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SOCIOLOGYRichard T. Schaefer

Stratification by Gender

12

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12. Stratification by Gender

• The Social Construction of Gender • Explaining Inequality by Gender• Women: The Oppressed Majority• Intersection of Gender, Race, and Class• Social Policy and Gender Stratification

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The Social Construction of Gender

• Gender Roles– Expectations regarding proper

behavior, attitudes, and activities of males and females– Evident in work and in how we react to

others

– Most people do not display strictly “masculine” or “feminine” qualities all the time

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The Social Construction of Gender

• Gender-Role Socialization

• Boys must bemasculine:

– Active– Aggressive– Tough– Daring– Dominant

• Girls must be feminine:

– Soft– Emotional– Sweet– Submissive

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The Social Construction of Gender

• Gender-Role Socialization•Homophobia: fear of and prejudice

against homosexuality

Parents normally first and most crucial agents of socialization

Other adults, older siblings, mass media, religious institutions, and educational institutions also exert important influence

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The Social Construction of Gender

Table 12-1. An Experiment inGender Norm Violation byCollege Students

Source: Nielsen et al. 2000:287

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The Social Construction of Gender

• Gender-Role Socialization– Women’s Gender Roles

• Traditional gender roles have restricted females more than males

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The Social Construction of Gender

• Women’s and Men’s Gender Roles– Men’s Gender Roles• Attitudes toward parenting changing, but

studies show little change in tradition male gender role

• Boys who successfully adapt to cultural standards of masculinity may grow up to be inexpressive men who cannot share their feelings with others

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The Social Construction of Gender

• Cross-Cultural Perspective– Gender stratification requires:

• Individual socialization into traditional gender roles within family

• Promotion and support of traditional roles by other social institutions

– Every society has men and women who resist and successfully oppose stereotypes

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Explaining Inequalityby Gender

• The Functionalist View– Gender differentiation contributes to

overall social stability• Instrumentality: emphasis on tasks, a

focus on more distant goals, and concern for external relationship between one’s family and other social institutions

•Expressiveness: concern for maintenance of harmony and internal emotional affairs of family

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Explaining Inequalityby Gender

• The Conflict Response

– The relationship between men and women traditionally one of unequal power

• The Feminist Perspective– Very discussion of women and society

distorted by exclusion of women from academic thought

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Explaining Inequalityby Gender

• The Interactionist Approach– Study micro level of everyday

behavior• Men more likely than women to:

– Change topics of conversation – Ignore topics chosen by women– Minimize ideas of women– Interrupt women

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Explaining Inequalityby Gender

Table 12-2. Sociological Perspectives on Gender

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Women: The Oppressed Majority

• Sexism and Sex Discrimination– Sexism: ideology that one sex is

superior to the other• U.S. society run by male-dominated

institutions

The power and privilege men enjoy are no guarantee of well-being

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Women: The Oppressed Majority

• Sexual Harassment– Occurs when work benefits are

contingent on sexual favors or when touching, lewd comments, or appearance of pornographic material creates a “hostile environment” in the workplace

Must be understood in the context of continuing prejudice and discrimination against women

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Women: The Oppressed Majority

• The Status of Women Worldwide– Women’s and men’s worlds differ in

access to education and work opportunities

• Women in the Workforce of the U.S.– Women’s participation in paid labor

force in U.S. increased steadily throughout the 20th century

• Census bureau found 2 occupations out of 821 in which women typically earn about 1% more income than men

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Women: The Oppressed Majority

Figure 12-1. GenderInequality inIndustrial Nations

Source: Fuwa 2004:757

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Women: The Oppressed Majority

Figure 12-2. Trends in U.S. Women’s Participation in the Paid Labor Force, 1890—2003

Sources: Bureau of the Census 1975; 2004a:396

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Women: The Oppressed Majority

Table 12-3. U.S. Women inSelected Occupations, 2003;Women as Percentage of AllWorkers in the Occupation

Source: Bureau of the Census 2004a:385—388

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Women: The Oppressed Majority

• The Social Consequences of Women’s Employment– Second Shift: women work outside

the home followed by child care, sometimes elder care, and housework

Women spend 15 fewer hours each week in leisure activities than their husbands

• Women: Emergence of a Collective Consciousness

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Women: The Oppressed Majority

Figure 12-3. Why Leave Work?

Source: Hewlett and Luce 2005:45

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Intersection of Gender,Race, and Class

• Women must add the effects of their race and social class to disadvantages of being a woman– Activist minority women do not agree

on which goal they should give priority to:• Gender equality• Racial, ethnic equality• Class issues

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Social Policy and Gender Stratification

• The Battle over Abortion in a Global Perspective– The Issue

• In 1973, the U.S. Supreme Court granted women the right to terminate pregnancies

• Pro-choice groups believe women have right to make decisions about their bodies

• Pro-life believe life begins at the moment of conception, so abortion is an act of murder

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Social Policy and Gender Stratification

• The Battle over Abortion in a Global Perspective– The Setting

• Parental authority becoming important issue

• RU-486 “day-after” pills approved

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Social Policy and Gender Stratification

• The Battle over Abortion in a Global Perspective– Sociological Insights

• Gender and social class defining issues surrounding abortion

– Feminists tend to support abortion; antiabortion activists tend to believe men and women are different

– Poor have less access to legal abortions

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Social Policy and Gender Stratification

• The Battle over Abortion in a Global Perspective– Policy Initiatives

• Supreme court continues to hear cases• Most decided on a 5-4 basis• Most European nations liberalized

abortion laws beginning in the 1970s• Through 1980s and 1990s, Congress

often blocked foreign aid to countries that might use the funds to encourage abortion

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Social Policy and Gender Stratification

Figure 12-4. Restrictions on Public Funding for Abortion

Source: NARAL Pro-Choice America 2005

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Social Policy and Gender Stratification

Figure 12-5. The Global Divide on Abortion

Sources: Developed by author based on Gonnut 2001; United Nations Population Division 1998, 2004