Problems and Sources in History - Higher Education | Pearson · v B RIEF CONTENTS VOLUME 1 THE...

VO LU M E 2

ASPECTS ofWESTERN CIVILIZATION

Problems and Sources in History

Seventh Edition

Edited by

PERRY M. ROGERS

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Aspects of western civilization : problems and sources in history : volume i / edited by Perry M. Rogers.—7th ed.p. cm.

Includes index.ISBN-13: 978-0-205-70833-8ISBN-10: 0-205-70833-1

1. Civilization, Western—History. 2. Civilization, Western—History—Sources. I. Rogers, Perry McAdow. CB245.A86 2010909'.09821—dc22

200905232510 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN 10: 0-205-70832-3ISBN 13: 978-0-205-70832-1

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B R I E F C O N T E N T S

V O L U M E 1

THE ANCIENT WORLD THROUGH THE REFORMATION

PART I THE FOUNDATIONS OF CIVILIZATION 1

1 Civilization in the Ancient Near East: Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Israel 1

PART II THE GREEK WORLD 35

2 Legend and History: The World of Early Greece 35

3 Democracy and Empire: The Golden Age of Athens 51

4 The Age of Alexander the Great 91

PART III THE ROMAN WORLD 111

5 The Roman Republic: Origins, Breakdown, and Rebirth 111

6 Caesar and Christ 143

7 The Pax Romana and the Decline of Rome 175

PART IV THE MEDIEVAL WORLD 201

8 Icon, Scimitar, and Cross: Early Medieval Civilization (500–1100) 201

9 The Sword of Faith: The High Middle Ages (1100–1300) 232

10 The Waning of the Middle Ages (1300–1450) 269

PART V TRANSITIONS TO THE MODERN WORLD 287

11 The Age of the Renaissance 287

12 The Reformation Era 309

13 “An Embarrassment of Riches”: The Interaction of New Worlds 351

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THE AGE OF THE RENAISSANCE THROUGH THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

PART I FOUNDATIONS OF THE MODERN WORLD 1

1 The Age of Renaissance and Reformation 1

2 “I Am the State”: The Development of Absolutism in England and France 22

3 “Dare to Know!”: The Scientific Revolution 49

4 The Enlightenment and the Revolution of the Mind 65

PART II THE ERA OF REVOLUTION 91

5 “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity!”: The French Revolution 91

6 Paths of Glory: Napoleon and the Romantic Movement 119

7 “A World To Win!”: The Industrial Revolution 137

8 Fatherland: The Power of Nationalism 174

9 “Mark Them with Your Dead!”: The Scramble for Global Empire 195

10 Fin de Siècle: The Birth of the Modern Era 213

PART III THE TWENTIETH CENTURY AND BEYOND 235

11 The Great War (1914–1918) 235

12 The Russian Revolution and the Development of the Soviet State (1917–1939) 262

13 Europe between the Wars: Fascism and the Nazi Rise to Power (1919–1939) 290

14 “The Abyss Also Looks into You”: War and Holocaust (1939–1945) 321

15 The Era of the Superpowers: Cold War Confrontation (1945–1990) 269

16 The Dynamics of Change in the Contemporary World (1990–2010) 406

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THEMATIC CONTENTS xxiiPREFACE xxxvi

PART IFOUNDATIONS OF THE MODERN WORLD 1

1 THE AGE OF RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 1

Section I: The Renaissance Movement 2

The Humanist Movement 3

Oration on the Dignity of Man (1486) PICO DELLA MIRANDOLA 3The Soul of Man (1474) MARSILIO FICINO 4

The Political Life of Florence 5

The Rule of Cosimo de’Medici VESPASIANO 5The Prince: “Everyone Sees What You Appear to Be, Few Perceive What You Are”

NICCOLÒ MACHIAVELLI 6

Section II: The Reformation Era 9

The Lutheran Reformation 11

“How Many Sins Are Committed in a Single Day?” (1517) JOHANN TETZEL 11Salvation through Faith Alone MARTIN LUTHER 12The Ninety-Five Theses (1517) MARTIN LUTHER 13“Here I Stand”: Address at the Diet of Worms (1521) MARTIN LUTHER 14The Edict of Worms (1521) EMPEROR CHARLES V 15

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In the Wake of Luther 16

John Calvin and the Genevan Reformation 16

On the Necessity of Reforming the Church (1544) JOHN CALVIN 17Predestination: Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536) JOHN CALVIN 18

The Catholic Reformation 19

Spiritual Exercises (1548) IGNATIUS LOYOLA 19The Council of Trent: Profession of Faith 20The Tridentine Index of Books (1564) 20

2 “I AM THE STATE”: THE DEVELOPMENT OF ABSOLUTISM IN ENGLAND AND FRANCE 22

The English Revolution (1649–1689) 26

The Origins of Confrontation (1603–1625) 26

Charles I and the Limitations of Royal Authority (1625–1642) 26

The English Civil War (1642–1649) 27

The Struggle for Constitutional Government (1649–1660) 27

“The Mortal God”: Leviathan (1651) THOMAS HOBBES 28The Instrument of Government (December 16, 1653) 30Cromwell Denies the Crown (May 8, 1657) OLIVER CROMWELL 31

THE REFLECTION IN THE MIRROR Oliver Cromwell: The Lord Protector 32“To You Our Country Owes Its Liberties” JOHN MILTON 32“Guilty of Crimes for Which Hell-Fire Is Prepared” EDWARD HYDE OF CLARENDON 34

The Restoration and the Glorious Revolution (1660–1689) 34

“A Force Sufficient to Defend Us from the Violence of Those Evil Counsellors”WILLIAM OF ORANGE 35

The Bill of Rights (1689) 36

The Absolutism of Louis XIV 36

The Theory of Divine-Right Monarchy 37

The Ideal Absolute State (1697) JEAN DOMAT 37Politics and Scripture (1679) JACQUES BÉNIGNE BOSSUET 39

The Sun King and the Practice of Absolute Rule 40

“Vanity Was His Ruin” THE DUKE OF SAINT-SIMON 40Letters to His Heirs: “Allow Good Sense to Act” KING LOUIS XIV 43“A Frightful Plot”: The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes THE DUKE OF SAINT-SIMON 45

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THE ARTISTIC VISION The Palace of Versailles 46The Palace of Versailles: “A Celebration of Greatness” JEAN COLBERT 47Visible Majesty KING LOUIS XIV 48

3 “DARE TO KNOW!”: THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION 49

Science and the Church 51

The Heliocentric Statement (ca. 1520) NICOLAUS COPERNICUS 52On the Movement of the Earth (1543) NICOLAUS COPERNICUS 52Science and the Bible: “They Would Have Us Abandon Reason” (1615) GALILEO GALILEI 53

THE REFLECTION IN THE MIRROR Galileo Absolved: The Resolution 56“Science and Faith Are Both Gifts from God” (1993) POPE JOHN PAUL II 56

The Foundations of Modern Science 58

The Advancement of Learning (1605) SIR FRANCIS BACON 58“I Think, Therefore I Am”: Discourse on Method (1637) RENÉ DESCARTES 59

AGAINST THE GRAIN On the Circulation of the Blood 60“A Motion, As It Were, in a Circle” WILLIAM HARVEY 60

Principles of Analysis—Induction and God: Optics (1704) SIR ISAAC NEWTON 63

4 THE ENLIGHTENMENT AND THE REVOLUTION OF THE MIND 65

Thoughts on the Human Condition and Human Progress 68

The Blank Slate of the Mind: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) JOHN LOCKE 68

AGAINST THE GRAIN On Crimes and Punishments 69“The Greatest Happiness of the Greatest Number” CESARE BECCARIA 69

Thoughts on Religion 71

God—“A Cause Contradicted by Its Effects”: Common Sense (1770) BARON D’HOLBACH 71On Universal Toleration VOLTAIRE 72“If God Did Not Exist, He Would Have to Be Invented” VOLTAIRE 74

Thoughts on Education 74

Introduction to the Encyclopedia (1751) JEAN LE ROND D’ALEMBERT 74“We Did Not Live Entirely in Vain” (1764) DENIS DIDEROT 76

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Thoughts on Government: The Political Framework 77

Second Treatise of Civil Government (1690) JOHN LOCKE 77The Spirit of the Laws (1748) BARON DE MONTESQUIEU 80The Social Contract (1762) JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU 80The Declaration of Independence (1776) THOMAS JEFFERSON 83

Thoughts on Women: The Social Framework 84

Woman: “Especially Constituted to Please Man” JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU 84A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT 85

Thoughts on Commerce: The Economic Framework 87

The Wealth of Nations (1776) ADAM SMITH 87

PART IITHE ERA OF REVOLUTION 91

5 “LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY!”: THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 91

Conditions of Society on the Eve of Revolution 93

Corruption of the French Court MARQUIS D’ARGENSON 93“Ancient Oaks Mutilated by Time” MARQUIS DE BOUILLE 94The Grievances of Carcassonne 94Beggars, Rags, and Misery ARTHUR YOUNG 95

The Outbreak of Revolution (1789–1791) 96

“What Is the Third Estate?” (January 1789) THE ABBÉ SIEYÈS 96Women of the Third Estate: “We Ask to Be Enlightened” (January 1789) 97The Tennis Court Oath (June 20, 1789) 98The Fall of the Bastille (July 14, 1789) 99Declaration of the Rights of Man (August 27, 1789) 101

AGAINST THE GRAIN The Flip Side of Liberty 103Declaration of the Rights of Woman (1791) OLYMPE DE GOUGES 103

Reflections on the Revolution (1790) EDMUND BURKE 106

The Radicalization of the Revolution (1792–1794) 107

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The Fall of Louis XVI (1792–1793) 107

The Execution of Louis XVI (January 21, 1793) HENRY EDGEWORTH DE FIRMONT 108Proclamation of the Convention to the French People (January 23, 1793) 109Reflections on Louis XVI MME ROLAND 110

THE REFLECTION IN THE MIRROR A Revolutionary Reality Check 111An Update on the Political Rights of Women (1793) 111

The Reign of Terror (1793–1794) 112

“You Would Exterminate All Your Enemies by the Guillotine!” (December 20, 1793)CAMILLE DESMOULINS 113

THE ARTISTIC VISION Jean-Claude Marat: “The Martyr of the Revolution” 114The Death of Marat (1793) JACQUES-LOUIS DAVID 114

And What Happened to Jacques-Louis David? 115

“Virtue and Terror”: Speech to the Convention (February 5, 1794)MAXIMILIEN ROBESPIERRE 116

The Administration of Terror (June 10, 1794) 117The Execution of Robespierre (July 28, 1794) DURAND DE MAILLANE 118

6 PATHS OF GLORY: NAPOLEON AND THE ROMANTIC MOVEMENT 119

The Napoleonic Era (1796–1815) 123

The Will to Power (1796–1802) 123

On the Realities of Power (1796) NAPOLEON BONAPARTE 123Suppression of the Newspapers (1800) 124Articles for the Catholic Church (1802) 124

The Imperial Mantle (1804–1806) 125

“The Only Salvation Lies in Hereditary Power” (December 1804)NAPOLEON BONAPARTE 125

Why the French Submitted to Napoleon’s Rule (1804) COMTESSE DE RÉMUSAT 126The Imperial Catechism (April 1806) 127

AGAINST THE GRAIN Beethoven’s Eroica Symphony:“To the Memory of a Great Man” 128

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Exile and Death: The Hero in History 131

Napoleon in Exile: “We Stand as Martyrs to an Immortal Cause!” NAPOLEON BONAPARTE 131The Role of Great Men in History G. W. F. HEGEL 132

The Romantic Movement (1780–1830) 132

“The Erlking” JOHANN WOLFGANG VON GOETHE 133Terror and the Macabre: Frankenstein (1818) MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT SHELLEY 134

THE ARTISTIC VISION “The Tyrant of Europe” 135“Ode to Napoleon Bonaparte” (1814) LORD BYRON 135The Third of May, 1808 FRANCISCO GOYA 136

7 “A WORLD TO WIN!”: THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 137

Rural and Urban Transformations 139

The Dependent Poor (1795) DAVID DAVIES 140“How Are Men to Provide for Their Families?” A Worker’s Petition (1786) 141

The Urban Landscape 143

The Factory System 143

Sybil (1845) BENJAMIN DISRAELI 143The Sadler Report: “Not Many as Deformed as I Am” (1832) 144Child Labor 146A Defense of the Factory System (1835) ANDREW URE 149

Living Conditions 151

The Condition of the Working Class in England (1844) FRIEDRICH ENGELS 151The Impact of the Factory System on Women and the Family FRIEDRICH ENGELS 152

Reaction and Reform 153

AGAINST THE GRAIN The Horrors of the Slave Trade 153“A Scene of Horror Almost Inconceivable” OLAUDA EQUIANO 154“We Can No Longer Plead Ignorance” WILLIAM WILBERFORCE 155

Law and Liberty: The Liberal Truth 157

The Iron Law of Wages (1817) DAVID RICARDO 157The Chartist Demands (1838) 159A Middle-Class Perspective (1859) SAMUEL SMILES 160

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THE ARTISTIC VISION The Social Perspective by Train 162Over London by Rail GUSTAVE DORÉ 162Third Class Carriage HONORÉ DAUMIER 163

Visions of a New World: The Socialist Truth 164

Utopian Socialism (1816) ROBERT OWEN 164The Communist Manifesto (1848) KARL MARX AND FRIEDRICH ENGELS 166

THE REFLECTION IN THE MIRROR A Papal Perspective: Rerum Novarum 170“A Yoke Little Better Than That of Slavery Itself” POPE LEO XIII 170

8 FATHERLAND: THE POWER OF NATIONALISM 174

Volksgeist: The “Spirit of the People” (1815–1850) 176

The Conservative Confession of Faith PRINCE KLEMENS VON METTERNICH 176Stirrings: The People and the Fatherland JOHANN GOTTLIEB FICHTE 178The Duties of Man GIUSEPPE MAZZINI 180

THE REFLECTION IN THE MIRROR The Greek Revolution of 1820 181“To Avenge Ourselves against a Frightful Tyranny” 181Greece Expiring on the Ruins of Missolonghi (1826) EUGÈNE DELACROIX 183

“A Moderate Amount of Happiness for All Men” ALEXIS DE TOCQUEVILLE 1841848: “A Great Outburst of Elemental Forces Had Begun” CARL SCHURZ 184

The Political Unification of Italy and Germany (1850–1890) 187

Proclamation for the Liberation of Sicily (1860) GIUSEPPE GARIBALDI 188Address to the Italian Parliament (1871) KING VICTOR EMMANUEL II 189“We Germans Fear God, and Nothing Else in the World”: Speech to the Reichstag (1888)

OTTO VON BISMARCK 190

AGAINST THE GRAIN The Zionist Movement 192The Jewish State (1896) THEODOR HERZL 193

9 “MARK THEM WITH YOUR DEAD!”: THE SCRAMBLE FOR GLOBAL EMPIRE 195

“Send Forth the Best Ye Breed!”: The Foundations of Imperialism 198

Racism and the Corruption of Science 199

The Descent of Man (1871) CHARLES DARWIN 199The Standpoint of Science (1900) KARL PEARSON 200

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For God and Country 202

The Mandate System: Britain’s Duty in Egypt (1890) JOSEPH CHAMBERLAIN 202“France Must Be a Great Country!” (1883) JULES FERRY 203Germany’s Place in the Sun (1901) KAISER WILHELM II 204“The White Man’s Burden” (1899) RUDYARD KIPLING 205

“To Seek Another’s Profit and Work Another’s Gain” 206

“Your New-Caught Sullen Peoples” 206

Education in India: “The Intrinsic Superiority of Western Literature” (1835)THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY 207

“Foreign Children” ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON 208“A Natural Inclination to Submit to a Higher Authority” (1893)

SIR FREDERICK DEALTRY LUGARD 209

THE REFLECTION IN THE MIRROR “The Judgment of Your Peers” 211The “White Man’s Face”: Terror in the Congo FREDERICK STARR 211“The Battle Hymn of the Republic” (Brought Down to Date) MARK TWAIN 212

10 FIN DE SIÈCLE: THE BIRTH OF THE MODERN ERA 213

The Woman Question and Anti-Feminism 216

Seneca Falls Declaration (1848) 217“Sisters of America! Your Sisters of France Are United with You” (1851)

PAULINE ROLAND AND JEANNE DEROINE 218Against Woman Suffrage (1884) FRANCIS PARKMAN 218“The Brain Weight of Women Is Five Ounces Less Than That of Men” (1887)

GEORGE ROMANES 221

AGAINST THE GRAIN The Independent Woman 222A Doll’s House (1879) HENRIK IBSEN 222

“This Is the Logic of Demons!” JOSEPHINE BUTLER 226“I Incite This Meeting to Rebellion” (1912) EMMELINE PANKHURST 227

The Revolt against Reason 229

Faith, Love, and Hope: “Enough! Enough!” (1887) FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE 230“God Is Dead!” FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE 232

THE ARTISTIC VISION The Insular World of Edvard Munch 233The Scream (1893) 233

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PART IIITHE TWENTIETH CENTURY AND BEYOND 235

11 THE GREAT WAR (1914–1918) 235

The Road to War (1900–1914) 239

The Celebration of War 239

“Without War, No State Could Exist” HEINRICH VON TREITSCHKE 239“Blind Obedience to Primitive Instincts” (1910) NORMAN ANGELL 240

The Lamps Go Out over Europe 241

Statutes of the “Black Hand” 242Assassination at Sarajevo: The Plot and Murder (June 28, 1914) 242“The Sword Is Drawn!” (August 18, 1914) KAISER WILHELM II 244

“They Shall Not Pass”: The Great War (1914–1918) 246

The Horror of Battle 246

The Battle of Verdun (February–December 1916) 247The Battle of the Somme (July–November 1916) 249“No Man’s Land” J. KNIGHT-ADKIN 250“What Are You Fighting For, Michel?” 251

AGAINST THE GRAIN Glory in the Skies: The Red Baron 252“An Englishman for Breakfast” BARON MANFRED VON RICHTHOFEN 252“On the Other Side of the Boundary” ERNST UDET 254

It Is Sweet and Proper to Die for One’s Country 254

“Five Souls” W. N. EWER 255A German War Letter: “One Blood-Soaked, Corpse-Strewn Field”

RICHARD SCHIEMDER 256

THE ARTISTIC VISION The Nightmare of Otto Dix 256Dance of Death in the Year ’17: Dead Man Hill 256

Aftermath: The Light That Failed 258

“This Is the Way the World Ends” 258

A German Soldier Returns Home: “A Complete Stranger” ANNA EISENMENGER 259“If You Want to Endure Life—Prepare for Death” SIGMUND FREUD 260

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12 THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE

SOVIET STATE (1917–1939) 262

The Provisional Government (March–November 1917) 266

“A New, Free Russia Is Born”: First Declaration of the Provisional Government (March 19, 1917) 266The April Theses (April 20, 1917) V. I. LENIN 268

The Bolshevik Revolution (November–December 1917) 269

The Overthrow of the Provisional Government: “A New Page in the History of Russia”V. I. LENIN 269

“Little Good Is to Be Expected” (November 8, 1917) IZVESTIA 270Censorship of the Press (November 9, 1917) V. I. LENIN 271Establishment of the Secret Police (December 20, 1917) V. I. LENIN 271

The Aftermath of Revolution (1917–1928) 272

State and Revolution: The Transition from Capitalism to Communism (August 1917)V. I. LENIN 273

“Days of Grueling Work” ALEXANDRA KOLLONTAI 276The Communist Emancipation of Women (1920) V. I. LENIN 277“Stalin Is Too Rude” (January 4, 1923) V. I. LENIN 278Stalin’s Falsification of History (1927) LEON TROTSKY 279

The Development of the Totalitarian State (1928–1938) 281

The Soviet Control of Society 281

Industrialization: “Either Perish or Overtake Capitalistic Countries” (1931) JOSEPH STALIN 281Collectivization and the Liquidation of the Kulaks (1929) JOSEPH STALIN 282

THE ARTISTIC VISION Engineers of the Soul: The Soviet Creation of Belief 283Industrial Worker and Collective Farm Girl (1937) VERA MUKHINA 283

“For the Fatherland!” (1936) PRAVDA 285The Purge Trials: “Traitors Must Be Shot Like Dirty Dogs!” (1938) ANDREI VYSHINSKY 286The Gulag: “Stalin’s Sadistic Nature Thirsted for Blood!” (1938) 287

THE REFLECTION IN THE MIRROR The Orwellian World 288“Power Is in Tearing Human Minds to Pieces” GEORGE ORWELL 288

13 EUROPE BETWEEN THE WARS: FASCISM AND THE NAZI RISE TO POWER (1919–1939) 290

The Legacy of World War I 294

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The Rise of Benito Mussolini 294

“The State’s Authority Was Ready for the Grave” (1922) BENITO MUSSOLINI 295The Fascist March on Rome (October 26, 1922) BENITO MUSSOLINI 295The Doctrine of Fascism: “This Will Be the Century of the State” BENITO MUSSOLINI 296

“Germany in Her Deepest Humiliation” 298

“I Resolved Now to Become a Politician” ADOLF HITLER 298“Stabbed in the Back” (1919) PAUL VON HINDENBURG 299The Treaty of Versailles (1919) 299

The Weimar Republic 301

Germany’s Unstable Democracy: The Best and Worst of Times 301

The Weimar Constitution: Fundamental Rights and Duties of the Germans (1919) 301Inflation: “The Boiling Kettle of a Wicked Witch” LILO LINKE 302

Hitler’s Response to Germany’s Problems 303

The Nazi Program (1920) 303Nazi Political Rally Announcement (February 1921)

NATIONAL SOCIALIST GERMAN WORKERS’ PARTY 306

Nazi Appeal and Victory 306

Nazi Propaganda 307

Nationalists, Socialists, and Jews (1930) JOSEPH GOEBBELS 307Free Germany! (1932) 309Nazi Victory by the Numbers: Elections to the German Reichstag (1924–1932) 309

Chancellor to Dictator 311

Decree for the Protection of the People and State (February 28, 1933) 311The Enabling Act (March 24, 1933) 311Law against the New Formation of Parties (July 14, 1933) 312Law Concerning the Head of the German State (August 1, 1934) 312

The Role of the Family in the Nazi State 312

“Our Fanatical Fellow-Combatants” (September 8, 1934) ADOLF HITLER 313“The Disenfranchisement of Women” HANNA SCHMITT 314Hitler Youth: “Tough as Leather, Hard as Krupp Steel” ADOLF HITLER 315

Conversion and Resistance 316

“Now I Know Which Road to Take” JOSEPH GOEBBELS 317“I Had Given Him My Heart” KURT LUDECKE 317

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AGAINST THE GRAIN “Guilty! Guilty! Guilty!” 318Leaflets of “The White Rose” (1942) HANS AND SOPHIE SCHOLL 318

14 “THE ABYSS ALSO LOOKS INTO YOU”: WAR AND HOLOCAUST (1939–1945) 321

The Road to War (1938–1939) 325

The Czechoslovak Crisis (September 1938–March 1939) 325

“The Misery of the Sudeten Germans Is Indescribable” (September 12, 1938)ADOLF HITLER 326

“Czechoslovakia Has Ceased to Exist” (March 15, 1939) ADOLF HITLER 327“I Bitterly Regret What Has Now Occurred” (March 15, 1939) NEVILLE CHAMBERLAIN 328

The Invasion of Poland (September 1939) 329

“Our Enemies Are Little Worms” (August 22, 1939) ADOLF HITLER 329“Everything I Have Hoped for Has Crashed into Ruins” (September 3, 1939)

NEVILLE CHAMBERLAIN 330

Total War (1939–1943) 332

The Battlefield and the Home Front 334

Alone: “Their Finest Hour” (June 18, 1940) WINSTON CHURCHILL 334The Battle of Britain: “So Much Owed by So Many to So Few” (August 20, 1940)

WINSTON CHURCHILL 334London Aflame! MRS. ROBERT HENREY 335“A Date Which Will Live in Infamy” PRESIDENT FRANKLIN DELANO ROOSEVELT 336Women in the Factories: “My Hands Are as Smooth as the Steel I Worked On” (August 1943)

ELIZABETH HAWES 337

The Jewish Holocaust (1923–1945) 338

“The Jews Are the Cause of Our Misfortune!” 340

The Jewish Peril (April 1923) ADOLF HITLER 340“Not a Single Jew” (1932) 341“I Got You at Last, You Little German Girl!” (1938) ERNST HIEMER 342

The Radicalization of Anti-Semitism (1938–1941) 343

“Jewish Ghettos Shall Have to Be Created” (November 12, 1938) 343“The Annihilation of the Jewish Race in Europe!” (January 30, 1939) ADOLF HITLER 344“The Jews Are to Blame!” (1941) JOSEPH GOEBBELS 344

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The Final Solution (1942–1945) 345

“A Complete Solution to the Jewish Question” (July 31, 1941) HERMANN GOERING 345The Wannsee Conference (January 20, 1942) 346

The Death Camps: “Work Makes You Free” 347

Sites of Nazi Concentration Camps 347Genocide RUDOLF HOESS 348The Pit HERMANN GRÄBE 349Gas KURT GERSTEIN 351Mobile Killing 352Nazi Medical Experiments DR. FRANZ BLAHA 352Commandant of Auschwitz RUDOLF HOESS 353

AGAINST THE GRAIN Jewish Resistance 355Nazi Problems in the Warsaw Ghetto (May 1, 1943) JOSEPH GOEBBELS 355The Destruction of the Warsaw Ghetto (May 1943) JÜRGEN STROOP 355Manifesto of the Jewish Resistance in Vilna (September 1943) 356

Götterdämmerung: The Final Destruction (1944–1945) 358

The D-Day Invasions (June 6, 1944) 359

The Paratrooper: “He Was Blown Away” KEN RUSSELL 359The Assault on Omaha Beach: “I’m Hit! I’m Hit!” HAROLD BAUMGARTEN 360

THE REFLECTION IN THE MIRROR Fiftieth Anniversary of D-Day 361“When They Were Young, These Men Saved the World” PRESIDENT BILL CLINTON 361The Vision at Sixty-Five PRESIDENT BARACK OBAMA 362The Funeral Oration of Pericles THUCYDIDES 363

The Aftermath of War 364

The Destruction of Hiroshima (August 6, 1945) HARRY S. TRUMAN 364Nuremberg: The Crimes of the Nazi Regime JUSTICE ROBERT H. JACKSON 366The Existential Perspective (1956) JEAN-PAUL SARTRE 367

15 THE ERA OF THE SUPERPOWERS: COLD WAR CONFRONTATION (1945–1990) 369

Retrenchment (1945–1965) 373

The Reconstruction of Europe 373

The Marshall Plan (June 1947) GEORGE C. MARSHALL 374Program for the Welfare State: The Beveridge Report 375

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The Retreat from Empire 376

Vietnam: “Determined to Fight to the Bitter End” (1945) HO CHI MINH 377British Rule in India (1946) JAWAHARLAL NEHRU 379The Arab Nationalist Movement and Revolution (1958) GAMAL ABDEL NASSER 380

The Cold War (1945–1990) 382

The “Superpower” Rivalry 382

The Soviet Victory: Capitalism versus Communism (February 1946) JOSEPH STALIN 383“An Iron Curtain Has Descended Across the Continent” (March 1946)

SIR WINSTON CHURCHILL 384The Truman Doctrine (March 1947) HARRY S. TRUMAN 385Marx Was Wrong: The Flaws of Communism (1953) THEODORE WHITE 386How to Spot a Communist (1955) 388

Currents of Dissent 390

The New Class (1957) MILOVAN DJILAS 391“The Victory of Communism Is Inevitable!” The Secret Speech (1962) NIKITA KHRUSHCHEV 393Prague Spring: The Brezhnev Doctrine (1968) 394

“A World Turned Upside Down!” The Gorbachev Era 397

AGAINST THE GRAIN Cracks in the Berlin Wall 397“Mr. Gorbachev, Tear Down This Wall!” (June 12, 1987) PRESIDENT RONALD REAGAN 398

Perestroika and the Socialist Renewal of Society (September 11, 1989) MIKHAIL GORBACHEV 400Gorbachev’s Resignation: “This Society Has Acquired Freedom” (December 25, 1991)

MIKHAIL GORBACHEV 402

16 THE DYNAMICS OF CHANGE IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD (1990–2010) 406

Political and Economic Initiatives 410

A United Germany in a United Europe (June 5, 1990) HELMUT KOHL 410The Reconciliation of France and Germany (September 24, 1990) FRANÇOIS MITTERAND 411“Czechoslovakia Is Returning to Europe” (February 21, 1990) VÁCLAV HAVEL 412Communism: “Far Away from the Mainstream of Civilization” (December 31, 1999)

VLADIMIR PUTIN 413Monetary Union: Europe’s Global Role (1998) LAWRENCE H. SUMMERS 415

Ethnic Strife and Terrorism 417

Ethnic Strife in Eastern Europe (April 15, 1994) HELMUT TUERK 417Crimes against Humanity: “Ethnic Cleansing” in Serbia (1992) 419

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THE REFLECTION IN THE MIRROR Balkan Crimes 421“We Are Witnesses to a Process of Death in the Balkans” (January 12, 1994)

POPE JOHN PAUL II 421

“We Wage a War to Save Civilization Itself ” (2001) PRESIDENT GEORGE W. BUSH 423

The Islamic World and the West 426

“Fanaticism Is Not a State of Religion, but a State of Mind” (July 11, 2005)PRIME MINISTER TONY BLAIR 427

“This Is Going to Be Freedom’s Century” (March 29, 2006) PRESIDENT GEORGE W. BUSH 428Turkey and the European Union (2009) PRESIDENT BARACK OBAMA 430

AGAINST THE GRAIN The Future of the West 431“A New Beginning” (June 4, 2009) PRESIDENT BARACK OBAMA 431But What About the Burqa?“The Burqa Is Not Welcome in France”: The Press Conference (June 6, 2009)

PRESIDENT BARACK OBAMA AND PRESIDENT NICHOLAS SARKOZY 435

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T H E M A T I C C O N T E N T S

PART I: FOUNDATIONS OF THE MODERN WORLD 1

Revolution and Historical Transition

Martin Luther: Salvation through Faith Alone 12The Ninety-five Theses (1517) 13“Here I Stand”: Address at the Diet of

Worms (1521) 14

Chapter 2: “I Am the State”: The Developmentof Absolutism in England and France 22

The Power Structure

Thomas Hobbes: “The Mortal God”: Leviathan(1651) 28

The Instrument of Government (December 16,1653) 30

Oliver Cromwell: Cromwell Denies the Crown(May 8, 1657) 31

The Bill of Rights (1689) 36Jean Domat: The Ideal Absolute State

(1697) 37Jacques Bénigne Bossuet: Politics and Scripture

(1679) 39The Duke of Saint-Simon: “Vanity Was

His Ruin” 40King Louis XIV: Letters to His Heirs: “Allow

Good Sense to Act” 43The Duke of Saint-Simon: “A Frightful Plot”: The

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes 45

Chapter 1: The Age of Renaissance and Reformation 1

The Power Structure

Vespasiano: The Rule of Cosimo de’Medici 5Niccolò Machiavelli: The Prince: “Everyone Sees

What You Appear to Be, Few Perceive WhatYou Are” 6

Emperor Charles V: The Edict of Worms (1521) 15

The Tridentine Index of Books (1564) 20

Social and Spiritual Values

Pico Della Mirandola: Oration on the Dignity ofMan (1486) 3

Marsilio Ficino: The Soul of Man (1474) 4Johann Tetzel: “How Many Sins Are Committed

in a Single Day?” (1517) 11Martin Luther: Salvation through Faith Alone 12

The Ninety-five Theses (1517) 13“Here I Stand”: Address at the Diet of

Worms (1521) 14John Calvin: On the Necessity of Reforming the

Church (1544) 17Predestination: Institutes of the Christian

Religion (1536) 18Ignatius Loyola: Spiritual Exercises (1548) 19The Council of Trent: Profession of Faith 20The Tridentine Index of Books (1564) 20

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Jacques Bénigne Bossuet: Politics and Scripture(1679) 39

The Duke of Saint-Simon: “Vanity Was His Ruin” 40

The Institution and the Individual

John Milton: “To You Our Country Owes ItsLiberties” 32

Edward Hyde of Clarendon: “Guilty of Crimes forWhich Hell-Fire Is Prepared” 34

The Duke of Saint-Simon: “Vanity Was His Ruin” 40

King Louis XIV: Letters to His Heirs: “AllowGood Sense to Act” 43

The Varieties of Truth

John Milton: “To You Our Country Owes ItsLiberties” 32

Edward Hyde of Clarendon: “Guilty of Crimes forWhich Hell-Fire Is Prepared” 34

William of Orange: “A Force Sufficient to Defend Us from the Violence of Those EvilCounsellors” 35

Jean Colbert: “The Palace of Versailles: ACelebration of Greatness” 47

King Louis XIV: Visible Majesty 48

Chapter 3: “Dare to Know!” The ScientificRevolution 49

The Power Structure

Galileo Galilei: Science and the Bible: “They WouldHave Us Abandon Reason” (1615) 53


Galileo Galilei: Science and the Bible: “They Would Have Us Abandon Reason”(1615) 53

Pope John Paul II: “Science and Faith Are BothGifts from God” (1993) 56

Sir Isaac Newton: Principles of Analysis—Induction and God: Optics (1704) 63


Nicolaus Copernicus: The Heliocentric Statement(ca. 1520) 52

On the Movement of the Earth (1543) 52Galileo Galilei: Science and the Bible: “They Would

Have Us Abandon Reason” (1615) 53Sir Francis Bacon: The Advancement of Learning

(1605) 58René Descartes: “I Think, Therefore I Am”:

Discourse on Method (1637) 59William Harvey: “A Motion, as It Were, in

a Circle” 60


Pope John Paul II: “Science and Faith Are BothGifts from God” (1993) 56

Chapter 4: The Enlightenment and theRevolution of the Mind

The Power Structure

John Locke: Second Treatise of Civil Government(1690) 77

Baron de Montesquieu: The Spirit of the Laws(1748) 80

Jean Jacques Rousseau: The Social Contract(1762) 80

Thomas Jefferson: The Declaration ofIndependence (1776) 83

Adam Smith: The Wealth of Nations (1776) 87


Baron d’Holbach: God—“A Cause Contradictedby Its Effects”: Common Sense (1770) 71

Voltaire: On Universal Toleration 72“If God Did Not Exist, He Would Have to

Be Invented” 74


Cesare Beccaria: “The Greatest Happiness of theGreatest Number” 69

Jean Le Rond d’Alembert: Introduction to theEncyclopedia (1751) 74

Denis Diderot: “We Did Not Live Entirely inVain” (1764) 76

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John Locke: The Blank Slate of the Mind: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding(1690) 68

Second Treatise of Civil Government (1690) 77Baron de Montesquieu: The Spirit of the Laws

(1748) 80Jean Jacques Rousseau: The Social Contract

(1762) 80Adam Smith: The Wealth of Nations (1776) 87


John Locke: Second Treatise of Civil Government(1690) 77

Baron de Montesquieu: The Spirit of the Laws(1748) 80

Jean Jacques Rousseau: The Social Contract(1762) 80

Thomas Jefferson: The Declaration ofIndependence (1776) 83

Adam Smith: The Wealth of Nations (1776) 87

Women in History

Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Woman: “EspeciallyConstituted to Please Man” 84

Mary Wollstonecraft: A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) 85

PART II: THE ERA OF REVOLUTION 91


Marquis d’Argenson: Corruption of the FrenchCourt 93

Marquis de Bouille: “Ancient Oaks Mutilated by Time” 94

The Grievances of Carcassonne 94Arthur Young: Beggars, Rags, and Misery 95The Abbé Sieyès: “What Is the Third Estate?”

(January 1789) 96Women of the Third Estate: “We Ask to Be

Enlightened” (January 1789) 97Maximilien Robespierre: “Virtue and Terror”:

Speech to the Convention (February 5, 1794) 116

Jacques-Louis David: The Death of Marat(1793) 114


Olympe de Gouges: Declaration of the Rights ofWoman (1791) 103

Mme Roland: Reflections on Louis XVI 110An Update on the Political Rights of Women

(1793) 111Camille Desmoulins: “You Would Exterminate

All Your Enemies by the Guillotine!” (December 20, 1793) 113

Chapter 5: “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity!”The French Revolution 91

The Power Structure

The Tennis Court Oath (June 20, 1789) 98The Fall of the Bastille (July 14, 1789) 99Declaration of the Rights of Man (August 27,

1789) 101Olympe de Gouges: Declaration of the Rights of

Woman (1791) 103Edmund Burke: Reflections on the Revolution

(1790) 106Henry Edgeworth de Firmont: The Execution of

Louis XVI (January 21, 1793) 108Proclamation of the Convention to the French

People (January 23, 1793) 109Mme Roland: Reflections on Louis XVI 110Camille Desmoulins: “You Would Exterminate All

Your Enemies by the Guillotine!”(December 20, 1793) 113

Maximilien Robespierre: “Virtue and Terror”:Speech to the Convention (February 5,1794) 116

The Administration of Terror (June 10, 1794) 117

Durand de Maillane: The Execution ofRobespierre (July 28, 1794) 118

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The Administration of Terror (June 10, 1794) 117

Durand de Maillane: The Execution ofRobespierre (July 28, 1794) 118


The Tennis Court Oath (June 20, 1789) 98The Fall of the Bastille (July 14, 1789) 99Declaration of the Rights of Man (August 27,

1789) 101Edmund Burke: Reflections on the Revolution

(1790) 106Henry Edgeworth de Firmont: The Execution of

Louis XVI (January 21, 1793) 108Proclamation of the Convention to the French

People (January 23, 1793) 109Mme Roland: Reflections on Louis XVI 110Camille Desmoulins: “You Would Exterminate All

Your Enemies by the Guillotine!”(December 20, 1793) 113


The Administration of Terror (June 10, 1794) 117Durand de Maillane: The Execution of

Robespierre (July 28, 1794) 118Jacques-Louis David: The Death of Marat

(1793) 114


Edmund Burke: Reflections on the Revolution(1790) 106


Jacques-Louis David: The Death of Marat(1793) 114

Women in History

Women of the Third Estate: “We Ask to BeEnlightened” (January 1789) 97

Olympe de Gouges: Declaration of the Rights ofWoman (1791) 103

Mme Roland: Reflections on Louis XVI 110An Update on the Political Rights of Women

(1793) 111

Chapter 6: Paths of Glory: Napoleon and theRomantic Movement 119

The Power Structure

Napoleon Bonaparte: On the Realities of Power (1796) 123

Suppression of the Newspapers (1800) 124Articles for the Catholic Church (1802) 124Napoleon Bonaparte: “The Only Salvation Lies in

Hereditary Power” (December 1804) 125Comtesse de Rémusat: Why the French Submitted

to Napoleon’s Rule (1804) 126The Imperial Catechism (April 1806) 127Lord Byron: “Ode to Napoleon Bonaparte”

(1814) 135


Articles for the Catholic Church (1802) 124The Imperial Catechism (April 1806) 127G. W. F. Hegel: The Role of Great Men in History

132Johann Wolfgang von Goethe: “The

Erlking” 133Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley: Terror and the

Macabre: Frankenstein (1818) 134


The Imperial Catechism (April 1806) 127Napoleon Bonaparte: Napoleon in Exile:

“We Stand as Martyrs to an ImmortalCause!” 131

G. W. F. Hegel: The Role of Great Men inHistory 132

Lord Byron: “Ode to Napoleon Bonaparte”(1814) 135


Napoleon Bonaparte: On the Realities of Power (1796) 123

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Suppression of the Newspapers (1800) 124Articles for the Catholic Church (1802) 124Comtesse de Rémusat: Why the French

Submitted to Napoleon’s Rule (1804) 126G. W. F. Hegel: The Role of Great Men

in History 132Lord Byron: “Ode to Napoleon Bonaparte”

(1814) 135


Suppression of the Newspapers (1800) 124Articles for the Catholic Church (1802) 124Napoleon Bonaparte: Napoleon in Exile:

“We Stand as Martyrs to an ImmortalCause!” 131

Francisco Goya: The Third of May, 1808 136

Chapter 7: “A World to Win!” The IndustrialRevolution 137

The Power Structure

Andrew Ure: A Defense of the Factory System(1835) 149

David Ricardo: The Iron Law of Wages (1817) 157

The Chartist Demands (1838) 159Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: The Communist

Manifesto (1848) 166


Benjamin Disraeli: Sybil (1845) 143The Sadler Report: “Not Many as Deformed as

I Am” (1832) 144Child Labor 146Andrew Ure: A Defense of the Factory System

(1835) 149Friedrich Engels: The Condition of the Working

Class in England (1844) 151The Impact of the Factory System on Women and

the Family 152Olauda Equiano: “A Scene of Horror Almost

Inconceivable” 154William Wilberforce: “We Can No Longer Plead

Ignorance” 155The Chartist Demands (1838) 159

Samuel Smiles: A Middle-Class Perspective (1859) 160

Gustave Doré: Over London by Rail 162Honoré Daumier: Third Class Carriage 163Robert Owen: Utopian Socialism (1816) 164Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: The Communist

Manifesto (1848) 166Pope Leo XIII: “A Yoke Little Better Than That of

Slavery Itself ” 170


David Davies: The Dependent Poor (1795) 140

“How Are Men to Provide for Their Families?”: A Workers Petition (1786) 141

Benjamin Disraeli: Sybil (1845) 143The Sadler Report: “Not Many as Deformed as

I Am” (1832) 144Child Labor 146Andrew Ure: A Defense of the Factory System

(1835) 149Olauda Equiano: “A Scene of Horror Almost

Inconceivable” 154William Wilberforce: “We Can No Longer Plead

Ignorance” 155David Ricardo: The Iron Law of Wages

(1817) 157Robert Owen: Utopian Socialism (1816) 164Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: The Communist

Manifesto (1848) 166Pope Leo XIII: “A Yoke Little Better Than That

of Slavery Itself ” 170


Olauda Equiano: “A Scene of Horror AlmostInconceivable” 154

William Wilberforce: “We Can No Longer PleadIgnorance” 155

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: The CommunistManifesto (1848) 166


Gustave Doré: Over London by Rail 162Honoré Daumier: Third Class Carriage 163

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Women in History

The Impact of the Factory System on Women andthe Family 152

Chapter 8: Fatherland: The Power ofNationalism 174

The Political Structure

Prince Klemens von Metternich: The ConservativeConfession of Faith 176

“To Avenge Ourselves against a Frightful Tyranny” 181

Guiseppe Garibaldi: Proclamation for theLiberation of Sicily (1860) 188

King Victor Emmanuel II Address to the ItalianParliament (1871) 189

Otto von Bismarck: “We Germans Fear God, and Nothing Else in the World”:

Speech to the Reichstag (1888) 190


Johann Gottlieb Fichte: Stirrings: The People and the Fatherland 178

Giuseppe Mazzini: The Duties of Man 180Eugène Delacroix: Greece on the Ruins of

Missolonghi (1826) 183Otto von Bismarck: “We Germans Fear God, and

Nothing Else in the World”: Speech to theReichstag (1888) 190

Theodor Herzl: The Jewish State (1896) 193


Johann Gottlieb Fichte: Stirrings: The People andthe Fatherland 178

Giuseppe Mazzini: The Duties of Man 180Alexis de Tocqueville: “A Moderate Amount of

Happiness for All Men” 184Guiseppe Garibaldi: Proclamation for the

Liberation of Sicily (1860) 188King Victor Emmanuel II Address to the Italian

Parliament (1871) 189Otto von Bismarck: “We Germans Fear God, and

Nothing Else in the World”: Speech to theReichstag (1888) 190


Imperialism


Eugène Delacroix: Greece on the Ruins ofMissolonghi (1826) 183

Otto von Bismarck: “We Germans Fear God, and Nothing Else in the World”: Speech tothe Reichstag (1888) 190

Theodor Herzl: The Jewish State(1896) 193

The Basel Program (1897) 194




Carl Schurz: 1848: “A Great Outburst ofElemental Forces Had Begun” 184

Guiseppe Garibaldi: Proclamation for theLiberation of Sicily (1860) 188

Address to the Italian Parliament (1871) 189Theodor Herzl: The Jewish State (1896) 193The Basel Program (1897) 194



Otto von Bismarck: “We Germans Fear God, andNothing Else in the World”: Speech to theReichstag (1888) 190


Women in History


Chapter 9: “Mark Them with Your Dead!”The Scramble for Global Empire 195

The Power Structure

Joseph Chamberlain: The Mandate System:Britain’s Duty in Egypt (1890) 202

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Jules Ferry: “France Must Be a Great Country!”(1883) 203

Kaiser Wilhelm II: Germany’s Place in the Sun (1900) 204


Charles Darwin: The Descent of Man (1871) 199Rudyard Kipling: “The White Man’s Burden”

(1899) 205Thomas Babington Macaulay: Education in India:

“The Intrinsic Superiority of WesternLiterature” (1835) 207

Robert Louis Stevenson: “Foreign Children” 208Sir Frederick Dealtry Lugard: “A Natural Inclination to

Submit to a Higher Authority” (1893) 209


Charles Darwin: The Descent of Man (1871) 199Karl Pearson: The Standpoint of Science

(1900) 200Rudyard Kipling: “The White Man’s Burden”

(1899) 205Robert Louis Stevenson: “Foreign Children” 208Frederick Starr: The “White Man’s Face”: Terror in

the Congo 211Mark Twain: “The Battle Hymn of the Republic”

(Brought Down to Date) 212

Imperialism

Joseph Chamberlain: The Mandate System:Britain’s Duty in Egypt (1890) 202

Jules Ferry: “France Must Be a Great Country!”(1883) 203

Kaiser Wilhelm II: Germany’s Place in the Sun(1900) 204

Rudyard Kipling: “The White Man’s Burden”(1899) 205

Thomas Babington Macaulay: Education in India:“The Intrinsic Superiority of WesternLiterature” (1835) 207

Robert Louis Stevenson: “Foreign Children” 208

Sir Frederick Dealtry Lugard: “A NaturalInclination to Submit to a HigherAuthority” (1893) 209

Frederick Starr: The “White Man’s Face”: Terror inthe Congo 211

Mark Twain: “The Battle Hymn of the Republic”(Brought Down to Date) 212


Rudyard Kipling: “The White Man’s Burden”(1899) 205

Robert Louis Stevenson: “Foreign Children” 208Mark Twain: “The Battle Hymn of the Republic”

(Brought Down to Date) 212

Chapter 10: Fin de Siècle: The Birth of theModern Era 213

The Power Structure

Seneca Falls Declaration (1848) 217Francis Parkman: Against Woman Suffrage

(1884) 218George Romanes: “The Brain Weight of Women

Is Five Ounces Less Than That of Men”(1887) 221

Emmeline Pankhurst: “I Incite This Meeting toRebellion” (1912) 227


Seneca Falls Declaration (1848) 217Pauline Roland and Jeanne Deroine: “Sisters of

America! Your Sisters of France Are Unitedwith You” (1851) 218

Francis Parkman: Against Woman Suffrage (1884)218

George Romanes: “The Brain Weight of WomenIs Five Ounces Less Than That of Men”(1887) 221

Henrik Ibsen: A Doll’s House (1879) 222Friedrich Nietzsche: Faith, Love, and Hope:

“Enough! Enough!” (1887) 230“God Is Dead!” 232


Henrik Ibsen: A Doll’s House (1879) 222

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Josephine Butler: “This Is the Logic of Demons!” 226

Emmeline Pankhurst: “I Incite This Meeting toRebellion” (1912) 227

Friedrich Nietzsche: Faith, Love, and Hope:“Enough! Enough!” (1887) 230

“God Is Dead!” 232Edvard Munch: The Scream (1893) 233


Seneca Falls Declaration (1848) 217Josephine Butler: “This Is the Logic of

Demons!” 226Emmeline Pankhurst: “I Incite This Meeting to

Rebellion” (1912) 227


Francis Parkman: Against Woman Suffrage(1884) 218


Edvard Munch: The Scream (1893) 233

Women in History

Seneca Falls Declaration (1848) 217Pauline Roland and Jeanne Deroine: “Sisters of

America! Your Sisters of France Are Unitedwith You” (1851) 218

Francis Parkman: Against Woman Suffrage(1884) 218


Henrik Ibsen: A Doll’s House (1879) 222Josephine Butler: “This Is the Logic of

Demons!” 226Emmeline Pankhurst: “I Incite This Meeting to

Rebellion” (1912) 227

PART III: THE TWENTIETH CENTURY AND BEYOND

Chapter 11: The Great War (1914–1918) 235

The Power Structure

Statutes of “The Black Hand” 242Assassination at Sarajevo: The Plot and Murder

(June 28, 1914) 242Kaiser Wilhelm II: “The Sword Is Drawn!”

(August 18, 1914) 244


Norman Angell: “Blind Obedience to PrimitiveInstincts” (1910) 240

J. Knight-Adkin: No Man’s Land 250 W. N. Ewer: “Five Souls” 255Otto Dix: Dance of Death in the Year ’17: Dead

Man Hill 256 Sigmund Freud: “If You Want to Endure Life—

Prepare for Death” 260


The Battle of Verdun (February–December 1916) 247

The Battle of the Somme (July–November 1916) 249

J. Knight-Adkin: No Man’s Land 250“What Are You Fighting For, Michel?” 251Baron Manfred von Richthofen: “An Englishman

for Breakfast” 252Ernst Udet: “On the Other Side of the

Boundary” 254W. N. Ewer: “Five Souls” 255Richard Schiemder: A German War Letter: “One

Blood-Soaked, Corpse-Strewn Field” 256Anna Eisenmenger: A German Soldier Returns

Home: “A Complete Stranger” 259Sigmund Freud: “If You Want to Endure Life—

Prepare for Death” 260

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Imperialism

Heinrich von Treitschke: “Without War, No StateCould Exist” 239

Norman Angell: “Blind Obedience to PrimitiveInstincts” (1910) 240


Anna Eisenmenger: A German Soldier ReturnsHome: “A Complete Stranger” 259

Sigmund Freud: “If You Want to EndureLife–Prepare for Death” 260


Heinrich von Treitschke: “Without War, No StateCould Exist” 239

Otto Dix: Dance of Death in the Year ’17: DeadMan Hill 256

Chapter 12: The Russian Revolution and the Development of the Soviet State(1917–1939) 262

The Power Structure

“A New, Free Russia Is Born!” First Declaration ofthe Provisional Government (March 19,1917) 266

V. I. Lenin: The April Theses (April 20, 1917)268

The Overthrow of the Provisional Government: “ANew Page in the History of Russia” 269

Izvestia: “Little Good Is to Be Expected”(November 8, 1917) 270

V. I. Lenin: The Overthrow of the ProvisionalGovernment: “A New Page in the History ofRussia” 269

Censorship of the Press (November 9, 1917) 271

Establishment of the Secret Police (December20, 1917) 271

State and Revolution: The Transition fromCapitalism to Communism (August 1917) 273

“Stalin Is Too Rude” (January 4, 1923) 278

Leon Trotsky: Stalin’s Falsification of History(1927) 279

Joseph Stalin: Industrialization: “Either Perish or Overtake Capitalistic Countries” (1931) 281

Collectivization and the Liquidation of theKulaks (1929) 282

Pravda: “For the Fatherland!” (1936) 285Andrei Vyshinsky: The Purge Trials: “Traitors Must

Be Shot Like Dirty Dogs!” (1938) 286The Gulag: “Stalin’s Sadistic Nature Thirsted for

Blood!” (1938) 287George Orwell: “Power Is in Tearing Human

Minds to Pieces” 288


Alexandra Kollontai: “Days of Grueling Work” 276

V. I. Lenin: The Communist Emancipation ofWomen (1920) 277

Vera Mukhina: Industrial Worker and CollectiveFarm Girl (1937) 283

Pravda: “For the Fatherland!” (1936) 285


Establishment of the Secret Police (December 20,1917) 271


George Orwell: “Power Is in Tearing HumanMinds to Pieces” 288


V. I. Lenin: The April Theses (April 20, 1917)268

The Overthrow of the ProvisionalGovernment: “A New Page in the History ofRussia” 269

Izvestia: “Little Good Is To Be Expected”(November 8, 1917) 270

V. I. Lenin: The Overthrow of the ProvisionalGovernment: “A New Page in the History ofRussia” 269

Censorship of the Press (November 9, 1917) 271

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Establishment of the Secret Police (December20, 1917) 271

State and Revolution: The Transition fromCapitalism to Communism (August 1917) 273




V. I. Lenin: “Stalin Is Too Rude” (January 4,1923) 278

Leon Trotsky: Stalin’s Falsification of History(1927) 279



Women in History

Alexandra Kollontai: “Days of Grueling Work” 276

V. I. Lenin: The Communist Emancipation ofWomen (1920) 277


Chapter 13: Europe between the Wars:Fascism and the Nazi Rise to Power(1919–1939) 290

The Power Structure

Benito Mussolini: “The State’s Authority WasReady for the Grave” (1922) 295

The Fascist March on Rome (October 26,1922) 295

The Doctrine of Fascism: “This Will Be theCentury of the State” 296

Adolf Hitler: “I Resolved Now to Become aPolitician” 298

Paul von Hindenburg: “Stabbed in the Back”(1919) 299

The Treaty of Versailles (1919) 299

The Weimar Constitution: Fundamental Rightsand Duties of the Germans (1919) 301

The Nazi Program (1920) 303National Socialist German Workers’ Party Nazi

Political Rally Announcement (February1921) 306

Nazi Victory by the Numbers: Elections to theGerman Reichstag (1924–1932) 309

Decree for the Protection of the People and State(February 28, 1933) 311

The Enabling Act (March 24, 1933) 311Law against the New Formation of Parties

(July 14, 1933) 312Law Concerning the Head of the German State

(August 1, 1934) 312Hans and Sophie Scholl: Leaflets of “The White

Rose” (1942) 318


Joseph Goebbels: Nationalists, Socialists, and Jews(1930) 307

Free Germany! (1932) 309Adolf Hitler: “Our Fanatical Fellow-Combatants”

(September 8, 1934) 313Hanna Schmitt: “The Disenfranchisement of

Women” 314Adolf Hitler: Hitler Youth: “Tough as Leather,

Hard as Krupp Steel” 315Joseph Goebbels: “Now I Know Which Road to

Take” 317Kurt Ludecke: “I Had Given Him My Heart” 317


Benito Mussolini: The Doctrine of Fascism: “This Will Be the Century of the State” 296

Adolf Hitler: “I Resolved Now to Become aPolitician” 298

Lilo Linke: Inflation: “The Boiling Kettle of aWicked Witch” 302

Adolf Hitler: Hitler Youth: “Tough as Leather,Hard as Krupp Steel” 315

Joseph Goebbels: “Now I Know Which Road to Take” 317

Kurt Ludecke: “I Had Given Him My Heart” 317

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xxxii T H E M A T I C C O N T E N T S


Benito Mussolini: “The State’s Authority WasReady for the Grave” (1922) 295

The Fascist March on Rome (October 26, 1922)295

The Doctrine of Fascism: “This Will Be theCentury of the State” 296

Decree for the Protection of the People and State(February 28, 1933) 311

The Enabling Act (March 24, 1933) 311Law against the New Formation of Parties

(July 14, 1933) 312Law Concerning the Head of the German State

(August 1, 1934) 312Hans and Sophie Scholl: Leaflets of “The White

Rose” (1942) 318


Benito Mussolini: The Doctrine of Fascism: “ThisWill Be the Century of the State” 296

Joseph Goebbels: Nationalists, Socialists, and Jews(1930) 307

Free Germany! (1932) 309Joseph Goebbels: “Now I Know Which Road to

Take” 317Kurt Ludecke: “I Had Given Him My Heart” 317Hans and Sophie Scholl: Leaflets of “The White

Rose” (1942) 318

Women in History

Adolf Hitler: “Our Fanatical Fellow-Combatants”(September 8, 1934) 313

Hanna Schmitt: “The Disenfranchisement ofWomen” 314

Hans and Sophie Scholl: Leaflets of “The WhiteRose” (1942) 318

Chapter 14: “The Abyss Also Looks into You”:War and Holocaust (1939–1945) 321

The Power Structure

Adolf Hitler: “The Misery of the SudetenGermans Is Indescribable” (September 12, 1938) 326

“Czechoslovakia Has Ceased to Exist” (March15, 1939) 327

Neville Chamberlain: “I Bitterly Regret What HasNow Occurred” (March 15, 1939) 328

Adolf Hitler: “Our Enemies Are Little Worms”(August 22, 1939) 329

Neville Chamberlain: “Everything I Have Hopedfor Has Crashed into Ruins” (September 3,1939) 330

“Jewish Ghettos Shall Have to Be Created”(November 12, 1938) 343

Adolf Hitler: “The Annihilation of the JewishRace in Europe!” (January 30, 1939) 344

Joseph Goebbels: “The Jews Are to Blame!” (1941) 344

Hermann Goering: “A Complete Solution to theJewish Question” (July 31, 1941) 345

The Wannsee Conference (January 20, 1942) 346

Sites of Nazi Concentration Camps 347Rudolf Hoess: Genocide 348Hermann Gräbe: The Pit 349Kurt Gerstein: Gas 351Mobile Killing 352Dr. Franz Blaha: Nazi Medical Experiments 352Rudolf Hoess: Commandant of Auschwitz 353Joseph Goebbels: Nazi Problems in the Warsaw

Ghetto (May 1, 1943) 355Jürgen Stroop: The Destruction of the Warsaw

Ghetto (May 1943) 355Manifesto of the Jewish Resistance in Vilna

(September 1943) 356Justice Robert H. Jackson: Nuremberg: The

Crimes of the Nazi Regime 366


Winston Churchill: Alone: “Their Finest Hour”(June 18, 1940) 334

The Battle of Britain: “So Much Owed by SoMany to So Few” (August 20, 1940) 334

Adolf Hitler: The Jewish Peril (April 1923) 340“Not a Single Jew” (1932) 341Ernst Hiemer: “I Got You at Last, You Little

German Girl!” (1938) 342Joseph Goebbels: “The Jews Are to Blame!”

(1941) 344

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President Bill Clinton: “When They Were Young,These Men Saved the World” 361

President Barack Obama: The Vision at Sixty-Five362

Thucydides: The Funeral Oration of Pericles363

Justice Robert H. Jackson: Nuremberg: TheCrimes of the Nazi Regime 366


Mrs. Robert Henrey: London Aflame! 335Elizabeth Hawes: Women in the Factories: “My

Hands Are as Smooth as the Steel I WorkedOn” (August 1943) 337


President Barack Obama: The Vision at Sixty-Five 362

Thucydides: The Funeral Oration of Pericles 363Justice Robert H. Jackson: Nuremberg: The

Crimes of the Nazi Regime 366Jean-Paul Sartre: The Existential Perspective

(1956) 367

Imperialism

Adolf Hitler: “The Misery of the SudetenGermans Is Indescribable” (September 12,1938) 326

“Czechoslovakia Has Ceased to Exist” (March15, 1939) 327

“Our Enemies Are Little Worms” (August 22,1939) 329

Winston Churchill: Alone: “Their Finest Hour”(June 18, 1940) 334

The Battle of Britain: “So Much Owed by SoMany to So Few” (August 20, 1940) 334

Mrs. Robert Henrey: London Aflame! 335President Franklin Delano Roosevelt: “A Date

Which Will Live in Infamy” 336Ken Russell: The Paratrooper: “He Was Blown

Away” 359Harold Baumgarten: The Assault on Omaha

Beach: “I’m Hit! I’m Hit!” 360Harry S. Truman: The Destruction of Hiroshima

(August 6, 1945) 364


Hermann Goering: “A Complete Solution to theJewish Question” (July 31, 1941) 345

The Wannsee Conference (January 20, 1942) 346

Manifesto of the Jewish Resistance in Vilna(September 1943) 356


President Barack Obama: The Vision at Sixty-Five 362

Thucydides: The Funeral Oration of Pericles 363

Justice Robert H. Jackson: Nuremberg: TheCrimes of the Nazi Regime 366

Jean-Paul Sartre: The Existential Perspective(1956) 367


Adolf Hitler: “Our Enemies Are Little Worms”(August 22, 1939) 329

The Jewish Peril (April 1923) 340“Not a Single Jew” (1932) 341Ernst Hiemer: “I Got You at Last, You Little

German Girl!” (1938) 342Joseph Goebbels: “The Jews Are to Blame!”

(1941) 344Rudolf Hoess: Commandant of Auschwitz 353

Women in History

Mrs. Robert Henrey: London Aflame! 335Elizabeth Hawes: Women in the Factories: “My

Hands Are as Smooth as the Steel I WorkedOn” (August 1943) 337

Chapter 15: The Era of the Superpowers: ColdWar Confrontation (1945–1990) 369

The Power Structure

George C. Marshall: The Marshall Plan (June1947) 374

Program for the Welfare State: The BeveridgeReport 375

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uwechde

Cross-Out

uwechde

Pencil

Indent as another reading by Churchill.

xxxiv T H E M A T I C C O N T E N T S

Joseph Stalin: The Soviet Victory: Capitalism versus Communism (February 1946) 383

Winston Churchill: “An Iron Curtain HasDescended Across the Continent” (March 1946) 384

Harry S Truman: The Truman Doctrine (March 1947) 385

Theodore White: Marx Was Wrong: The Flaws of Communism (1953) 386

How to Spot a Communist (1955) 388Milovan Djilas: The New Class (1957) 391Nikita Khrushchev: “The Victory of Communism

Is Inevitable!” The Secret Speech (1962) 393

Prague Spring: The Brezhnev Doctrine (1968) 394

Mikhail Gorbachev: Perestroika and the SocialistRenewal of Society (September 11, 1989) 400

Gorbachev’s Resignation: “This Society Has Acquired Freedom” (December 25,1991) 402


Theodore White: Marx Was Wrong: The Flaws ofCommunism (1953) 386

How to Spot a Communist (1955) 388President Ronald Reagan: “Mr. Gorbachev,

Tear Down This Wall!” (June 12, 1987) 398


How to Spot a Communist (1955) 388President Ronald Reagan: “Mr. Gorbachev, Tear

Down This Wall!” (June 12, 1987) 398

Imperialism

Ho Chi Minh: Vietnam: “Determined to Fight tothe Bitter End” (1945) 377

Jawaharlal Nehru: British Rule in India (1946) 379

Abdul Gamal Nasser: The Arab NationalistMovement and Revolution (1958) 380


Ho Chi Minh: Vietnam: “Determined to Fight tothe Bitter End” (1945) 377

Jawaharlal Nehru: British Rule in India (1946) 379

Abdul Gamal Nasser: The Arab NationalistMovement and Revolution (1958) 380

Prague Spring: The Brezhnev Doctrine (1968) 394

President Ronald Reagan: “Mr. Gorbachev, TearDown This Wall!” (June 12, 1987) 398

Mikhail Gorbachev: Perestroika and the SocialistRenewal of Society (September 11, 1989) 400

Gorbachev’s Resignation: “This Society Has Acquired Freedom” (December 25,1991) 402


Joseph Stalin: The Soviet Victory: Capitalism versus Communism (February 1946) 383

Theodore White: Marx Was Wrong: The Flaws ofCommunism (1953) 386

How to Spot a Communist (1955) 388Mikhail Gorbachev: Gorbachev’s Resignation:

“This Society Has Acquired Freedom”(December 25, 1991) 402

Chapter 16: The Dynamics of Change in theContemporary World (1990–2010) 406

The Power Structure

Helmut Kohl: A United Germany in a UnitedEurope (June 5, 1990) 410

François Mitterrand: The Reconciliation of Franceand Germany (September 24, 1990) 411

Václav Havel: “Czechoslovakia Is Returning toEurope” (February 21, 1990) 412

Vladimir Putin: Communism: “Far Away from theMainstream of Civilization” (December 31,1999) 413

Lawrence H. Summers: Monetary Union: Europe’sGlobal Role (1998) 415

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Helmut Tuerk: Ethnic Strife in Eastern Europe(April 15, 1994) 417

Crimes against Humanity: “Ethnic Cleansing” inSerbia (1992) 419

President George W. Bush: “We Wage a War toSave Civilization Itself ” (2001) 423

President Barack Obama: Turkey and theEuropean Union (2009) 430

“A New Beginning” (June 4, 2009) 431President Barack Obama and President Nicholas

Sarkozy: “The Burqa Is Not Welcome inFrance”: The Press Conference (June 6,2009) 435




Pope John Paul II: “We Are Witnesses to a Processof Death in the Balkans” (January 12, 1994) 421


Prime Minister Tony Blair: “Fanaticism Is Not aState of Religion, but a State of Mind”(July 11, 2005) 427

President George W. Bush: “This Is Going to Be Freedom’s Century” (March 29, 2006) 428


“A New Beginning” (June 4, 2009) 431President Barack Obama and President Nicholas

Sarkozy: “The Burqa Is Not Welcome inFrance”: The Press Conference (June 6,2009) 435



President Barack Obama and President NicholasSarkozy: “The Burqa Is Not Welcome inFrance”: The Press Conference (June 6,2009) 435

Imperialism






Helmut Kohl: A United Germany in a UnitedEurope (June 5, 1990) 410

François Mitterrand: The Reconciliation of France and Germany (September 24, 1990) 411

Václav Havel: “Czechoslovakia Is Returning toEurope” (February 21, 1990) 412

Vladimir Putin: Communism: “Far Away from theMainstream of Civilization” (December 31,1999) 413




“A New Beginning” (June 4, 2009) 431


Vladimir Putin: Communism: “Far Away from the Mainstream of Civilization” (December 31, 1999) 413

Women in History

President Barack Obama and PresidentNicholas Sarkozy: “The Burqa Is NotWelcome in France”: The Press Conference(June 6, 2009) 435

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P R E F A C E

The Roman orator Cicero once remarked, “Historyis the witness of the times, the torch of truth, the

life of memory, the teacher of life, the messenger ofantiquity.” In spite of these noble words, historians haveoften labored under the burden of justifying the value ofstudying events that are over and done. Humankind ispractical, more concerned with its present and futurethan with its past. And yet the study of history providesus with unique opportunities for self-knowledge. Itteaches us what we have done and therefore helps definewhat we are. On a less abstract level, the study of historyenables us to judge present circumstance by drawing onthe laboratory of the past. Those who have lived anddied, through their recorded attitudes, actions, andideas, have left a legacy of experience.

One of the best ways to travel through time andspace and perceive the very humanness that lies at theroot of history is through the study of primary sources.These are the documents, coins, letters, inscriptions,art, music, architecture, and monuments of past ages.The task of historians is to evaluate this evidence witha critical eye and then construct a narrative that is con-sistent with the “facts” as they have established them.Such interpretations are inherently subjective andtherefore open to dispute. History is thus filled withcontroversy as historians argue their way toward theso-called “truth.” The only way to work toward anunderstanding of the past is through personal exami-nation of the primary sources.

Yet, for the beginning student, this poses somedifficulties. Such inquiry casts the student adrift fromthe security of accepting the “truth” as revealed in atextbook. In fact, history is too often presented in adeceptively objective manner; one learns facts anddates in an effort to obtain the “right” answers formultiple-choice tests. But the student who has wres-tled with primary sources and has experienced voicesfrom the past on a more intimate level accepts theresponsibility of evaluation and judgment. He or sheunderstands that history does not easily lend itself to“right” answers but demands reflection on the prob-lems that have confronted past societies and are at playeven in our contemporary world. Cicero was right inviewing history as the “life of memory.” But humanmemory is fragile, and the records of the past can bedestroyed or distorted. Without the past, people havenothing with which to judge what they are told in thepresent. Truth then becomes the preserve of the ruleror government, no longer relative, but absolute. Thestudy of history, and primary sources in particular,goes far in making people aware of the continuity ofhumankind and the progress of civilization.

Aspects of Western Civilization offers the student anopportunity to evaluate the primary sources of the pastand to do so in a structured and organized format. Thedocuments provided are diverse and include state papers,secret dispatches, letters, diary accounts, poems, newspa-per articles, papal encyclicals, propaganda flyers, and

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trial testimony. Occasionally, the assessments of modernhistorians are included to lend perspective. All give testi-mony to human endeavor in Western societies. Yet thistwo-volume book has been conceived as more than asimple compilation of primary sources. The subtitle ofthe work, Problems and Sources in History, gives true indi-cation of the nature of its premise. It is meant to providethe student with thoughtful and engaging materialfocused around individual units that encompass timeperiods, specific events, and historical questions.Students learn from the past most effectively when posedwith problems that have meaning for their own lives.In evaluating the material from Aspects of WesternCivilization, the student will discover that issues are notnearly as simple as they may appear at first glance.Historical sources often contradict each other and truththen depends on logic and one’s own experience andoutlook on life. Throughout these volumes, the studentis confronted with basic questions regarding historicaldevelopment, human nature, moral action, and practicalnecessity. The text is therefore broad in its scope andincorporates a wide variety of political, social, economic,religious, intellectual, and scientific issues. It is internallyorganized around seven major themes that providedirection and cohesion to the text while allowing fororiginality of thought in both written and oral analysis:

1. The Power Structure: What are the institu-tions of authority in Western societies and howhave they been structured to achieve political,social, and economic stability? This theme seeksto introduce the student to the various systemsof rule that have shaped Western civilization:classical democracy, representative democracy(republican government), oligarchy, constitu-tional monarchy, divine-right monarchy, theoc-racy, and dictatorship (especially fascism andtotalitarian rule). What are the advantages anddrawbacks to each? This rubric also includes theconcepts of balance of power and containment,principles of succession, geopolitics, and social andeconomic theories such as capitalism, communism,and socialism.

2. Social and Spiritual Values: The Judeo-Christian and Islamic heritage of Western civiliza-tion form the basis of this theme. How have

religious values and moral attitudes affected thecourse of Western history? Is there a naturalcompetition between Church and State as twocontrolling units in society? Which is more influ-ential, which legacy more enduring? How hasreligion been used as a means of securing politicalpower or of instituting social change? To whatextent have spiritual reform movements resultedin a change of political or social policy? Are ideasmore potent than any army? Why have so manypeople died fighting for religions that abhor vio-lence? Does every society need a spiritual founda-tion? Also included in this rubric are sources thatexpress the values of particular societies, thusaffording comparison with others.

3. The Institution and the Individual: What isthe relationship between the institutions of soci-ety and the individual—between personal, cre-ative expression in society and the governingpolitical, religious, and social institutions of theage? How have writers, artists, and poets been var-iously employed through patronage systems toenhance political authority, perpetuate myths,and create heroes who embody the values of theage? What is the role of the rebel, the free thinker,who works against the grain and threatens the sta-tus quo by exploring new dimensions of thoughtor creative expression?

4. Imperialism: How has imperialism been justi-fied throughout Western history and what are themoral implications of gaining and maintaining anempire? Is defensive imperialism a practical for-eign policy option? Is containment essentially adefensive or offensive policy? This theme is oftenjuxtaposed with subtopics of nationalism, war,altruism, and human nature.

5. Revolution and Historical Transition: Thistheme seeks to define and examine the varieties ofrevolution: political, intellectual, economic,social, and artistic. What are the underlying andprecipitating causes of political revolution? Howessential is the intellectual foundation? Do tech-nological and economic revolutions have a directcorrelation to political or social revolutions? Doesan artistic revolution stem from political changeor a shifting of social realities? This theme focuses

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on transition through historical or artistic periodsand encourages students to debate and developtheir own philosophy of historical change.

6. The Varieties of Truth: What is the role of pro-paganda in history? Many sections examine the useand abuse of information, often in connectionwith absolute government, revolution, imperial-ism, or genocide. What roles do art, architecture,poetry, and literature play in the “creation of belief”and in the successful consolidation of power? Thistheme emphasizes the relativity of truth and stressesthe responsibility of the individual to assess thevalidity of evidence.

7. Women in History: The text intends to helpremedy the widespread omission of women fromthe history of Western society and to develop anappreciation for their contributions to the intellec-tual and political framework of Western civiliza-tion. At issue is how women have been viewed—orrendered invisible—throughout history and howindividually and collectively their presence is inex-tricably linked with the development and progressof civilization. This inclusive approach stresses theimportance of achieving a perspective that lendsvalue and practical application to history.

STRUCTURE OF ASPECTS OF WESTERN

CIVILIZATION

The main strength of the text lies in its structure andthe direction given to the student through introduc-tions to each primary source. Study questions promoteanalysis and evoke critical response. Each chapter fol-lows the same format:

• Timeline Chronological Overview: Thesebrief one word, as above and in Vol. 2 aredesigned to give students a visual perspective ofthe main events, movements, and personalitiesdiscussed in the chapter. Each chapter also has aKey Events chronology for historical continuity.

• Quotations: These are statements from varioushistorians, artists, philosophers, diplomats, liter-ary figures, and religious spokespersons who offerinsight and give perspective on the subject matterof the chapter.

• Chapter Themes: Each chapter is framed byseveral questions that direct the reader to broaderissues and comparative perspectives found in theideas and events of other chapters. This featureacknowledges the changing perspectives of differ-ent eras while linking historical problems thatemphasize the continuity of history.

• General Introduction: A general introductionthen provides a brief historical background andfocuses on the themes or questions to be dis-cussed in the chapter.

• Headnotes: These are extensive introductionsthat explain in detail the historical or biographicalbackground of each primary source. They alsofocus on themes and discuss interrelationshipswith other relevant primary sources.

• Primary Sources: The sources provided arediverse and include excerpts from drama and lit-erature, short stories, speeches, letters, diaryaccounts, poems, newspaper articles, philosophi-cal tracts, propaganda flyers, and works of art andarchitecture.

• Study Questions: A series of study questionsconclude each source or chapter section and pre-sent a basis for oral discussion or written analysis.The study questions do not seek mere regurgita-tion of information but demand a more thought-ful response that is based on reflective analysis ofthe primary sources.

FEATURES AND INTEGRATED FORMAT

The study of history is necessarily an integrative expe-rience. Aspects of Western Civilization provides insightinto the interrelationships among art, music, litera-ture, poetry, and architecture during various historicalperiods. Students are linked to relevant historicalevents, broader artistic movements, styles, and histori-ography through four unique features of the text:

1. The Artistic Vision: This feature emphasizesthe creative processes and vision of an artist whoembodies a dominant style of the period orexpresses the social or spiritual values of the age.This feature includes architecture as an expression

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of culture and presents a visual analysis of paint-ing and sculpture, architectural floor plans, reli-gious shrines, theaters, or other monuments thatare important cultural expressions of a particularsociety.

2. Against the Grain: This feature focuses onthose who don’t fit or are in conflict with theirsocieties but embody the edge of creative changeand set new artistic or historical parameters: theoutsider, the radical mind, the free thinker. Whatimpact does the individual have on the historicallandscape? To what extent does progress dependon those who threaten the status quo and seeknew directions outside the mainstream?

3. The Reflection in the Mirror: This featureoffers an analysis of a focused moral or philosoph-ical problem within a culture. It emphasizes themore abstract themes of progress and decline,arrogance and power, salvation, the impact of warand disease, the conflict between science and reli-gion, the relationship between divinity andhumanity, and the importance of human memoryand creativity when juxtaposed with technologi-cal progress. This feature promotes thoughtfulreflection at critical moments of change.

4. The Historian at Work: This is a feature ofVolume 1 that provides a longer and more exten-sive analysis of the work of an historian who is acentral source for our knowledge of the period.This feature allows students to view the creationof history by critically assessing method andunderstanding how the individual strengths andweaknesses of particular historians actually limitor enhance our perspective on the past and affectour assessment of truth.

USING ASPECTS OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION

Aspects of Western Civilization offers the instructor awide variety of didactic applications. The primary pur-pose of the text is to develop in students a more refinedsense of the value of history through a critical assess-ment of primary sources. Toward that end, Aspects isdesigned to supplement various textbooks that providea foundational historical narrative. Yet because of theintroductory essays and detailed headnotes, Aspects

provides an extensive historical framework so thatstudent discussion and written analysis can always beachieved with perspective. The following suggestionsshould help instructors understand more clearly thefull didactic structure and overriding intent of Aspectsof Western Civilization:

Developing Historical Continuity: The chapters fitinto a more or less standard lecture format and areordered chronologically. There is a historical flow toeach chapter that is structured from the outset with aTimeline for students who are more visual in theirapproach to learning. But each chapter is supplementedwith an expanded Key Events chronology. This is notjust a list of dates, but a short explanation of the pri-mary events of the historical period under discussionthat should help the student focus information and gainclarity. The Key Events chronology is designed as aguidepost at appropriate moments in the chapter to actas a point of reference for a better understanding of his-torical periods and the essence of complex ideas.

Quotations: Presented at the beginning of each chap-ter or sometimes at the beginning of major chapter sec-tions, the quotations are designed to spark interest andencourage class discussion as an intellectual supplementto the primary sources. Therefore, the quotations areselected for their controversial perspectives or theirphilosophical applicability to the historical themes atplay in the chapter. They also demonstrate the eternalapplicability of historical problems or issues across time.Several of the study questions refer to these quotations.

Study Questions: The study questions form the heartof this text and guide the student experience throughout.They are designed to establish a common foundation fordiscussion and critical assessment and to provide aframework for students to think and react in oral orwritten analysis. The study questions follow eachsource or chapter section and are divided into threeseparate types of questions, each numbered for easyreference and designed to develop a range of answerson several levels of complexity:

• Consider This: These questions are direct andpertain to individual sources. They are primarily

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designed to solicit specific information about thecontext and content of the primary source andsometimes ask follow-up comparative questionsthat link sources. They are rather limited in focus,but should provide a foundation for class discus-sion or a short paper. They demand some amountof regurgitation, but do not neglect importantanalytical possibilities. This is how instructors canengage the discussion and easily determine theextent of student understanding.

• The Broader Perspective: These questions gobeyond foundational information and frame thelarger, more abstract problems and perspectives ofhistorical analysis: moral responsibility, justifica-tions of power, definitions of freedom, decline orprogress. These questions are more complex andchallenging and they require more attention onthe part of the instructor. But they stimulate dis-cussions on a deeper level and seek to push stu-dents toward a more expansive awareness of theworld around them.

• Keep in Mind: These questions occur at thebeginning of primary sources contained only inthe Features and help students analyze the sourceby providing a guidepost. They are designed toenhance discussion of a more complex topic.

The Written Assignment: Aspects of WesternCivilization has been designed to promote both oral andwritten analysis. The study questions lend themselvesto discussion, but the text has also been conceived as avehicle for written assignments that are self-contained,are problem-oriented, promote reflection and analysis,and encourage responsible citation of particular primarysources.

• The Short Paper: This paper might run abouttwo to four pages and focus on particular primarysources, pulling from the “Consider This” ques-tions or in combination with one or more“Broader Perspective” questions. Since each studyquestion is numbered, instructors can easilyassign various combinations to students thatwould produce an engaged section analysis. Thisalso works well for the framed debates in the

Features: Students can focus on the historianThucydides (“Bloodbath at Corcyra”), the artisticperspective of Eugène Delacroix (“The GreekRevolution of 1820”), perspectives on slaverywith Olaudah Equiano and William Wilberforce(“The Horrors of the Slave Trade”), or freedomthrough the eyes of Nora Helmer in Ibsen’s ADoll’s House (“The Independent Woman”).

• The Term Paper: For those instructors who arelooking for a more extensive analysis of a topic orhistorical era, they might assign entire sections ofparticular chapters. For example, the chapter enti-tled “Democracy and Empire: The Golden Age ofAthens” in Volume 1 is focused on the compati-bility of democracy and empire: From a moralstandpoint, should a state that espouses freedom forall of its citizens control an empire that is main-tained by fear and force? Is it even possible for ademocratic government to rule an empire effectively?Finally, do the beauty and cultural worth of themonuments of a civilization justify the means ofobtaining them? In other words, what price civiliza-tion? These complex and abstract questions canbe more easily understood by assigning the sec-tion on the Athenian Empire and choosing ques-tions on specific sources like Pericles’ FuneralOration, the Mytilenian Debate, and the MelianDialogue of Thucydides accompanied by theselection on The Trojan Women by Euripides. Thiscould produce a longer paper of six to eight oreight to ten pages depending on the selection.Aspects is also set up to produce thematic papers aswell by comparing the treatment of women acrosstime in the ancient, medieval, or Renaissanceworlds, or by comparing the French and RussianRevolutions, or by analyzing the JewishHolocaust and the genocide in the Balkans dur-ing the 1990s.

Thematic Contents: Located after the table of con-tents, the Thematic Contents groups each primarysource by chapter according to the seven themes listedin the Preface. Some sources are cross-referenced undermultiple rubrics as application warrants. Sources arelisted by author where appropriate and are grouped

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within each rubric according to their position in thechapter. The Thematic Contents allows instructors toassign discussion or written assignments along the-matic lines across chapters and sections. For example, acomparative paper regarding women’s roles or the treat-ment of women in different societies during theancient, medieval, and modern worlds can be struc-tured by identifying these sources in the ThematicContents and assigning their accompanying studyquestions. Parenthetical citation of page numbers willestablish credibility. Additional themes may be selectedor blended to expand perspective.

NEW TO THIS EDITION

The seventh edition of Aspects of Western Civilizationmaintains a balanced coverage of historical periodswhile restructuring several chapters and enhancingcoverage in particular areas. It also offers additionalpedagogical resources for the instructor and guidancefor students.

• Structural Changes: There are two new chap-ters in Volume 2 designed to help students betterunderstand the development of nationalism andsubsequent political unification movements duringthe nineteenth century (“Paths of Glory: Napoleonand the Romantic Movement” and “Fatherland:the Power of Nationalism”). Chapter 10 (“Finde Siècle: The Birth of the Modern Era”) hasbeen restructured for greater continuity. Thereare also two new chapters added at the end ofVolume 2 (“The Era of the Superpowers: Cold WarConfrontation” and “The Dynamics of Change inthe Contemporary World”) in order to expand cov-erage of the Cold War from 1945 to 1990 and tofocus in greater detail on events in the contempo-rary world from 1990 to 2010.

• Enhanced Coverage: Beyond the additionalcoverage from 1945 to 2010, several chapters inboth volumes have been expanded to enhance thestudy of important topics: Hebrew prophets(Amos and Isaiah), early Greek literature(Sappho, Pindar, and Hesiod), values in the earlyand middle Roman Republic (Livy), and visionsof the New World (Thomas More and Michel de

Montaigne) in Volume 1. Enhanced coverage inVolume 2 includes the American Declaration ofIndependence; Romantic poetry of Schiller,Goethe, and Byron; perspectives on the slavetrade from Olaudah Equiano and WilliamWilberforce; additional nationalist sources fromAlexis de Tocqueville and Theodor Herzl; andenhanced coverage of nineteenth-century femi-nist movements (Elizabeth Cady Stanton,Lucretia Mott, and Ibsen’s A Doll’s House). Severalselections have also been added to the coverage ofthe Holocaust and there are new sections onSerbian genocide in the Balkans in the 1990s,including the papal response. Coverage of theCold War focuses on internal rebellion(Hungarian and Czechoslovakian revolutions),the Brezhnev Doctrine, and post–Cold Wardevelopments of Eastern European and Balkanstates. Finally, a new section on the Islamic worldand the West concentrates on economic relation-ships between Turkey and the European Union,and Muslim relationships with France and theUnited States.

• New Feature Selections: Several new featureselections have been added to the seventh edition,including a new rubric in Volume 1 entitled “TheHistorian at Work.” This section introduces stu-dents to historiography as well as to criticalmethod, and provides longer excerpts from sev-eral of the most important historians of theancient and medieval worlds (Herodotus,Thucydides, Livy, Tacitus, Josephus, Appian, andUsamah Ibn-Munqidh). New feature selectionsoften focus on the integration of art and archi-tecture into the political mainstream as revolu-tionary cultural elements (Giotto, Bernini andSt. Peter’s Basilica, Beethoven’s Eroica Symphony,Francisco Goya and Napoleon, Eugène Delacroixand the Greek Revolution of 1820, the social per-spective by train during the Industrial Revolution,the insular world of Edvard Munch, and the night-mare visions of Otto Dix during World War I).New features also include Theodor Herzl and theZionist movement, excerpts from A Doll’s House byHenrik Ibsen, Pope John Paul II on the Serbiangenocide, and President Obama’s 2009 speech to

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the Muslim world in Egypt regarding “a new begin-ning” with the West.

• New Pedagogical Aids: Every effort has beenmade in the seventh edition to aid both instruc-tors and students in using the text for discussionsand class papers. Opening chapter essays andintroductions to the primary sources have beenreviewed and edited to establish a strong sense ofhistorical continuity, and study questions havebeen clarified and refined to solicit specific informa-tion and offer a broader perspective on the abstractimplications of ideas and events. I have insertedadditional secondary sources on the decline of theRoman Empire and focused some questions oncontending ideas under the rubric: “Taking Sides.”I have edited and modernized translations toclarify ideas and bring older idioms into confor-mity with modern usage. Study questions havebeen numbered within each chapter for easierreference in class discussions and written assign-ments. New Key Events chronologies have beenadded to each chapter and placed near corre-sponding coverage. This should give students asolid historical reference point. Finally, a newThematic table of contents is available toinstructors to assist in developing comparativeideas across time.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would particularly like to thank friends and col-leagues who contributed their expertise and enthusi-asm to this book. Susan Altan lent her perspective andsensitive awareness of women’s issues at criticalmoments when new avenues of thought were mostneeded. Daniel Hall and Thomas Tappan advised meon several scientific and technological matters thatbroadened the scope of the text immeasurably. LindaSwarlis and Mary Ann Leonard offered their uniqueperspectives regarding ethical issues, which oftencaused me to pause and certainly forced the introduc-tion of new questions into the discussion. Marsha Ryanprovided me with material and literary insight thatadded greatly to the accuracy of the text, and Jack Guyread drafts of some chapters, offering sterling commen-tary throughout. Thanks also to the students ofColumbus School for Girls, who continue to test thechapters in this book with their typical diligence andhard work; the final product has benefited greatly fromtheir suggestions and ideas. The following reviewersprovided helpful suggestions and insights: AnthonyHeideman, Front Range Community College; DavidProctor, Tufts University; and David Stone, KansasState University. Finally, I owe an immeasurable debtto my wife, Ann, who suffered all the outrageous for-tune and disruption that goes into writing a book ofthis kind over a period of years—she did it with me.

P. M. R.

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