Respiratory System Nose and mouth Pharynx –Oropharynx –Nasopharynx.
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Transcript of Respiratory System Nose and mouth Pharynx –Oropharynx –Nasopharynx.
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Respiratory System
•Nose and mouth
•Pharynx
–Oropharynx–Nasopharyn
x
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The Upper Airway
NasopharynxNasopharynx
OropharynxOropharynx
EpiglottisEpiglottis
Vocal cordsVocal cords
TracheaTrachea
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دمی عبورهوای اصلی مسیر بینیو کردن گرم وظیفه و بوده
دارد را ان کردن مرطوبیا و پولیپ بوسیله انکه مگر
مسدود مسیر این حاد عفونتهایباشد شده
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سوم دو عادی تنفس یک درعبور در هوائی راه کل مقاومتمی ایجاد بویائی مجاری از هوا
شود
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PHARANX
شده • شروع پائین طرف به بینی خلف ازغضروف در یابد و می خاتمه کریکوئید
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LARYNX
تا • و شده شروع گردنی مهره سومین ازمی امتداد گردنی مهره ششمین
تولید( C3-C6یابد) عضو یک عنوان به وراه کننده محافظت و و صدا کننده
آسپیراسیون پنومونی از تحتانی هوائی. شود می شمرده
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TRACHEA
ای • لوله ساختمان یکششمین از و بوده
شروع گردنی مهرهدرمحاذات و شده
کمری مهره پنجمینT5 و راست شاخه به
شود می تقسیم چپ
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Trachea and Bronchi
TracheaTrachea
Right Right BronchusBronchus
Left Left BronchusBronchus
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Respiratory System
•Epiglottis•Trachea •Larynx•Cricoid
cartilage
•Bronchi
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Respiratory System
•Lungs •Diaphrag
m
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The Process•Inhalation
(active)–Diaphragm
contracts•Increases the
size of the thoracic
cavity
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The Process•Exhalation
(passive)–Diaphragm
relaxes•Decreasing
the size of the thoracic cavity
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Respiratory Physiology
•Alveolar/Capillary exchange
–Oxygen rich air enters the alveoli on inspiration
–Oxygen poor blood in the capillaries passes to the
alveoli
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P5-11
Alveolar-Capillary Interface
AlveolusAlveolus
CapillaryCapillary
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C4-20
The Alveoli
AlveoliAlveoli
BronchioleBronchiole
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Adequate Breathing
•Rhythm–Regular
•Normal rate–Adult 12-20/min–Child 15-30/min–Infant 25-50/min
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Adequate Breathing
•Quality–Breath sounds
•Present and equal–Chest expansion
•Adequate and equal
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Adequate Breathing
•Quality–Effort of breathing–Depth (Tidal Volume)
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Inadequate Breathing
•Rate –Outside the normal
ranges
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Inadequate Breathing •Depth
•Skin
–Cyanotic–cool/clammy
•Muscle retractions–Often seen in children
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Inadequate Breathing
•Quality–Breath sounds
•Diminished or absent–Chest expansion
•Unequal or inadequate–Increased breathing effort
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Inadequate Breathing
•Nasal flaring–Often seen in children
•Agonal Respiration’s–Gasping respirations
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OxygenOxygen is theis the most most
importantimportant
medicationmedication you can you can
give a patient in give a patient in
respiratory respiratory
distress!distress!
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The tongue may obstruct The tongue may obstruct the airway in the airway in unresponsive patients.unresponsive patients.
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Opening the Airway
•Head tilt, chin lift–No suspected neck
injuries
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Head-Tilt, Chin-Lift Maneuver
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Opening the Airway
•Jaw-thrust–Suspect spinal injuries
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Jaw-Thrust Maneuver
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Jaw ThrustJaw Thrust
Done when spinal injury is suspected.Done when spinal injury is suspected.
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Suctioning Techniques
•Purpose–Remove blood, liquids
and food particles from the airway
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Suctioning Techniques
•Types of units
–Mounted–Portable
•Electric•Hand
operated
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Suctioning Techniques
•Suction Catheters–Hard/rigid
•Used to suction mouth/oropharynx
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Hard/Rigid Catheter
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Suctioning Techniques
•Soft (French)–Useful for suctioning
nasopharynx
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Soft/French Catheter
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Airway Adjuncts
•Oropharyngeal Airway–Used on all unconscious
patient’s without a gag reflex
–Must be correctly sized•Corner of mouth to
bottom of the ear lobe
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Oral AirwaysOral Airways
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OP Airway
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Alternative Method for Alternative Method for InsertionInsertion
Use tongue blade and insert Use tongue blade and insert with tip facing floor of patient’s with tip facing floor of patient’s mouth.mouth.
Use tongue blade and insert Use tongue blade and insert with tip facing floor of patient’s with tip facing floor of patient’s mouth.mouth.
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Airway Adjuncts
•Nasopharyngeal Airway–Less likely to stimulate
gag reflex–Select proper size
•Tip of nose to the tip of the ear lobe
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Airway Adjuncts
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Nasal Airway Insertion in AdultsNasal Airway Insertion in Adults continuedcontinued
Lubricate with Lubricate with a a water-soluble water-soluble gel.gel.
Lubricate with Lubricate with a a water-soluble water-soluble gel.gel.
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Nasopharyngeal airways
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Any patient in respiratory distress should receive high-concentration oxygen.
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Common Common
Sizes Sizes
of Oxygen of Oxygen
CylindersCylinders
Size DSize D
Size ESize E
Size MSize M
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Three Types of Oxygen Regulators
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Attaching the Regulator continued
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Attaching the Regulator continued
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Oxygen Delivery DevicesOxygen Delivery Devices(In order of degree of support)
Nasal Cannula•4% increase in FiO2 for each 1 L of flow (e.g., 4 L flow = 37% or 6 L flow
= 45%)
Face tent
•At most delivers 40% at 10-15 L flow
Ventimask•Small amount of rebreathing
•8 L flow = 40%, 15 L flow = 60%
Nonrebreather mask•Attached reservoir bag allows 100% oxygen to enter mask with
inlet/outlet ports to allow exhalation to escape - does not guarantee 100% delivery.
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Nasal Cannula
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Indications for the Nasal Cannula Indications for the Nasal Cannula
Patients who will not tolerate a mask
Medical patients without respiratory compromise
Stable cardiac patients without signs or symptoms of an acute myocardial infarction
Patients with chronic pulmonary disease who are not in respiratory distress
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Mouth-to-Mask•Should be connected to
oxygen•Provides 50% oxygen
concentration
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Mouth-to-Mask
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Equipment for Oxygen Delivery
•Non-rebreather mask (NRB)
–Best way to deliver high concentration of oxygen
12-15 lpm–Up to 90% concentration
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NRB
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Bag-Valve-Mask Issues
•Provides less volume than mouth-to-mask
•More effective with two people
•Available in infant, child, adult sizes
–Remember CPR?
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Bag-Valve-Mask (BVM)
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Airw
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Mask Ventilation Requires …
•Patent airway
•Proper fitting mask
•Good technique
•OPA/NPA
•PPV/Oxygen
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Effective Artificial Ventilations
•Rise and fall of chest•Regular ventilation rate
–Adults-12/min –Children/Infants-20/min
•Heart rate returns to normal
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Basic Airway Management
•Head tilt/chin lift
•Jaw thrust
•Mandibular
displacement
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Mask VentilationMask VentilationMask ventilation crucial,
especially in patients who are difficult to intubate
Sniffing position with tight mask fit optimal
May require two hands
Mask ventilation crucial, especially in patients who are
difficult to intubate
Sniffing position with tight mask fit optimal
May require two hands
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Difficult Ventilation•MOANS
M = difficult mask seal )full beard(
O = obese or airway obstruction
A = advanced age
N = no teeth
S = snore or stiff lungs
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2 Handed BVM
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Indications for IntubationIndications for Intubation
Depressed mental status
•Head trauma patients with GCS 8 or less is an indication for intubation
-Associated with increased intracranial pressure
-Associated with need for operative intervention
-Avoid hypoxemia and hypercarbia which can increase morbidity and mortality
•Drug overdose patients may require 24 - 48 hours airway control.
Upper airway edema•Inhalation injuries
•Ludwig’s angina
•Epiglottitis
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Underlying Lung DiseaseUnderlying Lung Disease
Chronic obstructive lung disease•.
Pulmonary embolus.
Restrictive lung disease
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Airway Exam
•Thyromental Distance•( 6cm / 3 FB)
•Jaw Subluxation
•Mouth Opening )3 FB(
•Atlanto-Occipital Extension )30 degrees(
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Infant/Child Anatomy Considerations
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LARGE TONGUE
SMALLERMOUTH
Infant/Child Anatomy Considerations
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Airway Anatomy Suggesting Difficult Airway Anatomy Suggesting Difficult IntubationIntubation
Interincisor )between front teeth( distance < 3 cm )two finger tips(
Thyromental distance < 7 cm•tip of mandible to hyoid bone (three finger breaths)
Neck extension < 35 degrees
Narrow palate )less than three finger breaths(
Mallampati score class III or IV
Stiff joint syndrome•About one third of diabetics characterized by short stature, joint rigidity, and tight waxy skin
•Positive prayer sign with an inability to oppose fingers
No sign is foolproof to indicate intubation difficulty
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Mallampati ScoreMallampati Score
Class I: Uvula/tonsillar pillars visible
Class II: Tip of uvula/pillars hidden by tongue
Class III: Only soft palate visible
Class IV: Only hard palate visible
Den Herder, et al. Laryngoscope. 2005;115(4):735-739.
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Sedatives In The Ideal World
•Safe•Painless route of administration•Rapid predictable onset•Predictable duration•Reversible•Absence of cardio/respiratory/CNS depression
There are no drugs available which achieve these ideals!
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4 Questions
.1Can I oxygenate this patient with a BVM?
.2Can I ventilate with a supra-glottic device )SGD( i.e. LMA?
.3Can I place a tube in the trachea?
.4Can I secure a surgical airway?
Murphy et al CJA 2005 52:3
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Can I ventilate this patient?? •Beard
•Obese
•Old
•Teeth
•Sleep apnea
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Induction AgentsInduction Agents
Sodium Thiopental•3 - 5 mg/kg IV
•Profound hypotension in patients with hypovolemia, histamine release, arteritis
•Dose should be decreased in both renal and hepatic failure.
Etomidate•0.1 - 0.3 mg/kg IV
•Lower dose range for elderly and hypovolemic patients
•Hemodynamic stability, myoclonus
•Caution should be exercised as even one dose causes adrenal suppression due to similar steroid hormone structure.
•Unlikely to have prolonged effect in organ failure
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Induction AgentsInduction Agents (cont'd)
Propofol•2 - 3 mg/kg IV
•Hypotension, especially in patients with systolic heart dysfunction, bradycardia, and even heart block
•Unlikely to have prolonged effect in organ failure
Ketamine•1 - 4 mg/kg IV, 5 - 10 mg/kg IM
•Stimulates sympathetic nervous system
•Requires atropine due to stimulated salivation and midazolam for potential of dysphoria
•Avoid in patients with loss of autoregulation and closed head injury
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Midazolam (Versed®)
•Short acting benzodiazepine
•used for sedation, anxiolysis, and amnesia
•also used as an induction agent for GA and as an adjunct to regional anesthesia.
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Midazolam
Onset: 1-3 minutes
Peak Effect: 3-5 minutes
Duration of action: 45-60 minutes
Adverse reactions: Respiratory depression especially with opioids.
•Minimal hemodynamic effects
• Antagonist: Flumazenil
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Fentanyl
•It is a synthetic opioid
•100 times more potent than morphine
•Mu1 receptors produce analgesia and physical dependence
•Mu2 receptors produce respiratory depression, nausea, vomiting, constipation and bradycardia
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Fentanyl
•Onset: Immediate response
•Duration of action: < 60 minutes
•Half life: 2-4 hrs.
•Increased risk of respiratory depression when given with Benzodiazepines
•Antagonist: Naloxone
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Topical Anesthesia
Each spray = 10 mg of lidocaine Maximum dose = 5 mg/kgi.e. for 70 kg patient =35 sprays!
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Neuromuscular BlockersNeuromuscular Blockers
Succinylcholine•1 - 2 mg/kg IV, 4 mg/kg IM
•Avoid in patients with malignant hyperthermia, > 24 hours out from burn or trauma injury, upper motor neuron injury, and preexisting hyperkalemia
Rocuronium •0.6 - 1.2 mg/kg, highest dose required for rapid sequence
•Hemodynamically stable, 10% renal elimination
Vecuronium•0.1 mg/kg
•Hemodynamically stable, 10% renal elimination
Cisatricurium•0.2 mg/kg
•Mild histamine release, Hoffman degradation, not prolonged in renal or hepatic failure
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Position Your Patient•Sniffing Position
•Flexion of lower cervical spine
•Extension of A-O joint
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Sniffing PositionSniffing Position
Align oral, pharyngeal, and laryngeal axes tobring epiglottis and vocal cords into view.
Hirsch N, et al. Anesthesiology. 2000;93(5):1366.
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In-line Stabilization
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Laryngoscopy
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Time to intubate. . . •Basic Equipment
–PPV (BVM ventilation)–Oxygen–ETT–Suction–Laryngoscope–LMA
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گذار نا یلوله و داخل تهاجمی یترين یيادگير قابل مهارت مشكل
راه آمو و دهی سرویس در زشاست هوائی
گذار نا یلوله و داخل تهاجمی یترين یيادگير قابل مهارت مشكل
راه آمو و دهی سرویس در زشاست هوائی
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اصل مهم و اساسي در حفظیالرنگوسكوپ
اكسيژناسيون در حين استیالرنگوسكوپ
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گذاري استريل عمل يك لولهی آلودگ واز گرديده محسوب
لوله الرنگوسكوپ تراشه واجتناب نمود بايد
گذاري استريل عمل يك لولهی آلودگ واز گرديده محسوب
لوله الرنگوسكوپ تراشه واجتناب نمود بايد
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Endotracheal (ET) Intubation Endotracheal(ET)Intubation Allows control over the airway
Minimizes the risk of aspiration
Enables oxygen delivery directly to the lungs
Can be used as a medication route for ALS
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دو در اصل الرنگوسكوپ قابل یجزءاست تشخيص
دو در اصل الرنگوسكوپ قابل یجزءاست تشخيص
توليد كه دسته• اصلي استی انرژ محل
كه • اصل تيغه است یمحل نور توليد
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The LaryngoscopeLightLight
HandleHandle
BladeBlade(curved)(curved)
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What Laryngoscope?
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Laryngoscope Blades and Endotracheal Laryngoscope Blades and Endotracheal TubesTubes
Miller blade: End of blade should be under epiglottis
Mac blade: End of blade should be placed in front of epiglottis in valecula
ETT for Fastrach LMA
Pediatric uncuffed ETT
ETT for blind nasal
Standard ETT
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What Laryngoscope?
صاف تيغه•
خميده • تيغه
صاف تيغه•
خميده • تيغه
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تيغه با صاف الرنگوسكوپ
اپ • بهتر گلوت یديد
به نياز• راهنما كمتر
اپ • بهتر گلوت یديد
به نياز• راهنما كمتر
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TheThe straight bladestraight blade lifts the lifts the
epiglottis.epiglottis.
EpiglottisEpiglottis
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خميده تيغه با الرنگوسكوپ
بهتر • ديد زاويه
به آسيب• گلوت یاپ كمتر
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TheThe curvedcurved bladeblade is placed in is placed in the the vallecula.vallecula.
EpiglottisEpiglottis
ValleculaVallecula
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Endotracheal Tube
Inflation valvePilot balloon
15 mmadapter
Hollowshaft
Inflatable Inflatable cuffcuff
Murphy’s Murphy’s eyeeye
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What Size Endotracheal Tube?
•Adult male•7.5-8.5
•Adult female•6.5-7.5
•Pediatric•4 + AGE/4
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Intubation by Direct Intubation by Direct LaryngoscopyLaryngoscopy
Preoxygenate with 100% Preoxygenate with 100% oxygen.oxygen.Preoxygenate with 100% Preoxygenate with 100% oxygen.oxygen.
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Intubation by Direct LaryngoscopyIntubation by Direct Laryngoscopy continuedcontinued
Position patient’s Position patient’s head.head.Position patient’s Position patient’s head.head.
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It is important
to test the
integrity of the
ETT cuff prior to
intubation.
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Intubation by Direct LaryngoscopyIntubation by Direct Laryngoscopy continuedcontinued
Hold Hold laryngoscope laryngoscope in left hand.in left hand.
Hold Hold laryngoscope laryngoscope in left hand.in left hand.
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Stoy: 33-5C
Intubation by Direct LaryngoscopyIntubation by Direct Laryngoscopy continuedcontinued
Visualize the vocal Visualize the vocal cords through the cords through the glottic opening.glottic opening.
Visualize the vocal Visualize the vocal cords through the cords through the glottic opening.glottic opening.
Curvedblade
Straightblade
VocalVocalcordscords
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Inflate cuff Inflate cuff with 5-10 mL with 5-10 mL of air.of air.
Inflate cuff Inflate cuff with 5-10 mL with 5-10 mL of air.of air.
Intubation by Direct LaryngoscopyIntubation by Direct Laryngoscopy continuedcontinued
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Intubation by Direct LaryngoscopyIntubation by Direct Laryngoscopy continuedcontinued
Ventilate and Ventilate and confirm tube confirm tube placement.placement.
Ventilate and Ventilate and confirm tube confirm tube placement.placement.
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Intubation by Direct LaryngoscopyIntubation by Direct Laryngoscopy continuedcontinued
Secure tube and Secure tube and continue continue ventilations.ventilations.
Secure tube and Secure tube and continue continue ventilations.ventilations.
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Never take more Never take more than than to intubate. to intubate.
Hint: Hold your breath while intubating - when you need to take a breath, so does the patient!
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Rapid Sequence IntubationRapid Sequence Intubation
Preoxygenate for three to five minutes prior to induction•Wash out nitrogen to avoid premature desaturation during intubation.
Crycoid pressure should be applied from prior to induction until confirmation of appropriate placement.
Succinylcholine 1 - 2 mg/kg IV will achieve intubation conditions in 30 seconds; Rocuronium 1.2 mg/kg IV will
achieve intubation conditions in 45 seconds.•Other muscle relaxants do not produce intubation conditions in less than
60 seconds.
Avoid mask ventilation after induction.•Potentially can inflate stomach
•Use only if necessary to ensure appropriate oxygenation during prolonged intubation.
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Cricoid PressureCricoid Pressure
Cricoid is circumferential cartilage
Pressure obstructs esophagus to prevent
escape of gastric contents
Maintains airway patency
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The Larynx
Thyroid Thyroid cartilagecartilage
Cricoid ringCricoid ring
Cricothyroid Cricothyroid membranemembrane
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Location of the Cricoid Ring
Thyroid Thyroid cartilagecartilage
CRICOID RINGCRICOID RING
Cricothyroid Cricothyroid membranemembrane
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Firm pressure on the Firm pressure on the cricoid cricoid ringring collapses the collapses the esophagus.esophagus.
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The thyroid cartilage is more difficult to locate in :
The thyroid cartilageis more difficult to locate in :
Obese patients
Women
Children
Infants
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Graded Views on IntubationGraded Views on Intubation
Grade 1: Full glottis visibleGrade 2: Only posterior commissure
Grade 3: Only epiglottisGrade 4: No glottis structures are visible
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Right mainstem bronchial intubation is more likely due to anatomy.
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Adult Airway Landmarks Adult Airway Landmarks 15 cm from front teeth to vocal cords
20 cm from front teeth to sternal notch
25 cm from front teeth to carina
22 cm from front teeth to tip of a properly positioned ET tube
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Intubation Confirmation! •Bronchoscopy, direct visualization,
carbon dioxide•Auscultation, compliance, condensation,
chest wall excursion•CXR
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Confirmation of PlacementConfirmation of PlacementDirect visualization
Humidity fogging the endotracheal tube
End tidal CO2 which is maintained after > 5 breaths
•Low cardiac output results in decreased delivery of CO2
Refill in 5 seconds of self-inflating bulb at the end of the endotracheal tube
Symmetrical chest wall movement
Bilateral breath sounds
Maintenance of oxygenation by pulse oximetry
Absence of epigastric auscultation during ventilation
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An unrecognized An unrecognized
esophageal intubation esophageal intubation
will result inwill result in DEATH!DEATH!
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The most dangerous The most dangerous complication is unrecognized complication is unrecognized esophageal placement.esophageal placement.
Esophageal detector device
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Esophageal Detector Device
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The end-tidal carbon dioxide The end-tidal carbon dioxide
(ETCO(ETCO22) detector can help verify ) detector can help verify
ETT placement.ETT placement.
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Pulse oximetery
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Complications of Intubation Complications of Intubation Esophageal intubationChipped teethSoft-tissue trauma
–Lips, tongue, gums, etc.Decreased heart rateHypoxia from prolonged intubation attemptsMainstem intubationVomitingSelf-extubation
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Additional ConsiderationsAdditional Considerations
Always have additional personnel and an experienced provider as backup available for potential failed
intubation
Always have suction available
Never give a muscle relaxant if difficult mask ventilation is demonstrated or expected
Awake intubation should be considered in the following:•If patient is so hemodynamically unstable that induction drugs cannot be
tolerated (topicalize airway)
•If patient has a history or an exam which suggests difficult mask ventilation and/or direct laryngoscopy
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Can’t Intubate/Can’t Ventilate
•Failed laryngoscopic intubations )0.05-0.35%(
•Can’t intubate/can’t ventilate )1:2250(
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Alternative MethodsAlternative MethodsBlind nasal intubation
•Bleeding may cause problems with subsequent attempts.•Contraindicated in patients with facial trauma due to cribiform plate disruption or
CSF leak•Avoid in immune suppressed (i.e., bone marrow transplant)
Eschmann stylet
Fiber optic bronchoscopic intubation•Awake vs. asleep
Laryngeal mask airway•Allows ventilation while bridging to more definitive airway
Retrograde intubation•Through cricothyrotomy
Surgical tracheostomy
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Eschman StyletEschman Stylet
Use especially if Grade III view achieved
Direct laryngoscopy is performed
Place Eschman where trachea is anticipated
May feel tracheal rings against stiffness of stylet
Thread 7.0 or 7.5 ETT over stylet with the
laryngoscope still in place
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Fiberoptic ScopeFiberoptic ScopeEssentially what is used to do a
bronchoscopy
Can be used to thread an endotracheal tube into the
trachea either while the patient is asleep or on an awake
patient with a topicalized airway
Via laryngeal mask airway in place due to inability to intubate
with DL:•Aintree (airway exchange catheter) can
be threaded over the FOB to be placed into trachea upon visualization
•Wire-guided airway exchange catheter can also be used with one more step
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The Laryngeal Mask Airway (LMA)The Laryngeal Mask Airway (LMA)
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LMA PlacementLMA Placement
Guide the LMA along the palate
Eventual position should be underneath the
epiglottis, in front of the tracheal opening, with the
tip in the esophagus
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Laryngeal Mask Airway
•Indication–Alternate to BMV–Difficult airway scenario
•Contraindications –Obese–Reflux–Full stomach
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Retrograde IntubationRetrograde Intubation
Puncture of the cricothyroid membrane
with retrograde passage of a wire to the trachea
Endotracheal tube guided endoscopically over the
wire through the trachea
Catheter through the cricothyroid can be used
for jet ventilation if necessary.
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What is a tracheostomy tube?
•It is an apparatus inserted into an opening created on the trachea
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TracheostomyTracheostomy
Surgical airway through the cervical trachea
Emergent procedure carries risk of bleeding
due to proximity of innominate artery
Can be difficult and time consuming in emergent
situations
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