Situação da Geração Termonuclear no Mundo: EUA, Europa€¦ · Situação da Geração...
Transcript of Situação da Geração Termonuclear no Mundo: EUA, Europa€¦ · Situação da Geração...
Situação da Geração Termonuclear no Mundo:
EUA, Europa
Antonio GaivãoGeneration Coordinator
GDF Suez Energy Latin America
Em colaboração com:Luc Geraets (GDFSuez)
Yves Crommelynck (GDFSuez)
APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear – Rio de Janeiro 27 Novembro 20082
1. Generation I and Generation II technologies
2. Installed Capacity and Generation
3. Present and announced trends
4. New Evolutionary Reactors; Generation III and III+
5. EPRs in Western Europe
6. AP1000
7. Generation IV: Innovative concepts
8. Fuel Management for Sustainability
INDEX
APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear – Rio de Janeiro 27 Novembro 20083
1. Generation I and Generation II
technologies
Nuclear Power Generation
APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear – Rio de Janeiro 27 Novembro 2008
The first prototypes and research reactors: GENERATION I
1942 - Fermi Pile: first critical chain reaction
1963 – First reactor at Mol in Belgium:BR1 (11MW)
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Early Prototype
Reactors
Generation I
- Shippingport
- Dresden, Fermi I
- Magnox
Generation II
- LWR-PWR, BWR
- CANDU PHWR
- VVER/RBMK
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030
Generation IV
- Highly Economical
- Enhanced Safety
- Minimal Waste
- Proliferation Resistant
- ABWR
- System 80+
- AP1000; AP600
- EPR
Advanced LWRs
Generation III
Gen I Gen II Gen III Gen IV
Evolutionary
Designs Offering
Improved Economics
Main reactor lines
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Industrial Expansion
Generation IIII +
APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear – Rio de Janeiro 27 Novembro 2008
GENERATION II :Basic elements of a nuclear power reactor
• Fuel: UO2 (enriched or natural), MOX
• Moderator: Graphite, Water, Heavy Water
• Coolant: Water, He, CO2, air, Na, Pb(-Bi)
• Control rods
• SCRAM system (emergency stop)
• Pressure vessel or pressure tubes
• Confinement building
• Steam generator/alternator
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Pressurized water reactor (PWR)
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Pressurized water reactor (PWR)
Conventional islandNuclear island
Nuclear Thermal Mechanical ElectricalEnergy conversion:
Primary
system
Secondary
system
APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear – Rio de Janeiro 27 Novembro 2008
Pressurized water reactor (PWR)
Reactor
• 150 to 250 assemblies with 200 to 300 fuel pins each � 80 to 100 tonnes of uranium
• Negative temperature reactivity coefficient
• Extra emergency stop by injection of boric acid in primary loop
• VVER= Russian PWR, hexagonal fuel structure
Primary Circuit (cooling loop)
• Water under high pressure: above 150 bar (no boiling)
• Maximum water temperature: 325°C
• Vapour fraction controlled by pressurizer
• Heat transfered to secondary system in heat exchangers (Steam Generators)
Secondary system (Steam to turbine)
• not radioactive, under low pressure (70 bar)
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Lay-out of the primary system of a PWR
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Reactor Vessel
Vessel� Is a cylinder in MnMo Steel with
hemispherical bottom head and removable top head
� The internal wall is in stainless steel to prevent corrosion
� Is the only component that cannot be replaced. (→→→→ Pressure Vessel Surveillance Programme)
Main functions/characteristics� Support of the core and the mechanism
of the control rod
� Resistance to the high pressure of the water
� Third barrier between the fuel and the environment
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Steam Generator
� Steam GeneratorIs the “meeting point” between the primary and secondary system. Inside of the steam generator, the hot reactor coolant release the heat to the water of the secondary systems that is transformed is steam.
� Important points� The content of the moisture in the steam
must be as low as possible to prevent damage at the blades of the turbine
� Continuous control of the physical separation between the water of the primary and secondary systems.
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Boiling water reactor (BWR)
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Boiling water reactor (BWR)
Reactor:
• 750 assemblies of 90 to 100 fuel pins � 140 tonnes of uranium
• Control rods in the bottom part of the vessel
• 12-15% of the water vaporized in the upper part of the core � less efficient moderation capability
Primary Circuit (water – steam loop)
• Primary cooling circuit under low pressure (75 bar)
• Water temperature in the reactor: 285 °C (boiling)
• Steam dried above the core and then sent to the turbines which are part of the primary circuit
• The primary circuit water contains radioactive nuclides:
� The turbine must be placed in the confinement building and shielded during maintenance
� Associated costs are in equilibrium with the economies made by simpler design
� Most radioactive nuclides have short half-lives � the turbine hall can be accessed quite soon after reactor shut-down
� The most present radio-isotope is N-16 with a half life of 7 seconds
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Gas Reactor: MAGNOX, UNGG
Origin: MAGNOX (UK), UNGG (France), etc.� Graphite moderated
� Cooled by CO2
� Fuel: natural uranium in metallic form, in a cladding of magnesium alloy
CO2 replaced He (first choice) : less expensive
Graphite as moderator� Good slowing-down properties and small neutron absorption
� Large dimensions needed for optimal moderation � very large reactor cores
� The graphite degrades due to the neutron irradiation
The accumulated energy (Wigner energy) must be released by a tempering of the graphite matrix
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Advanced Gas Reactor (AGR)
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Advanced Gas Reactor (AGR)
Goal: higher thermal efficiency (power)
� Higher fuel temperatures
� MAGNOX metallic uranium has bad swelling properties � UO2 pellets as fuel � pellets in stainless steel cladding � slightly enriched fuel up to 2.5-3.5%.
Coolant CO2
� Circulates through the core
� Reaches temperatures up to 650°C
� Goes by tubes to the steam generator located outside the core (but inside the concrete and confinement)
Control rods penetrate the moderator
Second scram system: nitrogen injection in the core coolant
AGRs not economically competitive with PWRs and BWRs
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Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR)
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Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR)
• The most well-known design: CANDU (Canada)
• Fuel: natural uranium dioxide
• Moderator: Heavy Water in a big pool (calandria)
• Primary Coolant: Heavy Water under high pressure circulating in tubes traversing the calandria which contain the fuel
• Maximum Water temperature = 290 °C
• Primary coolant generates steam in secondary system to drive the turbines
• The design with pressurized tubes allows the refueling of the reactor core during operation
• One assembly of 37 fuel pins and half a meter length (fuel pellet in a cladding of zircalloy); one channel is filled with 12 assemblies in a row
• The control rods penetrate the core vertically
• A second emergency system consists of adding gadolinium to the moderator
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Light Water Graphite Reactor (RBMK)
• Russian design first foreseen to produce military plutonium
• Later modified for electricity production
• The core consists of pressurized tubes of 7m length which traverse the graphite (moderator)
• Cooling: boiling water at a maximum temperature of 290°C, as in a BWR.
• The fuel is slightly enriched uranium oxide put in assemblies of 3.5m length.
• Inconvenience of the design: moderation largely due to the graphite.
In case of increase of the boiling and hence the bubble fraction, cooling capacity significantly reduced with no feedback effect on the core reactivity.
On top of that, neutron absorption in the coolant is also reduced => positive reactivity coefficient
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Light Water Graphite Reactor (RBMK)
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• Originally designed for the production of fissile material from
fertile isotopes = breeding
� 1 neutron to keep the chain reaction going
� 1 neutron for the conversion of a fertile nuclide into a fissile nuclide
� fast reactor with Pu
• No dedicated moderation, although some results from the fact that the fuel is in the form of oxides or carbides
U-235 Pu-239
n thermal 2.07 2.09
n fast 2.18 2.74
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Fast Breeder Reactors (FBR)
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• Coolant (liquid Na) is not a moderator:
Advantages
�Good heat transfer coefficient, compact core
�High boiling point under atmospheric pressure: 900 °C
�Hydraulic properties close to those of water
�Non-corrosive for most steels if the oxygen content remains low
� Disadvantages
�Large affinity of sodium for oxygen: all core reloading must be done under inert atmosphere
�Sodium reacts exothermically with water
�Sodium becomes highly radioactive-> intermediate cooling system needed
�Relatively large positive void coefficient
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2. Installed Capacity
and Generation
Nuclear Power Generation
APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear – Rio de Janeiro 27 Novembro 2008
Present Energy Scene
Final Energy Consumption
Kg ep/year ihnabitant
Share of Electricity in total ~18%
Share of nuclear in Electrivcity ~17%
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Installed Capacity and Generation
APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear – Rio de Janeiro 27 Novembro 2008
Total 435 NPPs ���� 364,000 MWe (252 PWRs; 93 BWRs)
Nuclear Power Plants in the World
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Installed Capacity and Generation
Nuclear Power Plants in operation
367.684440Total
29.04759Others <4.000MW
338.637381Sub total
224.8846Taiwan
575.7287Belgium
36.5879China
237.5849Spain
528.85710Sweden
1911.85223UK
1512.08017Canada
5113.16815Ucrania
3816.84020Corea
3220.30317Germany
1621.74331Russia
2947.70055Japan
7763.47359France
2097.838103USA
%MW-
Sharein mix
(generation)
Installedpower
N°ofunitsCountry
0,0
10,0
20,0
30,0
40,0
50,0
60,0
PWR
VVER
BWR PHWR
CANDU
GCR,
AGR,
MAGNOX
LWGR
(RMBK)
FBR
Share (%) of reactors in operation by type
APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear – Rio de Janeiro 27 Novembro 2008
Nuclear Generation: Historical Perspective
Nuclear plants installation stagnates for 20 years by cause of:• Rise of anti-nuclear political conscience nourished by the spectrum of military use;
• High adverse sensitivity of public opinion, after TMI (1979) and Chernobyl (1986) accidents;
• Deep transformations in Eastern Europe countries political order;
• Recession period for mature economies, with volatile long term planning of electricity needs;
• Deregulation of the electricity sector, in the direction of privatization and market driven models;
• Availability of ready to use primary energy alternatives for new power generation facilities: Natural gas and coal, with short construction periods;
• In countries where the potential exists, hydro electricity is a must;
• Promises (and research efforts) of energy alternatives (renewable: solar, wind, biomass)
Nevertheless, nuclear generation contribution increased since 1990 due to:• Significant increase of average availabilityincrease of average availabilityincrease of average availabilityincrease of average availability and capacity factor of the nuclear plants, as result of improved operation (reliability); outage management (reduction of outage time) and internationalcooperation (quality management) through the WANO (World Association of Nuclear Operators, created in 1986)and the AIEA;
• Increase of the unit powerIncrease of the unit powerIncrease of the unit powerIncrease of the unit power output (+5 to 10%), by retrofitting of new equipment and use of the design reserve margins, after due certification (cost effective upgrades <200 USD/kW) .
APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear – Rio de Janeiro 27 Novembro 2008
Nuclear Generation: Historical Perspective
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55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02
Ca
pa
cit
y F
ac
tor
(%)
Nuclear Generation: Historical Perspective
Increase in average capability of plants in USA (103)
(Corresponds to + 30.000 MW in 20 years)
91,9
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3. Present and Announced Trends
Nuclear Power Generation
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• Continuation of nuclear energy contribution
Life extension of existing plants from original 30 years to up to 60 years Certification of many existing NPP (second generation) for
• Plans for construction of new reactors:
US and Canada: Future replacement of existing capacity / marginal increaseNuclear Power 2010 initiative (by DOE),Intense regulatory activity regarding new site licensing procedures ESP (early site permit)and COL (combined operation license)
Europe and CEI: Future replacement of existing capacity (France, Finland, eastern Europe)Maintain of retrieve decision in others20% reduction of overall installed power
Note: Kyoto CO2 reduction burden shares: France, Finland = 0; Germany = -21%)
Asia and Pacific: Important contribution to growth of electrical powerJapan, Corea, China, India, Pakistan, Indonesia, Corea DPR
• New developments of the nuclear industry � (Generation III and IV reactors)
Present and Announced Trends
APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear – Rio de Janeiro 27 Novembro 2008
G8 on July 8, 2008
� Expand development of nuclear power
� Utmost importance of non proliferation
� 29 countries willing to introduce nuclear power
� Japan (40% nuclear by 2030), US and Russia to expand capacity
APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear – Rio de Janeiro 27 Novembro 2008
Nuclear power generation: Zoom on Europe
• 16 out of 27 countries with nuclear energy
• Future of nuclear energy is not clear at national level :
� 4 countries decided to phase out (Belgium, Germany, Italy and Sweden)
� Italy revisiting its choice
� Austria strongly opposed
� Netherlands has extended the lifetime of its NPP by 20 years (2033)
� One new NPP in operation in 2007 (Romania)
� United Kingdom in the move
� (At least) 6 countries decided to build new NPPs
Finland (1 EPR in progress + 1 ) France (1 EPR)
Slovakia (2 VVER440) Romania (2 Candu)
Bulgaria (2 VVER1000) United Kingdom (TBD)
• European Union very cautious, but recent initiatives in the nuclear field :
� European Nuclear Energy Forum
� High Level Group on Nuclear Safety and Waste Management
� Sustainable Nuclear Energy Technology Platform
APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear – Rio de Janeiro 27 Novembro 2008
New Nuclear Power Plants
450030000Turkey
2850395019591Iran
00006921Argentina
001245100Brasil
00950100Ucrania
00257045151Canada
0014782128661Japan
001600100Finland
58.1457341.4723917.43123Total
9.6601330015461Others
484856041172381688522Sub total
200020000Indonesia
1316024003.6388India
00002.7002Taiwan
1500019800081.9002China
0095019501Corea DPR
009200800Corea
9375892513.6004Russia
160010000France
00001.0651USA
MW-MW-MW-
ProposedAt Project stageUnder constructionCountry
APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear – Rio de Janeiro 27 Novembro 2008
Nuclear power is part of the solution
• Important factor of stability
�Security of supply
� Diversity of reliable uranium supply sources
� No link with the volatility of fuel prices
�Stable, predictable and competitive costs
�Major contribution to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions
• Saving of fossil fuels
• Rational use of primary natural resources
• CO2 - free
�countries with nuclear and hydro obtain the best results in CO2 emissions
�500 million tons saved each year in Europe, as much as
� the Kyoto target for the EU (8 % below the 1990 level)
� the emissions from about 3/4 of all the private cars in the EU
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4. New Evolutionary Reactors: Generation III and III+
Nuclear Power Generation
APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear – Rio de Janeiro 27 Novembro 2008
Early Prototype
Reactors
Generation I
- Shippingport
- Dresden, Fermi I
- Magnox
Generation II
- LWR-PWR, BWR
- CANDU PHWR
- VVER/RBMK
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030
Generation IV
- Highly Economical
- Enhanced Safety
- Minimal Waste
- Proliferation Resistant
- ABWR
- System 80+
- AP600
- EPR
Advanced LWRs
Generation III
Gen I Gen II Gen III Gen IV
Evolutionary
Designs Offering
Improved Economics
Main reactor lines
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Industrial Expansion
Generation IIII +
APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear – Rio de Janeiro 27 Novembro 2008
Large Evolutionary Reactors: Generation III
• Concept
Extrapolation of second generation models (unit power ~1500MW; no major technologic step)
Integration of operation return of experience (including major incidents)
Improved intrinsic safety (passive systems), simplification of auxiliary systems
Higher efficiency and availability with longer fuel charges
Use of proven technologies (fuel, primary components, turbo group, I&C)
• Products: EPR 1500MW (European Project Reactor) by Framatome – Siemens – EDF
AP 1000MW by Westinghouse
ABWR 1350MW by GE Nuclear Energy
System 80+ (CE > ABB > Westinghouse BNFL)
CANDU 9
KNGR, VVER-91
• Projects: 1 EPR in Finland, Olkiluoto 3, for TVO
1 EPR in France for EDF
4 ABWR built (in service since 1995)
APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear – Rio de Janeiro 27 Novembro 2008
GENERATION III +: Evolutionary concepts
• Passive safety components
� Natural circulation core cooling
� Convective cooling of safety containment
� Heat removal by radiation
• AP1000, ESBWR, SWR-1000, PBMR, GT-MHR,
• APWR, EP-1000, AC-600, MS-600, V-407, V-392, JSBWR,
• JSPWR, HSBWR, CANDU-6, CANDU-9, AHWR, ...
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Inovative Small and Medium Reactors (SMR) – Generation III+
2nd Latin American Energy Integration CongressSantiago do Chile 26 October 2005
ChinaINETPebble Bed ModularHTR160HTR-PM
Pre-certifiedSouth AfricaEskomPebble Bed ModularHTR165PBMR
Pre-certifiedUSA / Russia
General Atomics / Minatom
Gas Turbine ModularHeliumHTR285GTMHR
High Temperature Gas Reactor
RussiaOKBMIPWR35KLT 40
Rep CoreaKAERISystem Integrated ModularIPWR100SMART
JapanJAERIIPWR100MRX
ArgentinaCNEA & INVAPModularIPWR300CAREM 300
FranceTechnicatomeIPWR300NP 300
Pre-certifiedUSAWestinghouse BNFLIntern. Reactor Inovative &
SecureIPWR335IRIS 300
Integrated Presurized Water Reactor
Certification by NRC
CountryDeveloperCharacteristicTypePower
MWName
Inovative Small and Medium Reactors:
Generation III+
APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear – Rio de Janeiro 27 Novembro 200842
5. EPRs in Western Europe
Nuclear Power Generation
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Evolutionary Pressurized Reactor (EPR)
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Reactor
vessel
Turbine buildingReactor building
4 safety buildings4 x 100%
EPR: Active safety system fourfold redundant
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EPR: Double containment
– concrete –– steel –– concrete –
resists the impact of a large airplane
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EPR: Passively cooled ‘Core catcher’
Cooling water
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EPR’s in Western Europe
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Olkiluoto EPR (September 2008)
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5. AP1000
Nuclear Power Generation
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AP1000: Advanced Passive PWR1117 MWe (Westinghouse – USA)
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AP1000: Passive safety systems:less components
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high-pressure cooling (nat. circ.)
medium-pressure cooling (nat. circ.)
low-pressure cooling(gravity)
Heat exchanger(natural circulation)
Passive emergency cooling of safety systems
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AP1000: Passive emergency cooling of containment
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Generation III Generation IIIGeneration III Generation III++
ABWR EPR AP1000 ESBWR PBMR HTR-PM
Type BWR PWR PWR BWR HTR HTR
Generation III III III+ III+ III+ III+
Power 1350 1600 1150 1550 165 190
US certification yes no a) yes no b) no no
In use 3 0 0 0 0 0
In construction 3 1 0 0 0 0
Dwell time 72 hour 30 min 72 hour 24 hour ∞ ∞
Core melt frequency (1/year) 2⋅10-7 1.3⋅10-6 4⋅10-7 3⋅10-8 0 0
‘core catcher’ no yes <24 hour <24 hour not needed not needed
Construction time (yr) 4 4 3 3 2 ?
Technical lifetime (yr) 60 60 60 60 ? ?
GEN III and III+: Overview
APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear – Rio de Janeiro 27 Novembro 200855
6. Generation IV:
Innovative concepts
Nuclear Power Generation
APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear – Rio de Janeiro 27 Novembro 2008
• International initiatives for joint development:
IV Generation International Forum (GIF)
International Project on Inovative
Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles (INPRO)
• Targets and criteria:
Economic competitiveness
Safety and reliability
Non proliferation (minimum waste; full recycle of burnt fuel (*))
Multiple use: Electrical power, industrial heat, desalination, hydrogen vector
• Extension of primary energy reserves
Fast Breeder Reactors (*), capable of burning the Uranium fission sub product Pu,
would multiply by 60 or 100 the energy generation capability of the present fuels.
Inovative Large Reactors: Generation IV
APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear – Rio de Janeiro 27 Novembro 2008
Sustainability
� Long-term availability of fuel and effective utilization of fuel
� minimizing the amount and toxicity of discharged fuel and other high level radioactive products
� increasing the proliferation resistance of the fuel cycle
Safety & Reliability
� Very low likelihood and degree of reactor core damage by means of additional passive features and increased intrinsic safety,
Economics
� capital costs
� O&M costs
� fuel cycle costs,
� decommissioning & decontamination costs,
� overall project duration : construction schedule, capacity factor, life time
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Inovative Large Reactors: Generation IV
Target Criteria
APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear – Rio de Janeiro 27 Novembro 2008
6 concepts selected for evaluation in GIF IV
Feasibility Performance
Sodium Cooled Fast Reactor SFR
Very High Temperature Reactor VHTR
Supercritical Water Cooler Reactor SCWR
Lead-Alloy Cooled Reactor LFR
Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor GFR
Molten Salt Reactor MSR
Therm - Fast / Open - Closed
Fast / Open Fuel Cycle
Fast / Closed Cycle
Thermal / Open Cycle
Therm / Closed
Fast / Closed Cycle
Inovative Large Reactors: Generation IV
APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear – Rio de Janeiro 27 Novembro 2008
Generation IV nuclear systems
Sodium Fast Reactor
Lead Fast Reactor
Molten Salt Reactor (fast?)
Gas Fast Reactor
Supercritical Water-cooled
Reactor
Very High Temperature Reactor
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GEN IV proposed designs
neutron spectrum
(fast/ thermal)
coolantTemp(°C)
pressure* fuelfuel
cyclesize(s)(MWe)
uses
GFR Fast helium 850 High U-238closed, on site
288electricity
& hydrogen
LFR Fast Pb-Bi 550-800 Low U-238closed, regional
50-150**300-400
1200
electricity& hydrogen
MSR epithermalfluoride
salts700-800 Low UF in salt closed 1000
electricity& hydrogen
SFR Fast sodium 550 LowU-238 &
MOXclosed
150-500500-1500
electricity
SCWRthermal or
fastwater 510-550 Very high UO2
open (thermal)closed (fast)
1500 electricity
VHTR thermal helium 1000 HighUO2
prism or pebbles
open 250hydrogen
& electricity
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7. Fuel Management for Sustainability
Nuclear Power Generation
APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear – Rio de Janeiro 27 Novembro 2008
Reserves
FRONT ENDNatural U supply evolution
Estimation of the resources
Reasonably Assured Resources
(RAR) – price ranges 1 and 2
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APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear – Rio de Janeiro 27 Novembro 2008
• Uranium Mining and Extraction �(~50% of demand)
• Uranium 235 Enrichment
Ultra centrifugation technology dominates
Important over capacity available (i.e. in Russia)
• Other sourcesSupply from stocks
Recovery of tails (spent fuel)
Conversion of HEU to LEU as per 1994 agreement (USA/Russia), until 2013
ton/year35.000Total production
4%Others
3%USA
8%Central Africa
9%South Africa
20%CEI
21%Australia
35%Canada
ShareCountry/ Region
Fuel Front End: Sensitive to Proliferation
APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear – Rio de Janeiro 27 Novembro 2008
Europe USA
FRONT ENDPWR Fuel Manufacturers (2007)
Timeframe : From mining to core loading : 27 months
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APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear – Rio de Janeiro 27 Novembro 2008
Source: Julian Steyn, EDI, Nuclear Engineering International Sept 2007
World Conversion supply and demand (thousand tonnes U as UF6)
Supplier 2007 2010 2015
Cameco (Canada & UK) 13,7 15,5 15,5
AREVA (France) 14 14 15
ConverDyn (US) 12 14 18
Rosatom (Russia) 5 5,5 10
CNNC (China) 1,5 2,5 2,5
UF6 inventories 20,1 20,8 11
Total supply 66,3 72,3 72
Requirements (ERI ) 59 62-65 67-77
FRONT ENDConversion – world capacities
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Nuclear energy production in the future(2030-2100)?
• Generation II(I): spent fuel waste
• Uranium resource issue
Sustainability of
nuclear energy production
APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear – Rio de Janeiro 27 Novembro 2008
• Reprocessing for MOX (Mixed Oxides) fuel
Adopted by: UK, France, Japan, Russia (partially) and also China and India.
• Waste (HLW) Storage
Intermediate solutions available for nuclear waste storage
Long term solutions in R&D (re-use in breeder reactors or deep geological disposal)
• Manageable volumes1kg of natural Uranium ~ 20.000 kg of coal, with present open cycle burning rate
16 t of processed Uranio = 1.600.00 ton Coal (x 100.000)
1000 MW LWR 25-30 tonnes of spent fuel/year 3 m³/y of vitrified waste
• Security and Safety
Certification of technologies by regulatory agences
AIEA – Consolidation of authority for monitoring, control and certification
Common denominator for safety rules and standards
Non proliferation concern – International and National Safegards / Physical protection
Control / Accounting and Monitoring of fuel cycle materials
Fuel Back End: Sensitive to Proliferation
Thank you