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A TRAINING PROJECT REPORT

ON

GSM TECHNOLOGY

Submitted for the partial fulfilment of the requirement for award ofthedegree

Of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

In

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

Submitted To:- Submitted By:-

SOURAV GOSWAMI

SUBHARTI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING

MEERUT(U.P.)

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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the work which is being presented in the project report

title Electromagnetic Reciprocating Engine in partial fulfilment for

the award of the degree of B- Tech and submitted to the department ofMECHANICAL ENGINEERING, SITE, is an authentic record of our own

work carried out during the academic session 2011-2012.Under the

supervision of Er. D. P. SINGH by following students.

VISHAL SHARMA (0820940024)

NITIN MASAND (0820940412)

NISHANT SAINI (0820940015)

SUBHASHISH SOLANKI (0820940022)

DINESH RANA (0820940409)

RAHUL SINGH TOMAR (0820940018)

This is to certify that the above statement made by the above candidates is

correct to the best of my knowledge.

Date..

Place.

(Er. D.P.SINGH) (Er. G.K. VARSHNEY)

Asst. Professor. H.O.D. External Examiner

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Acknowledgement is not a mere obligation but an epitome of humility and

indebtedness to all those who have helped in the compilation of this project and

without whom my project would have been anything but presentable.

First of all, we are grateful to Er. D.P.SINGH, Asst. Professor MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING Department, Subharti Institute of Technology & Engineering

for his constant encouragement and guidance during the preparation of this

work.

We express our sincere gratitude to Er.G.K.VARSHNEY, HOD, Mechanical

Engineering Department, Subharti Institute of Technology & Engineering, for

his invaluable suggestions and constructive criticism regarding this report.

Youre Faithfully

VISHAL SHARMA (0820940024)

NITIN MASAND (0820940412)

NISHANT SAINI (0820940015)

SHUBHASISH SOLANKI (0820940022)

DINESH RANA (0820940409)

RAHUL SINGH TOMAR (0820940018)

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CONTENTS

TOPICS PAGE NO.

1. Abstract

2. Overview

3. History of electromagnetic engine

4. What is electromagnet

5. Electromagnet Structure and types

6. Electromagnet Components

7. Electromagnetic reciprocating engine and its types

8. Parts of Engine

a) Electrical parts

b) Mechanical parts

9. How electromagnetic Engine works

10.Engine Performance

11.Engine Efficiency

12.Application and Maintenance

13.Fail-safe measure

14. Future Scope

15.Conclusion

16.Refrences

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Abstract

In an era where energy conservation has become the latest topic of

discussion not only among the erudite but also among the ordinary

responsible denizens , fuel efficiency along with minimum

pollution has become the benchmark for any new automobile.

And in the same context Electromagnetic Reciprocating

Engine come as the latest addition. By the name itself it can be

inferred that a Electromagnetic Reciprocating Engine is an

improvisation to the traditional gasoline engine run car combined

with the power of an electric motor.

The seminar on the above topic intends to bring to notice

the concepts associated with the hybrid technology through the

following topicscomponents , need , efficiency and performance

etc.

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Overview

Electromagnetic engine is a future generation engine , takes

electric energy as power source .

The engine is different from the ordinary engine in many ways.

The energy efficiency is much higher than the ordinary enginebecause the heat and thermal loss are negligible .

The advantages of the electromagnet is to act as pulling force that

can be control by the current supply .

The system is compact and the moving part is less than the

ordinary engine ,thats reduce the wear and tear of the engine and

deduct the maintenance cost and running cost .

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The History of the Electro-Magnetic Engine

This is the story of rise and fall of the little known electro-magnetic

engine. During the late 1700s and early 1800s many interesting and

little understood electrical experiments were conducted both here

and abroad that eventually led to the discovery of previously relied

on a form of capacitance , for electrical energy. In 1820, Oersted

discovered by accident that electricitythrough a wire woulddeflect

the needle of a compass and concluded that some form of

magnetism was present. In 1831, Faraday discovered the magnetic

field and hence the effect of an electrified coil on steel and on a

permanent magnet and vice versa. Faraday's experiments and

discoveries led to many useful inventions, including the multipolar

motor in 1838 by Jacobi, the telegraph in 1840 by Wheetstone and

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Morse, the dynamo in 1871 by Gramme, and the telephone in 1876

by Bell to mention a few. But, in 1845, one industrious

entrepreneur by the name of Bourbouze, wanted to capitalize on

the electric coil 'solenoid effect' in a grand manner. He envisioned

solenoid driven crank shaft engines powered by rooms full of

batteries, as an alternative to the then current steam power. So, in a

fashion similar to the later 'halfbreed,' Bourbouze removed the

cylinder, piston and valve system from a steam engine and replaced

them with a large electric coil, a plunger, a switch arrangement for

timing. Well-yes, the engine worked, but there wasn't enough

sulfuric acid and zinc available in quantity for the batteries to meet

the need and to compete with the low cost, readily available coal

for steam engines. So, like many other early ideas and inventions,

the electro-magnetic engine was short lived. Later, the term

electromagnetic engine was changed to electric motor.

Coincidentally, the efficiency of the early steam engine and the

electro-magnetic engine were about the same at 20-25%, as

compared to the later well-developed D.C. motor at 95%, and the

A.C. Motor at 89%

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Electromagnets:-

Electromagnets are magnets whose magnetic properties come from

or are generated through electricity. A magnet is a material (this is

usually metal), which has at least one pair of negative and positive

poles. These opposite poles' attraction produces a magnetic field.

This gives the magnet the ability to 'attract' metals such as iron or

steel. Electromagnets are soft magnets whose magnetic field can be

strengthened or weakened depending on the electric current

applied; the stronger the current, the stronger the magnetic field

produced. Electromagnets are distinct from hard magnets

(manufactured or naturally occurring). The magnetic field of hard

magnets is quite permanent or long lasting and is therefore not

dependent on electric current.

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STRUCTYRE AND DESIGN

The passage of electric charge (electrons) from a battery's or power

source's negative terminal through wires generates a weak

magnetic field. This magnetic field is so weak (or so small) that it

is generally undetected. However, a

compass will detect such a magnetic field.

To be useful, therefore, the magnetic fieldgenerated through the flow of electrons

should be strengthened. This can be done

by making a tight coil of conductive wire.

The coils will reinforce and strengthen the

magnetic field which has a direction or

orientation that is perpendicular to the direction of the electric

current.

When electricity is supplied to this coiled wire, there will result

various magnetic domains for each coil. These magnetic domains

will tend to align themselves; and the stronger the electric current

applied, the more the individual magnetic domains will be aligned.

The application of an optimal level of electric current will result in

a perfect alignment of all magnetic domainsand result in optimal

magnetic strength.

To make the electromagnet even more powerful, one can coil the

wire around a material that has magnetic permeability or

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susceptibility (simply, a material that can be magnetized). The core

material can be something that is capable of being temporarily

magnetized such as paramagnets which are susceptible to

magnetism but are unable to retain their magnetic properties after

the application of the electric current stops. The core material can

also be ferromagnets which are capable of retaining the magnetic

field they have acquired even after electric current application

cease

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Types of electromagnets

Starter solenoid

Solenoids are used to control the starter motor in virtually every

automobile. When the solenoid is energized by turning the ignition

key, a conductor is pulled against two terminals, and a large current

flows from the battery to the starter motor. It also moves the drive

pinion to connect the starter motor gear with the engine flywheel.

When the ignition key is released, the spring pushes the conductor

off the terminals and stops the starter motor, and also disengages

the pinion gear.

Troubleshooting solenoid

If a solenoid fails to move back into place when the coil current

stops flowing, the spring in the base may be broken. If a solenoid

makes a continuous clicking sound, the current is insufficient to

create a field strong enough to keep the the spring compressed.

This may be caused by a short in the coil that is preventing current

from flowing through all the coil turns.

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Linear solenoid

Another type of electromagnetic actuator that converts an electrical

signal into a magnetic field is called a Solenoid. The linear

solenoid works on the same basic principal as the

electromechanical relay (EMR) seen in the previous tutorial and

like relays, they can also be controlled by transistors or MOSFET.

A Linear Solenoid is an electromagnetic device that converts

electrical energy into a mechanical pushing or pulling force or

motion. Solenoids basically consist of an electrical coil wound

around a cylindrical tube with a ferro-magnetic actuator or

"plunger" that is free to move or slide "IN" and "OUT" of the coils

body. Solenoids are available in a variety of formats with the more

common types being the linear solenoidalso known as the linear

electromechanical actuator (LEMA) and the rotary solenoidwith

both types being available as either a holding (continuously

energized) or a latching type (ON-OFF pulse) with the latching

types being used in either energized or power-off applications.

Linear solenoids can also be designed for proportional motion

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control were the plunger position is proportional to the power

input.

When electrical current flows through a conductor it generates a

magnetic field, and the direction of this magnetic field with regards

to its North and South Poles is determined by the direction of the

current flow within the wire. This coil of wire becomes an

"Electromagnet" with its own north and south poles exactly the

same as that for a permanent type magnet. The strength of this

magnetic field can be increased or decreased by either controlling

the amount of current flowing through the coil or by changing the

number of turns or loops that the coil has. An example of an

"Electromagnet" is given below

Rotary solenoid

Most electromagnetic solenoids are linear devices producing a

linear back and forth force or motion. However, rotational

solenoids are also available which produce an angular or rotary

motion from a neutral position in either clockwise, anti-clockwise

or in both directions (bi-directional).

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Rotary solenoids can be used to replace small DC motors or

stepper motors were the angular movement is very small with the

angle of rotation being the angle moved from the start to the end

position. Commonly available rotary solenoids have movements of

25, 35, 45, 60 and 90o

as well as multiple movements to and from a

certain angle such as a 2-position self restoring or return to zero

rotation, for example 0-to-90-to-0o, 3-position self restoring, for

example 0o

to +45o

or 0o

to -45o

as well as 2-position latching.

Rotary solenoids produce a rotational movement when either

energized, de-energized, or a change in the polarity of an

electromagnetic field alters the position of a permanent magnet

rotor. Their construction consists of an electrical coil woundaround a steel frame with a magnetic disk connected to an output

shaft positioned above the coil. When the coil is energized the

electromagnetic field generates multiple north and south poles

which repel the adjacent permanent magnetic poles of the disk

causing it to rotate at an angle determined by the mechanical

construction of the rotary solenoid.

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Rotary solenoids are used in vending or gaming machines, valve

control, camera shutter with special high speed, low power or

variable positioning solenoids with high force or torque are

available such as those used in dot matrix printers, typewriters,

automatic machines or automotive applications etc.

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Electromagnetic reciprocating engine

An electromagnetic actuated reciprocating engine, said engine

comprising:

(a) a block, said block including

(1) a crankcase

(2) a crank rotatable mounted within said crankcase,

(3) at least one tubular cylinder, said cylinder having a bore of

preselected cross-section, an inward end and an outward end, and a

sidewall,

(4) a reciprocating piston disposed within said cylinder, said piston

including an upper portion having an outer radial edge, further

comprising at least one permanent magnet having a first endmounted adjacent said outer radial edge,

(5) rod means, said rod means including a crank end and a piston

end, said rod means connecting with said crank at said crank end

and with said piston at said piston end, said rod means adapted to

move with said piston inward and outward in a stroke wise fashion

as said crank rotates, and to thereby transfer force from said piston

to said crank, and from said crank to said piston,

(b) a first row of electromagnets, said row comprising at least N

electromagnets disposed stroke wise and externally along a portion

of said sidewall of said cylinder, said first row of said

electromagnets substantially radically aligned along a single radial

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axis with said first end of said at least one permanent magnet in

said piston, and where N is greater than or equal to two (2),

(c) a power source for energizing said electromagnets,

(d) an electrical switching circuit to direct electrical energy from

said power source to the first electromagnet in said row, to the Nth

electromagnet in said row, and each electromagnet there between,

(e) computer means, said means including a selection and timing

means to select direct which and when preselected electromagnets

from the first to the Nth electromagnets are energized in a temporal

fashion, so as to create an orchestrated sequence of timed and

magnetic forces for urging said piston inward or outward.

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The main types of electromagnetic engines

Single-loop electromagnetic engine

Even simple motor, apparently not requiring any loop but a piece

of the wire is shown on the photo

below.

Elements of the set:

1. Neodymium magnet.

2. Iron nail

3. Volta pile R6 (1,5 V).

4. Piece of wire (see photo 1)

Understanding the principle of operation of the engine above, it is

easy to explain the present one. This is just Newtons principle of

action and interaction. Essentially, this is the piece of wire

(forming the loop) which should spin around the magnet as in the

previous case. But now the loop is hold fixed, so by the principle of

reaction the magnet spins in the opposite direction, instead. Note

that the engine moves with the highest speed when the wire

touches the magnet in the middle of its heights: the magnetic flux

closed by such a loop is maximum. When the wire touches the

magnet below than the total flux is smaller and the turning around

is slower.

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Photo 1. The engine with one-loop: the battery,nail,magnet and

the wire. The wire should touch the magnet at

half of the height to assure the highest speed of turning.

Two-loop electromagnetic engine

Krzysztof Gobiowski2), Grzegorz Karwasz 3), Wim Peeters 4)

Elements of the set:

1. Neodymium magnet.

2. Volta pile R6 (1,5 V).

3. Loop (1-2 mm diameter) from Cu wire (1-2 mm dia.), see fig. 1.

Electromagnetic engine in order to work requires:

- the source of magnetic field (neodymium magnet - 1),

- electric current flowing in engine windings (loop - 3), placed in

this

field

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Principle of operation of two-loop engine

Electromagnetic engines working is based on the principle of

interaction between the magnetic field and the electric current. The

permanent (and strong) neodymium magnet creates the magnetic

field with a configuration shown on the fig. 1. In the region of the

upper segment of the loop the field is almost vertical, and in the

region of the lower segment it is directed in the opposite direction

as compared to the upper part, and it is much weaker 5). The

electrical current flows from the + pole of the battery and the

circuit is closed by the magnet (there is no isolation on the wire

wound around the magnet). The gap between the wire loop and the

magnet causes some discontinuity in the current flow but it does

not disturb the engine operation too much. The direction of theforce acting on every part of the wire is defined by the right hand

rule (thumb indicates the current, the indice the magnetic field

direction, the

middle the force). Alternatively, one can also use the vector

product F=qv x B. It turns out that the particular geometry of the

loop assures that the magnetic filed is approximately perpendicular

to all three single segments, assuring therefore the maximum force.

As seen from the fig. 2. the force moments acting on the two

wings of the loop do sum up. The engine turns around! In order

to invert the direction of rotation one can invert the battery or the

poles of the magnet. Principles to learn:

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- Lorentzs force acting on moving electrical charges (F = Bqv sin

_ , orF=qv x B) - electromagnetic force acting on the wire with

electrical current (F = BIlsin, orF=Il x B) , - right hand rule.

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Parts of electromagnetic engine :-

Electrical parts

Linear solenoid

This type of solenoid is generally called a Linear Solenoid due to

the linear directional movement of the plunger. Linear solenoids

are available in two basic configurations called a "Pull-type" as it

pulls the connected load towards itself when energized, and the

"Push-type" that act in the opposite direction pushing it away from

itself when energized. Both push and pull types are generally

constructed the same with the difference being in the location ofthe return spring and design of the plunger.

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Magnetic field of a solenoid

Inside

This is a derivation of the magnetic field around a solenoid that is

long enough so that fringe effects can be ignored. In the diagram to

the right, we immediately know that the field points in the positive

z direction inside the solenoid, and in the negative z direction

outside the solenoid.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_field

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A solenoid with 3 Amprian loops

We see this by applying the right hand grip rule for the field around

a wire. If we wrap our right hand around a wire with the thumb

pointing in the direction of the current, the curl of the fingers

shows how the field behaves. Since we are dealing with a long

solenoid, all of the components of the magnetic field not pointing

upwards cancel out by symmetry. Outside, a similar cancellation

occurs, and the field is only pointing downwards.

Now consider imaginary the loop c that is located inside the

solenoid. By Amperes law, we know that the line integral of B

(the magnetic field vector) around this loop is zero, since it

encloses no electrical currents (it can be also assumed that the

circuital electric field passing through the loop is constant undersuch conditions: a constant or constantly changing current through

the solenoid). We have shown above that the field is pointing

upwards inside the solenoid, so the horizontal portions of loop c

doesn't contribute anything to the integral. Thus the integral of the

up side 1 is equal to the integral of the down side 2. Since we can

arbitrarily change the dimensions of the loop and get the same

result, the only physical explanation is that the integrands are

actually equal, that is, the magnetic field inside the solenoid is

radially uniform. Note, though, that nothing prohibits it from

varying longitudinally which in fact it does.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amp%C3%A8re%27s_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_hand_grip_rulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amp%C3%A8re%27s_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amp%C3%A8re%27s_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_integralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_integralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amp%C3%A8re%27s_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_hand_grip_rulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amp%C3%A8re%27s_law

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Construction

Step-1

We are using dc solenoid coil in our project to give angular motion

to our crank shaft.

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Coil detail:

Brand:IDEAL -1psi/10mm , dc 24v,1.5 amp

When we provide current to the coil it core.

Step-2

We design special crank shaft according to the solenoid coil. We

use aluminum rod and make the four crank at 90degree each other .

Use bearing on both side of crank shaft for support it on base and

we can use chain and sprocket for transmit power to gear box.

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Step-3

We attach solenoid coil with crank shaft .

Step-4

Use cam for magnetizing the coil at right time for performing the

operation smoothly.

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Transformer

A transformer transfers electrical energy between two circuits. It

usually consists of two wire coils wrapped around a core. These

coils are called primary and secondary windings. Energy is

transferred by mutual induction caused by a changing

electromagnetic field. If the coils have different number of turns

around the core, the voltage induced in the secondary coil will be

different to the first.

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HISTORY OF TRANSFORMERS

Transformers are based on the theory of electromagnetic induction,

which was discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831. It was not until

1836 that the first device, an induction coil, was invented. William

Stanley, who designed the first commercial model, introduced the

term "transformer" in 1885.

TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS

The two major types of transformer are laminated cores and

toroidals.

Laminated cores are those common cube-shaped transformers,

which are used in power adapters. They are stronger and cheaper

than toroidals.

Toroidals are smaller and lighter, for the same power rating. Theyalso produce less electrical noise and are more efficient. The

secondary winding can be joined in series to double the voltage or

joined in parallel for higher current.

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HOW DOES A TRANSFORMER WORK

Alternating current in the primary winding creates an

electromagnetic field that induces a current in the secondary

winding when the field changes. Small transformers use enameled

wire for their windings, while large transformers use insulated

copper strips. Transformers can be single winding, center-tap, or

multi-tap. Center-taps have a terminal at the middle point of the

secondary winding, which has half the voltage of the end terminal.

Multi-taps have many terminals along the winding, whose voltages

depend on their locations. The purpose of the core is to direct the

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electromagnetic field through the secondary winding. Silicon steel

cores are used for their high magnetic permeability. The insulated

laminations work better than solid cores, by confining eddy

currents, which reduces their losses.

USES OF TRANSFORMERS

Transformers are mainly used to convert one voltage to another.The process of increasing the voltage is called "stepping up", while

decreasing the voltage is called "stepping down". Most electronic

equipments need a transformer to lower the mains voltage to a

usable level. Transformers are also found in power adapters and

battery chargers. Inverters are transformers which step-up a low

voltage to a higher voltage, allowing a mains powered equipment

to run on a battery. Additional circuitry is required to change the

battery's direct current into alternating current. Transformers are

used for electricity distribution to minimize energy loss over long

distances. Higher voltages allow for lower currents, which reduces

the losses caused by resistance.

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POWER SUPPLY

In alternating current the electron flow is alternate, i.e. the electron

flow increases to maximum in one direction, decreases back to

zero. It then increases in the other direction and then decreases to

zero again. Direct current flows in one direction only. Rectifier

converts alternating current to flow in one direction only. When the

anode of the diode is positive with respect to its cathode, it is

forward biased, allowing current to flow. But when its anode is

negative with respect to the cathode, it is reverse biased and does

not allow current to flow. This unidirectional property of the diode

is useful for rectification. A single diode arranged back-to-back

might allow the electrons to flow during positive half cycles only

and suppress the negative half cycles. Double diodes arranged

back-to-back might act as full wave rectifiers as they may allow the

electron flow during both positive and negative half cycles. Four

diodes can be arranged to make a full wave bridge rectifier.

Different types of filter circuits are used to smooth out the

pulsations in amplitude of the output voltage from a rectifier. The

property of capacitor to oppose any change in the voltage applied

across them by storing energy in the electric field of the capacitor

and of inductors to oppose any change in the current flowing

through them by storing energy in the magnetic field of coil may

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be utilized. To remove pulsation of the direct current obtained from

the rectifier, different types of combination of capacitor, inductors

and resistors may be also be used to increase to action of filtering.

NEED OF POWER SUPPLY

Perhaps all of you are aware that a power supply is a primary

requirement for the Test Bench of a home experimenters mini

lab. A battery eliminator can eliminate or replace the batteries of

solid-state electronic equipment and the equipment thus can be

operated by 230v A.C. mains instead of the batteries or dry cells.

Nowadays, the use of commercial battery eliminator or power

supply unit has become increasingly popular as power source for

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household appliances like transreceivers, record player, cassette

players, digital clock etc.

Use of diodes in rectifiers

Electric energy is available in homes and industries in India,

in the form of alternating voltage. The supply has a voltage of

220V (rms) at a frequency of 50 Hz. In the USA, it is 110V at 60

Hz. For the operation of most of the devices in electronic

equipment, a dc voltage is needed. For instance, a transistor radio

requires a dc supply for its operation. Usually, this supply is

provided by dry cells. But sometime we use a battery eliminator in

place of dry cells. The battery eliminator converts the ac voltage

into dc voltage and thus eliminates the need for dry cells.

Nowadays, almost all-electronic equipment includes a circuit that

converts ac voltage of mains supply into dc voltage. This part of

the equipment is called Power Supply. In general, at the input of

the power supply, there is a power transformer. It is followed by adiode circuit called Rectifier. The output of the rectifier goes to a

smoothing filter, and then to a voltage regulator circuit. The

rectifier circuit is the heart of a power supply.

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Rectification

Rectification is a process of rendering an alternating current

or voltage into a unidirectional one. The component used for

rectification is called Rectifier. A rectifier permits current to flow

only during the positive half cycles of the applied AC voltage by

eliminating the negative half cycles or alternations of the applied

AC voltage. Thus pulsating DC is obtained. To obtain smooth DC

power, additional filter circuits are required.

A diode can be used as rectifier. There are various types of

diodes. But, semiconductor diodes are very popularly used as

rectifiers. A semiconductor diode is a solid-state device consistingof two elements is being an electron emitter or cathode, the other

an electron collector or anode. Since electrons in a semiconductor

diode can flow in one direction only-from emitter to collector- the

diode provides the unilateral conduction necessary for rectification.

Out of the semiconductor diodes, copper oxide and selenium

rectifier are also commonly used.

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Rectification

It is possible to rectify both alternations of the input voltage

by using two diodes in the circuit arrangement. Assume 6.3 V rms

(18 V p-p) is applied to the circuit. Assume further that two equal-

valued series-connected resistors R are placed in parallel with the

ac source. The 18 V p-p appears across the two resistors connected

between points AC and CB, and point C is the electrical midpoint

between A and B. Hence 9 V p-p appears across each resistor. At

any moment during a cycle of vin, if point A is positive relative to

C, point B is negative relative to C. When A is negative to C, point

B is positive relative

to C. The effective voltage in proper time phase which each diode

"sees" is in Fig. The voltage applied to the anode of each diode is

equal but opposite in polarity at any given instant.

When A is positive relative to C, the anode of D1 is positive

with respect to its cathode. Hence D1 will conduct but D2 will not.

During the second alternation, B is positive relative to C. The

anode of D2 is therefore positive with respect to its cathode, and

D2 conducts while D1 is cut off.

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There is conduction then by either D1 or D2 during the entire

input-voltage cycle.

Since the two diodes have a common-cathode load resistor

RL, the output voltage across RL will result from the alternate

conduction of D1 and D2. The output waveform vout across RL,

therefore has no gaps as in the case of the half-wave rectifier.

The output of a full-wave rectifier is also pulsating direct

current. In the diagram, the two equal resistors R across the input

voltage are necessary to provide a voltage midpoint C for circuit

connection and zero reference. Note that the load resistor RL is

connected from the cathodes to this center reference point C.

An interesting fact about the output waveform vout is that its peak

amplitude is not 9 V as in the case of the half-wave rectifier using

the same power source, but is less than 4 V. The reason, of

course, is that the peak positive voltage of A relative to C is 4 V,

not 9 V, and part of the 4 V is lost across R.

Though the full wave rectifier fills in the conduction gaps, it

delivers less than half the peak output voltage that results from

half-wave rectification.

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Bridge Rectifier

A more widely used full-wave rectifier circuit is the bridge

rectifier. It requires four diodes instead of two, but avoids the need

for a centre-tapped transformer. During the positive half-cycle of

the secondary voltage, diodes D2 and D4 are conducting and

diodes D1 and D3 are non-conducting. Therefore, current flows

through the secondary winding, diode D2, load resistor RL and

diode D4. During negative half-cycles of the secondary voltage,

diodes D1 and D3 conduct, and the diodes D2 and D4 do not

conduct. The current therefore flows through the secondary

winding, diode D1, load resistor RL and diode D3. In both cases,

the current passes through the load resistor in the same direction.

Therefore, a fluctuating, unidirectional voltage is developed across

the load.

Filtration

The rectifier circuits we have discussed above deliver an

output voltage that always has the same polarity: but however, this

output is not suitable as DC power supply for solid-state circuits.

This is due to the pulsation or ripples of the output voltage. This

should be removed out before the output voltage can be supplied to

any circuit. This smoothing is done by incorporating filter

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networks. The filter network consists of inductors and capacitors.

The inductors or choke coils are generally connected in series with

the rectifier output and the load. The inductors oppose any change

in the magnitude of a current flowing through them by storing up

energy in a magnetic field. An inductor offers very low resistance

for DC whereas; it offers very high resistance to AC. Thus, a series

connected choke coil in a rectifier circuit helps to reduce the

pulsations or ripples to a great extent in the output voltage. The

fitter capacitors are usually connected in parallel with the rectifier

output and the load. As, AC can pass through a capacitor but DC

cannot, the ripples are thus limited and the output becomes

smoothed. When the voltage across its plates tends to rise, it stores

up energy back into voltage and current. Thus, the fluctuations in

the output voltage are reduced considerable. Filter network circuitsmay be of two types in general:

Diode

A diode is a solid state device that allows current to flow in only

one direction, a process known as rectification. Diodes are a

fundamental component of electrical circuits. They are also used to

form other components, such as the bipolar transistor, which uses

two diodes in series.

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History of diode

Thermionic rectifiers were discovered in 1873 by FREDERICK

GUTHRIE, and later rediscover by THOMAS EDISON, while

crystal rectifiers were discovered in 1874 by KARL BRAUN it

was not until 1919 that rectifiers were renamed diodes by

WILLIAM ECCLES, although power diodes are still called

rectifiers today.

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MECHANICAL PARTS

Flywheel

A flywheel is a rotating mechanical device that is used to

storerotational energy. Flywheels have a significantmoment of

inertia, and thus resist changes in rotational speed. The amount of

energy stored in a flywheel is proportional to the square of

itsrotational speed. Energy is transferred to a flywheel by

applyingtorqueto it, thereby increasing its rotational speed, and

hence its stored energy. Conversely, a flywheel releases stored

energy by applying torque to a mechanical load, thereby decreasing

its rotational speed.

Three common uses of a flywheel include:

They provide continuous energy when the energy source isdiscontinuous. For example, flywheels are used

inreciprocating enginesbecause the energy source, torque

from the engine, is intermittent.

They deliver energy at rates beyond the ability of a continuousenergy source. This is achieved by collecting energy in the

flywheel over time and then releasing the energy quickly, at

rates that exceed the abilities of the energy source.

They control the orientation of a mechanical system. In suchapplications, the angular momentum of a flywheel is purposely

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transferred to a load when energy is transferred to or from the

flywheel.

TYPICAL FLYWHEEL STRUCTURES.

Flywheels are often used to provide continuous energy in systems

where the energy source is not continuous. In such cases, the

flywheel stores energy when torque is applied by the energy

source, and it releases stored energy when the energy source is not

applying torque to it. For example, a flywheel is used to maintain

constant angular velocity of thecrankshaftin a reciprocating

engine. In this case, the flywheelwhich is mounted on the

crankshaftstores energy when torque is exerted on it by a

firingpiston, and it releases energy to its mechanical loads when

no piston is exerting torque on it. Other examples of this

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arefriction motors, which use flywheel energy to power devices

such astoy cars.

A flywheel may also be used to supply intermittent pulses of

energy at transfer rates that exceed the abilities of its energy

source, or when such pulses would disrupt the energy supply (e.g.,

public electric network). This is achieved by accumulating stored

energy in the flywheel over a period of time, at a rate that is

compatible with the energy source, and then releasing that energy

at a much higher rate over a relatively short time. For example,

flywheels are used inpunchingmachines andrivetingmachines,

where they store energy from the motor and release it during the

punching or riveting operation.

The phenomenon ofprecessionhas to be considered when using

flywheels in vehicles. A rotating flywheel responds to any

momentum that tends to change the direction of its axis of rotation

by a resulting precession rotation. A vehicle with a vertical-axis

flywheel would experience a lateral momentum when passing the

top of a hill or the bottom of a valley (rollmomentum in response

to a pitch change). Two counter-rotating flywheels may be needed

to eliminate this effect. This effect is leveraged inmomentum

wheels, a type of flywheel employed in satellites in which the

flywheel is used to orient the satellite's instruments without thruster

rockets.

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A flywheel is a spinning wheel or disc with a fixed axle so that

rotation is only about one axis. Energy is stored in

therotoraskinetic energy, or more specifically,rotational

energy:

Where:

is theangular velocity, and is themoment of inertiaof themassabout the center of

rotation. The moment of inertia is the measure of resistance

totorqueapplied on a spinning object (i.e. the higher the

moment of inertia, the slower it will spin when a given force is

applied).

The moment of inertia for a solid cylinder is , for a thin-walled empty cylinder is , and for a thick-walled empty cylinder

is ,[4]

Where m denotes mass, and rdenotes a radius.

When calculating withSIunits, the standards would be for

mass,kilograms; for radius, meters; and for angular

velocity,radianspersecond. The resulting answer would be

injoules.

The amount of energy that can safely be stored in the rotor depends

on the point at which the rotor will warp or shatter. Thehoop

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stresson the rotor is a major consideration in the design of a

flywheel energy storage system.

Where:

is the tensile stress on the rim of the cylinder is the density of the cylinder is the radius of the cylinder, and is theangular velocityof the cylinder.

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an industrial flywheel.

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Crankshaft

The crankshaft, sometimes casually abbreviated to crank, is the

part of an engine that translates reciprocating linear piston

motion into rotation. To convert the reciprocating motion into

rotation, the crankshaft has "crank throws" or "crankpins",

additional bearing surfaces whose axis is offset from that of the

crank, to which the "big ends" of the connecting rods from each

cylinder attach.

It typically connects to a flywheel, to reduce the pulsation

characteristic of the four-stroke cycle, and sometimes a torsional

or vibrational damper at the opposite end, to reduce the torsional

vibrationsoften caused along the length of the crankshaft by the

cylinders farthest from the output end acting on the torsional

elasticity of the

Al .

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Bearing

Have you ever wondered how things like inline skate wheels and

electric motors spin so smoothly and quietly? The answer can befound in a neat little machine called a bearing.

A tapered roller bearing from a manual transmission

The bearing makes many of the machines we use every day

possible. Without bearings, we would be constantly replacing parts

that wore out from friction. In this article, we'll learn how bearings

work, look at some different kinds of bearings and explain their

common uses, and explore some other interesting uses of bearings.

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The concept behind a bearing is very simple: Things roll better

than they slide. The wheels on your car are like big bearings. If you

had something like skis instead of wheels, your car would be a lot

more difficult to push down the road.

That is because when things slide, the friction between them causes

a force that tends to slow them down. But if the two surfaces can

roll over each other, the friction is greatly reduced.

Bearings reduce friction by providing smooth metal balls or

rollers, and a smooth inner and outer metal surface for the balls to

roll against. These balls or rollers "bear" the load, allowing the

device to spin smoothly.

Bearing Loads

Bearings typically have to deal with two kinds of loading, radial

and thrust. Depending on where the bearing is being used, it may

see all radial loading, all thrust loading or a combination of both.

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The bearings that support the shafts of motors and pulleys are

subject to a radial load.

The bearings in the electric motor and the pulley pictured above

face only a radial load. In this case, most of the load comes from

the tension in the belt connecting the two pulleys.

The bearing above is like the one in a barstool. It is loaded purely

in thrust, and the entire load comes from the weight of the personsitting on the stool.

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Types of Bearings

There are many types of bearings, each used for different purposes.

These include ball bearings, roller bearings, ball thrust bearings,

roller thrust bearings and tapered roller thrust bearings.

Ball bearing

Ball bearings, as shown below, are probably the most common

type of bearing. They are found in everything from inline skates tohard drives. These bearings can handle both radial and thrust loads,

and is usually found in applications where the load is relatively

small.

In a ball bearing, the load is transmitted from the outer race to the

ball, and from the ball to the inner race. Since the ball is a sphere, itonly contacts the inner and outer race at a very small point, which

helps it spin very smoothly. But it also means that there is not very

much contact area holding that load, so if the bearing is

overloaded, the balls can deform or squish, ruining the bearing.

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Working of electromagnetic reciprocating engine

When the AC power of 240 volt supplied to the engine, current

goes to step down transformer. Transformer converts the 240 volt

supply in to 24 volt. 24 volt supply goes to the rectifier .rectifier

works as a converter which converts the ac current in to dc current

.solenoid which is used in this engine are dc solenoid. When

current is passed in to the solenoid, magnetic field produced within

solenoid .Iron core moved within the coil. Which is reciprocating

in nature .the core is attached to the crank shaft through the

connecting rod. The work of crank shaft to convert the

reciprocating motion in to rotational motion. A system is attached

to the crank shaft which makes the close circuit of all the four

solenoid at right time. It works like a camshaft .when current is

goes to the first solenoid ,solenoid magnetize. Pulling force act on

the core. When circuit is break to the first solenoid, at that time

solenoid 4th circuit is closed and it magnetized. And after that

solenoid third is magnetized and than 2nd

solenoid .one revolution

is completed after the full operation. This process is repeated again

and again.

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Engine performance

When specifying what type of engine is needed, the mechanical

power available at the shaft is used. This means that users can

predict the torque and speed of the engine without having to know

the mechanical losses associated with the engine.

power

The power output of a engine is:

Where P is in horsepower, rpm is the shaft speed in revolutions per

minute and T is the torque in foot pounds.

And for a linear motor:

Where P is the power in watts, and F is in Newtons and v is the

speed in metres per second.

Eficiency

To calculate a engine efficiency, the mechanical output power is

divided by the electrical input power: , where is energy

conversion efficiency, is electrical input power, and is

mechanical output power.

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In simplest case , and , where is input voltage,

is input current, is output torque, and is output angular

velocity. It is possible to derive analytically the point of maximum

efficiency. It is typically at less than 1/2 thestall torque.

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Applications

Electromechanical solenoid

A 1920 explanation of a commercial solenoid used as an

electromechanical actuator

Electromechanical solenoids consist of an electromagnetically

inductive coil, wound around a movable steel oriron slug (termed

the armature). The coil is shaped such that the armature can bemoved in and out of the center, altering the coil's inductance and

thereby becoming an electromagnet. The armature is used to

provide a mechanical force to some mechanism (such as

controlling a pneumatic valve). Although typically weak over

anything but very short distances, solenoids may be controlled

directly by a controller circuit, and thus have very low reaction

times.

The force applied to the armature is proportional to the change in

inductance of the coil with respect to the change in position of the

armature, and the current flowing through the coil (see Faraday's

law of induction). The force applied to the armature will always

move the armature in a direction that increases the coil's

inductance.

Electromechanical solenoids are commonly seen in electronic

paintball markers,pinball machines, dot matrix printers and fuel

injectors. A most common application is used in automobile.

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Maintenance

The maintenance of electromagnet is very important because

magnetic field which is produced with in the coil decreases after a

long time period due to losses (iron losses, eddy current losses)

generated in the coil. Proper lubrication is used in the moving parts

like crank shaft ,connecting rod joints ,bearings etc.

Fail-safe measure

Electromagnetic coil which is used in electromagnetic engine have

fail-safe measure .the current used for running the engine have

constant frequency .fluctuation in current causes damage of coil.

To reduce these problem measuring instrument are used. To

measure the voltage, voltmeter is used and for current ampere

meter is used. Design of crankshaft, connecting rod and bearing

according their load bearing capability. Types of lubricant which is

used in moving part should be design .because friction is an

important factor causes damage of moving part due to wear and

tear and thrust which is generated in moving part. Testing machine

are used for measurement the strength of the component.

Inspection of the component should be done weekly and monthly

to reduced the failure problem.

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FUTURE SCOPE

Being a electric engine it has may futuristic benefits like it is fully

pollution free engine, no carbon foot print. In present polluted

world as governments are struggling hard to cope with pollution

our engine has great significance

As carbon fuel is decreasing day by on earth petrol and diesel fuel

is costly and decreasing the availably is also hard issue, to

overcome this problem our proposed engine has great significance

for fuel consumption as its is ruing of battery.

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Conclusion

Though at present the concept has been put in the reva car, it is

indeed an important research avenue for other car manufacturing

units as well. One can surely conclude that this concept, and the

similar ones to follow with even better efficiency & conservation

rate are very much on the anvil in todays energy deficit world.

Currently the cost of the engine is more than that

the conventional engine. Electromagnetic engine is growing in

popularity and it is likely to come in more and more new vehicles.

As the systems become more commonplace the cost of the vehicles

will drop.

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Reference

1. http:\\www.howstuffworks.com2. http:\\www.howhurricaneworks.com3. http:\\www.thecarconnection.com4. http:\\www.theautochannel.com5. http:\\www.wikkipedia.com6. http:\\www.google .com7. http:\\www.gasenginefarmcollector.com8. Theory of Machine (R.K.Bansal)10. Electrical Machine (J.B.Gupta)

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