

The BBC broadcasts to most countries overseas. The main objective of BBC external

broadcasts is to give unbiased news, to reflect British opinion and to project British life

and culture. The BBC is one of the most listened-to English Internet radio sources.

Advertising:

The BBC doesnt give publicity to any individual firm or organised interest, except

when it is necessary to provide effective and informative programmes. Advertisements

are broadcast on independent television and independent local radio. In any hour of

broadcasting the amount of advertising time on independent television is normally

limited to seven minutes. In independent local radio stations are normally limited up to

nine minutes of advertising each hour.

Political broadcasting:

Broadcasts on political issues include a daily factual and impartial account of

proceedings in Parliament, transmitted on BBCs Radio 4 when Parliament is in session

and there is frequent coverage of political subjects in news bulletins.

The Press:

The British Press caters for a variety of political views, different levels of education and

a wide range of interests. It is no subject to state control or censorship. But the press is

of course subject to law.

A large number of newspapers are sold in Britain every day, and although there are

relatively few national papers, some of them have circulations comparable with the

greatest in any other part of the world. Individual audited circulation figures range from

nearly 200.000 to some 4.200.000.

The national newspapers (daily and Sunday) fall into 2 categories: popular and quality.

They have separate sections on finance, business, industry, education, the arts, social

services and sports and some papers carry special supplements on particular subjects.

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With the press, people in all parts of England choose one or more of the eight national

papers according to their preferences which are based on various factors, among which

national sport reports are probably more influential than politics.

The principal newspapers:

QUALITY POLITICAL TENDENCY SUNDAY EQUIVALENT

Times (350) Independent (Con) Sunday Times (1300)

Guardian (450) Independent (Lib) ________________

Daily Telegraph (1300) Conservative Sunday Telegraph (700)

Financial Times Independent (Con) _________________

________________ _________________ Observer (700)

POPULAR

(tabloids, gutter press)

POLITICAL TENDENCY SUNDAY EQUIVALENT

Daily Mail (2000) Conservative Mail on Sunday (1500)

Daily Express (2000) Conservative Sunday Express (3000)Daily Mirror (3500) Labour Sunday Mirror (4000)

Daily Star (1400) Conservative _________________

Sun (4200) Conservative News of the World (6000)

Morning Star Communist _______________

_________________ ___________ Sunday People (4000)

Most of the significant regional papers are evening papers, each publishing about four

editions between about midday and 5 p.m. London like every other important town has

one. All these evening papers are semi-popular, but none has a circulation approaching

that of any popular national papers:Evening Standard.

The national press is dominated by large companies. Although the newspapers receive

no money from the state and they rely heavily on revenues from advertisers.

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The periodical press:

There are about 4500 periodical publications in Britain, classified as general, trade,

technical and professional. There are also some 660 house magazines.

The weekly periodicals with the highest sales in Britain are: Woman, Womans weekly,

Womans own, Weekend, Womans realm, Radio Times, and TV times.

The leading journals of opinion are The Economist, a politically independent

publication covering topics from a wider angle than its title implies. Other are: The New

Statesman, The Spectator, New society, New Scientist.

The Press Council:

It was established in 1953 and reconstituted in 1963. It has a lay chairman and 30

members. Its aims are:

1. To preserve the established freedom of the British Press

2. To maintain the character of the British Press in accordance with the highest

professional and commercial standards.

3. To keep under review any developments likely to restrict the supply of

information of public interest and importance.

4. To deal with complaints about the conduct of the press or the conduct of persons

and organizations towards the press.

The council publishes annual reports, which include statistics of the newspapers and

periodical press and a series of articles examining the structure of the leading press

groups.

Journalistic language:

It is very frequent to hear among journalists that the journalistic language must be clear,

correct and concise (the three Cs) so as to be able to be deciphered by readers of very

different cultural levels. Nevertheless 3 temptations can arise to the journalist:

1. He can apply literary devices to his style such as metaphors

2. He can use an administrative style in order not to refer with sincerity to things.

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3. He can use popular expressions because he thinks he can approach the reader

The influence the mass media exerts on standard language is extraordinary. The mass

media, including The Press, are the most important instruments of language education.

That is why their responsibility is so big and many times their action is not as perfect as

it should be.

Advertising language:

It consists of only a linguistic text (f.i: on the radio) or combined with images,

photographs or drawings (f.i: on television and newspapers).

Advertising texts are usually short and they seek to shock and attract the reader by their

wit or persuasive capacity.

Grammar in advertising texts:

1. There are many sentences without a verb

2. Most of them have rhymes so as to be easily remembered.

- When you decide to give her a ring, give us a ring (advertisement for a

jewellers shop)

3. Imperatives are frequently used

- Make a snap decision (advertisement for a new camera)

4. Stylistic devices are very frequent in advertising texts:

a) Hyperbole:- It is not worth dying for a drink

b) Rhetoric doubt:- What to give your family for lunch? Say cheese (advertisement

for cheese). This phrase is often used when s.o. takes a

photograph to make the subject smile

c) Metaphor:- Well give you a red-carpet treatment (or blue, or green, or

yellow) (Carpet shop advertisement)

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d) Comparison:

- The weather-men cant guarantee your Indian summer but we can

(Travel agency advertisement) (Indian summer means mild

autumn weather)