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Personality and Social Psychology

Bulletin http://psp.sagepub.com/

The Long-Term Stability of Self-Esteem: Its Time-Dependent Decay and Nonzero Asymptote

Farah Kuster and Ulrich Orth

Pers Soc Psychol Bull2013 39: 677 originally published online 10 March 2013DOI: 10.1177/0146167213480189

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SPXXX10.1177/0146167213480189Person alityand

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67/ Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 39(5)

sta*ility +ro,ides i&+ortant in$or&ation that hel+s under%

stand the de,elo+&ent o$ sel$%estee&' &ean%le,el sta*ility is

&ute -ith regard to the uestion o$ -hether the relati,e

standing i.e.' the ran(%order +osition o$ indi,iduals is sta*le

o,er ti&e. oreo,er' it is i&+ortant to note that the conce+ts

o$ ran(%order sta*ility and &ean%le,el sta*ility are theoreti%

cally and statistically distinct $ro& each other see "o*ins'raley' "o*erts' )resnie-s(i' 2001.

The Time-DependentDecline of Self-Esteem Stability

5s early as 1890' illia& a&es alluded to the sta*ility o$

sel$%estee& *y noting that there is a certain a,erage tone o$

sel$%$eeling -hich each one o$ us carries a*out -ith hi&

a&es' 1890' +. 306. #n $act' +re,ious research sug%gests that

sel$%estee& e:hi*its considera*le ran(%order sta*ility in

childhood e.g.' 5lsa(er !l-eus' 1992; arsh et al.' 1998'

adolescence e.g.' Bloc( "o*ins' 1993; alley Bach&an' 1983' and

young adulthood =onnellan' )resnie-s(i'


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Kuster and Orth 679

)he +resent research e:tends +re,ious studies in se,eral -ays.

irst' the longitudinal study design co,ered 29 years' -hich

allo-ed e:a&ining sta*ility across a ,ery long +eriod. Second'

the analyses include si: -a,es o$ data' +ro,iding $or sta*ility

esti&ates *ased on &ulti+le testretest inter,als o$ di$$erent

length and' conseuently' &any &ore data +oints co&+ared -iththe t-o%-a,e studies that are co&&on in the literature. )hird' -e

tested $or -hich &athe&atical $unction descri*es the ti&e%

de+endent decline o$ sel$%estee& sta*ility and -hether at long

testretest inter,als sta*ility o$ sel$%estee& a++roaches ero or a

nonero ,alue; no +re,ious study has addressed these uestions.

ourth' -e used data $ro& a large sa&+le -ith a *road age range

$ro& adolescence to old age' -hich ena*led us to dra- &ore

+recise and gen%eralia*le conclusions a*out the +attern o$ long%

ter& sta*il%ity o$ sel$%estee&.

#ethod

)he data co&e $ro& the Aongitudinal Study o$ IenerationsASI; Bengtson' 2009. )he ASI includes &e&*ers o$

$a&ilies that -ere rando&ly dra-n $ro& a su*scri*er list o$

a*out 840'000 &e&*ers o$ a health &aintenance organia%tion

in Southern age ranged $ro& 14 to 102 years. !$ the

+artici+ants' 91K -ere


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6/0 Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 39(5)

nonlinear regression analysis "at(o-s(y' 1990. or theseanalyses' -e used the SPSS 20 +rogra& SPSS' 2011.

#n the second +art o$ the analyses' -e tested the S)5")S

&odel enny Hautra' 2001 using structural euation

&odeling. )hese analyses -ere conducted using the +lus 6.1

+rogra& uthNn uthNn' 2010. )o deal -ith &iss%ing

,alues' -e used $ull%in$or&ation &a:i&u& li(elihood esti&ationto $it &odels directly to the ra- data' -hich +ro%duces less *iased

and &ore relia*le results co&+ared -ith con,entional &ethods o$

dealing -ith &issing data' such as list-ise or +air-ise deletion

5llison' 2003; Scha$er Iraha&' 2002. odel $it -as

assessed *y the co&+arati,e $it inde:


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< 1 Dull Sa&%le

/

S t a i l i t y 6

. a : (.3

2

0

5 10 15 20 25

$etest #nter+al (years)

B 1 ;ale

/

S t a i l i t y 6

.a : (3/

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5 10 15 20 25


> 1 De&ale

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Fig&re $% Staility o! sel!estee& as a !unction o! the test–

retest inter+al" !or the !ull sa&%le (Panel " res%ecti+ely)Aote' Para&eter a is the asy&%tote o! the e%onential decay !unction

-hen co&+uting the correlation *et-een a,es 2 and 3' the age

grou+s -ere *ased on in$or&ation $ro& a,e 2. e cre%ated the

$ollo-ing age grou+sM 14 to 19 years' 20 to 29 years' 30 to 39

years' 40 to 49 years' C0 to C9 years' and 60 to 69 years. e did

not include +artici+ants at age 70 and older in e:a&ining

di$$erences *et-een age grou+s *ecause $or these +artici+ants the

longest testretest inter,al a,aila*le -as only

12 yearsDin contrast' $or

the other grou+s' the longest

test retest inter,al -as 26

years $or the age grou+ 60%

69 years and 29 years $or

all other age grou+s;

conseuently' $or +ar%

tici+ants aged 70 and older'the +recision o$ the

+ara&eter esti&ates -ould

li(ely ha,e *een lo-. or all

su*sa&+les' -e co&+uted

testretest correlations only

i$ the correlation -as *ased

on at least 30 cases.

)he results $or the age

grou+s are sho-n in )a*le 2

and igure 2. 5lthough the

,ariance e:+lained -as lo-

in t-o o$ the age grou+s

age 14%19 years and age 40%

49 years' the ,ariance

e:+lained -as relati,ely

large in the other age

grou+s. #&+ortantly' the

e:+onential decay $unction

+ro%,ided a *etter $it to the

data than the linear and

uadratic $unctions' in all

age grou+s. 5gain' all

+ara&eters di$$ered

signi$icantly $ro& 0' e:ce+t

$or the rate o$ decay in the

age grou+ 40 to 49 years.

)he asy&+tote +ara&eter

ranged $ro&

.3C to .C9 across age grou+s.

Fo-e,er' signi$icant di$$er%

ences e&erged only $or the

age grou+ 20 to 29 years

-hich had the lo-est

asy&+tote' -hen co&+ared

-ith the age grou+ 40 to 49

years z : 2.98' p .0C' C0 to

C9 years z : 2.06' p .0C'

and 60 to 69 years z : 2.14'

p .0C. 5lthough &ost o$ the

di$$erences *et-een age

grou+s -ere nonsigni$i%cant'

the esti&ates $or the

asy&+tote tended to *e higher

in &iddle adulthood in

+articular at age 40%49 years

than in adolescence and

young adulthood'

corres+onding to the $ind%ings

*y )resnie-s(i et al. 2003.

or the rate o$ decay' there

-ere no signi$icantdi$$erences *et-een age

grou+s. !,erall' the e,idence

suggests that the e:+onential

decay $unction o$ long%ter&

sta*ility o$ sel$%estee& holds

across gender and age i.e.'

the e:+onential decay

$unction +ro,ided a *etter $it

than the linear and uadratic

$unctions' and that the +ara&eter esti&ates are

si&ilar across gender and

rela%ti,ely si&ilar across age

grou+s.

ong-#er!

Staility of Self-

stee!* #esting

the Stale #rait

,o!ponent of

Self-stee!

#n the second +art o$ the

analyses' -e tested -hether

struc%tural euation &odeling

o$ the indi,idual%le,el data

yields e,idence that a sta*le

trait co&+onent underlies the

long%ter& sta*ility o$ sel$%

estee&' -hich -ould +ro,ide

an e:+la%nation $or the

nonero asy&+tote o$ sel$%

estee& sta*ility. or the

analyses' -e used theS)5")S &odel enny

Hautra' 2001. )he &odel

includes three sources o$

,ariation in the o*ser,ed sel$%

estee& scores see igure 3.

irst' a +er$ectly sta*le trait

$actor in$luences sel$%estee&

at each &easure&ent occasion

in the sa&e -ay. Second' sel$%

estee& is in$luenced *y

occasion%s+eci$ic

autoregressi,e trait $ac%tors.

)hird' at each &easure&entoccasion' so&e ,ariance in

sel$%estee& re&ains

une:+lained *y the &odel'

-hich is ca+tured *y the

latent error ,aria*les.

#n addition' the &odel

includes the $ollo-ing three

assu&+tions. )he assu&+tion

o$ stationarity i&+lies that the

,ariance e:+lained *y each

source is the sa&e at each

&ea%sure&ent occasion. )he

assu&+tion o$ inde+endence


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i&+lies

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Kuster and Orth 6/3

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25 $et est te r+al (years)

Fi

g&r Aote'Para&eter

a is the asy&%tote o! the e%onential decay!unction

that the three sources o$ ,ariation

are uncorrelated i.e.' the sta*le

trait $actor is uncorrelated -ith the

autoregressi,e trait $actors' and

the error ,aria*les are

uncorrelated -ith the sta%*le trait

and autoregressi,e trait $actors.

inally' the &odel includes the

assu&+tion o$ a $irst%order

autoregressi,e struc%ture $or the

occasion%s+eci$ic latent $actors

i.e.' the autore%gressi,e trait

$actors. S+eci$ically' the

autoregressi,e structure accounts

$or the $act that the correlation

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6/. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 39(5)

Stalesel$%estee& see )a*le 4. )he standardied esti&ate o$ the

autoregressi,e e$$ect' -ith a testretest inter,al o$ 1 year as=rait

unit' -as .9C. )o su&&ari4e' the S)5")S &odel $it the data

,ery -ell' suggesting that a sta*le trait $actor is needed to

e:+lain the long%ter& sta*ility o$ sel$%estee&.

e1 e2 e3 e. e5 e6

Disc&ssionS1 S 2 S 3 S . S 5 S 6 #n the +resent research' -e used data $ro& a large longitudi%nal study -ith &ulti+le assess&ents o,er 29 years to in,es%


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Kuster and Orth 6/5

Table (% Dit o! the S=#H

S=


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"osen*erg' 1986; )resnie-s(i et al.' 2003. )he structural

euation &odeling analyses suggested that the sta*le trait $actor

accounted $or 28K and the autoregressi,e trait $actor $or 43K o$

the ,ariance in sel$%estee&. )hus' although a large +ro+ortion o$

the ,ariance -as accounted $or *y the autoregressi,e trait

co&+onent and latent error ,aria*les' a*out one uarter o$ the

,ariance o,er 29 years -as e:+lained *y a +er$ectly sta*le trait$actor. #nterestingly' the only other study using a trait%state &odel

$or sel$%estee& -hich -e are a-are o$ yielded relati,ely si&ilar

esti&ates =onnellan et al.' 2012. #n the study *y =onnellan et

al. 2012' -hich e:a&ined sel$%estee& in adolescents and young

adults across 19 years' the sta*le trait $actor accounted $or 3CK o$

the ,ari%ance and the autoregressi,e $actor accounted $or 49K.

oreo,er' =onnellan et al. $ound' as -e did in our study' that a

&odel that o&itted the sta*le trait $actor $it the data signi$i%cantly

-orse than the &odel including the sta*le trait $actor. ith regard

to the +resent research' the i&+ortant conclusion is that *oth

studies i.e.' =onnellan et al.>s and ours suggest that a su*stantial

+ro+ortion o$ ,ariance in sel$%estee& is co&+letely sta*le o,er

long +eriods and that a co&+letely sta*le trait $actor is needed to

satis$actorily e:+lain indi,id%ual di$$erences in sel$%estee&.

i!itations and +uture Directions

5 li&itation o$ this research is that the sa&+le is not re+re%

sentati,e o$ the +o+ulation o$ the Jnited States. )here$ore'

$uture research should re+licate the analyses in other' ideally

nationally re+resentati,e sa&+les. oreo,er' $uture research

should e:a&ine the long%ter& sta*ility o$ sel$%estee& in

sa&+les $ro& other cultural conte:ts c$. 5rnett' 2008;

Fenrich' Feine' ?orenayan' 2010. or e:a&+le' indi%

,iduals $ro& 5sian and estern cultures di$$er in the ty+ical

structure o$ the sel$%conce+t and in their need $or sel$%estee&

Feine' Aeh&an' ar(us' itaya&a' 1999; ar(us

itaya&a' 1991; *ut see Sedi(ides' Iaertner' )oguchi'

2003' -hich &ay ha,e conseuences $or the long%ter& sta%

*ility o$ sel$%estee&.

#n the analyses o$ testretest correlations' -e corrected the

o*ser,ed correlations $or attenuation due to &easure&ent error *y

using coe$$icient al+ha. 5n i&+ortant assu&+tion underly%ing

coe$$icient al+ha is that the ite&s &easure a unidi&ensional

construct; i$ the &easure is not +er$ectly unidi&ensional' al+ha &ay

underesti&ate the true relia*ility Sch&itt' 1996. )hus' *y using

al+ha' -e &ay ha,e o,ercorrected the o*ser,ed cor%relations to so&e

e:tent. Fo-e,er' in this research' using uncorrected correlations -asnot a ,ia*le o+tion *ecause' as descri*ed in the "esults section'

testing the ti&e%de+endent decay o$ sta*ility needed to account $or

the $act that sta*ility euals 1 -hen the testretest inter,al euals 0.

?e,ertheless' $uture research on the decay o$ sta*ility coe$$icients

should consider alternati,e &ethods $or esti&ating the relia*ility o$

the &easures used e.g.' de+enda*ility esti&ates' see 5nusic' Aucas'

=onnellan' 2012; le,el o$ sel$%

estee& in adolescence and

adulthood.

5n i&+ortant uestion is

-hether cohort di$$erences inthe &ean le,el o$ sel$%estee&

&ight ha,e con$ounded the

ran(%order sta*ility o$ sel$%

estee& in the $ull sa&+le. #$

&ore recent generations

syste&atically ha,e higher

sel$%estee& than +re,ious

generations' then these

di$$erences &ight +osi%ti,ely

*ias sta*ility esti&ates.

Fo-e,er' although the

hy+oth%esis that there has

*een a secular increase in

sel$%estee& in the +ast

decades has intuiti,e a++eal

)-enge


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Kuster and Orth 6/7

re+licated relati,ely -ell -ithin age grou+s' -e *elie,e that

our $indings on the sta*ility o$ sel$%estee& are not con%

$ounded *y +ossi*le generational changes in le,el o$ sel$%

estee&.

)he +resent research raises the i&+ortant uestion o$ -hich

$actors contri*ute to the long%ter& sta*ility o$ sel$%estee&. irst'genetic $actors &ay +lay an i&+ortant role. )he *est a,aila*le

e,idence is +ro,ided *y longitudinal *eha,ioral genetic studies

cIuire et al.' 1999; ?eiss' Sedi(ides' Ste,enson' 2002. or

e:a&+le' using longitu%dinal data $ro& a*out 2C0 +airs o$ t-ins'

si*lings' and ste+%si*lings' cIuire et al. 1999 $ound that

genetic $actors e:+lained large +ortions o$ sta*ility in glo*al and

do&ain%s+eci$ic sel$%estee&. Second' the $indings *y cIuire et

al. suggest that en,iron&ental $actors also contri*ute to the sta%

*ility o$ sel$%estee&; as discussed *y B. . "o*erts et al. 2008'

role continuity &ay account $or a sta*le su*Eecti,e en,iron&ent'

there*y +ro&oting sta*ility o$ +ersonality traits. inally' in

addition to genetic and en,iron&ental in$luences' +erson

en,iron&ent transactions &ay contri*%ute to the long%ter&sta*ility o$ sel$%estee& B. . "o*erts et al.' 2008. or e:a&+le'

one o$ the +rocesses o$ +erson en,iron&ent transaction is

attractionM ost +eo+le are attracted to en,iron&ents that &atch

their +ersonality e.g.' their le,el o$ sel$%estee&; S-ann' Stein%

Seroussi' Iiesler' 1992' -hich contri*utes to the sta*ility o$

indi,idual di$$er%ences. Si&ilarly' indi,iduals are selected into

social and -or(%related roles that &atch their +ersonality' -hich

also increases sta*ility. 5nother transactional +rocess is that +eo%

+le tend to selecti,ely attend to and search $or in$or&ation that

con$ir&s their *elie$s a*out the&sel,es' including their sel$%

e,aluation Sedi(ides' 1993; S-ann "ead' 1981. oreo,er'

so&e +ersonality characteristics elicit reactions *y others that

rein$orce the eliciting characteristic; $or e:a&+le' it is +ossi*le

that +eo+le -ith lo- sel$%estee& e,o(e social reactions that

contri*ute to the &aintenance o$ their lo- sel$%estee&. urther

+ersonen,iron&ent transac%tions' as discussed *y B. . "o*erts

et al. 2008' include &ani+ulation and attrition. #n $uture

research' it -ould *e highly interesting to e:a&ine to -hat

degree these +erson en,iron&ent transactions contri*ute to the

long%ter& sta*il%ity o$ sel$%estee&.

inally' -e note that the +resent research introduces a

&ethod that can *e used $or esti&ating the decay $unction o$

sta*ility' and the corres+onding asy&+tote and rate o$ decay'

$or any indi,idual%di$$erences construct. "esearchers can

co&+are the +ara&eters across a large set o$ constructs such

as +ersonality traits' attitudes' cogniti,e a*ilities' and

*iological characteristics. no-ledge a*out the di$$erential

sta*ility o$ constructs has i&+ortant i&+lications $or theory

*ecause it hel+s to e,aluate to -hich degree constructs should

*e categoried as traits. #&+ortantly' in each study' it should

*e tested -hether the decay $unction +ro,ides a su$$iciently

good $it to o*ser,ed sta*ility coe$$icients. 5lthough +re,ious

research i&+licitly suggests that

sta*ility coe$$icients decay

e:+onentially o,er ti&e see

ara' arsh'


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Ientile' B.' )-enge' . .' ara' 5. .' arsh' F. .'


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690 Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 39(5)

"o*erts' ". @. A.' Bengtson' G. A. 1996. 5$$ecti,e ties to +ar%ents in

early adulthood and sel$%estee& across 20 years. Social Psychology

"uarterly' &*' 96%106.

"o*ins' ". .' raley' ".

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