Palikur Numbers

8/12/2019 Palikur Numbers

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PALIKUR NUMERALSDiana Green

1. Introduction. This article contains a description of the rich numerical terminology ofPalikur, a morphologically complex Maipuran Arawakan language of northern Brail.! My

data "ase is a large collection of texts and some elicited material o"tained during twel#eyears of li#ing in the Palikur #illage of $umene, and another eighteen years of sporadiccontact with Palikur #isitors in Bel%m, Par&, Brail.'The affixes on Palikur numericalterms make explicit many mathematical relationships that speakers of other languages mayonly assume or may not e#en "e aware of. These affixes re#eal mathematical concepts thatare part of the e#eryday thought processes of people outside the influence of modern life,dispro#ing once again the idea of (primiti#e) minds una"le to think a"stractly oranalytically, and pro#iding a reference outside our own culture "y which we can measureour own mathematical ideas. *n the one hand, Palikur numerical terms confirm theexistence of many of our own mathematical concepts in the language of anunsophisticated society of +ungledwellers. *n the other hand, there are unusual

differences, such as a special emphasis on the num"er se#en. Most important, the Palikurterms demonstrate the intricate relationship "etween linguistics and mathematics, whichsuggests a new framework on which to "ase the categoriation of numeral classifiers.

-n the Palikur language most numerals from (one) to (one hundred) exhi"it a #ariety ofclassifiers, gender agreement markers, arithmetical suffixes, modifiers, and syntactical affixes.

-n this article - discuss all these affixes. - first present the "asic structure of the Palikurnumerical system /20, and then analye the twentyone uni1ue numeral classifiers which areo"ligatorily attached to the root of the numerals /30. /2ee Appendix for a listing of numerals !!3 with all of the classifiers.0 The classifiers fall into fi#e ma+or semantic categories dealingwith whole units, sets, fractions, a"stractions, and series4all mathematical concepts. 5ithinthese categories, there are more mathematical ideas. 6or example, units which are inanimate

are classified according to their geometrical form. The forms, in turn, are "ased on anintriguing #iew of the four Palikur dimensions7 length, width, depth, and perimeter /see Ta"le0. After looking at the classifiers, - explain gender agreement, which, on numerals, occursonly with reference to animate units /40. - then descri"e the ten uni1ue ways in which thenumerals are inflected to express mathematical concepts such as numerical order, addition,su"traction, numerical limits, multiplication, totality, and #arious kinds of sets /50. This isfollowed "y examples of the numerical terms in their syntactic functions as ad+ecti#es, ad#er"s,

! Palikur is spoken "y a group of approximately two thousand indigenous people li#ing in the far north of Brail near theAtlantic coast and also in 6rench Guiana. They li#e on scattered (islands) of +ungle in the flooded grasslands of the stateof Amap&.

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8esearch for this paper was done under the auspices of the 2ummer -nstitute of 9inguistics in contractual cooperationwith the Museu :acional and the 6unda;o


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pronouns, #er"s, and nouns, noting a few of their more common inflections /60. - close with adisplay of the relati#e order of the numeral affixes /70.

2. The tructure o! the P"#i$ur nu%eric"# &te%. The Palikur numerical system is "asicallydecimal. The term for numeral ten is madikawku /madik-awku0, which means (end KofL

hands). The numeral twenty ispina madikwa, (two tens), and the numeral forty is paxnikamadikwa, (four tens). The term for (tens) is madik-wa /end@MP0. As is common indecimal systems, the numeral fi#e,pohowku,is a compound word made up ofpaha(one)and u-waku(ourhand).

The most unusual feature is that the numerals eight and nine are "ased on the term fornumeral se#en, ntewnenker. 6or example, the numeral eight is ntewnenker akak pahat arawna,(se#en and one more added).

Ta"le ! gi#es enough samples of Palikur numerals to show the "asic structure of thesystem. The words used to form numerical phrases are (with) a-kak /:with0, (more) akiw,and (added) ar-awna/:addition0. The last word is used only in numerical phrases.

TAB9@ !2tructure *f The Palikur :umerical 2ystem

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1 paha-t (!97AB2T8) 2' p-i-na madikwa ('972@8 (' tens)

2 pi-ta-na ('97AB2T8') 25 p-i-na madikwa (' tens N)a-kak pohowku ar-awna

3 mpana 3' mpana madikwa ( tens)

4 paxnika 4' paxnika madikwa (O tens)

5 poho-uku (!hand) 5' pohowku madikwa (N tens)

6 pugunkuna 6' pugunkuna madikwa ( tens)

7 ntewnenker 7' ntewnenker madikwa (Q tens)

( ntewnenker (Q !) (' ntewnenker madikwa (Q tens !3) a-kak paha-t ar-awna a-kak madikawku ar-awna

) ntewnenker (Q ') )' ntewnenker madikwa (Q tens '3) a-kak pi-ta-na ar-awna a-kak p-i-na madikwa ar-awna

1' madik-awku (end KofLhands) 1'' madikawku madikwa (!3 tens)

11 madikawku (!3 !) 1'1 madikawku madikwa (!3 tens !)

a-kak paha-t ar-awna a-kak paha-t ar-awna1) madikawku (!3 Q ') 1)) madikawku madikwa

a-kak ntewnenker ar-awna a-kak ntewnenker madikwa a-kak p-i-naa-kak pi-ta-na ar-awna akiw madikwa ar-awna a-kak ntewnenker

a-kak pi-ta-na ar-awna akiw(!3 tensQ tens' tensQ')

1''' madikawku-put madikawku madikwa(!3 times !3 tens)

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5hen counting a"stractly, without a particular o"+ect in #iew, the classifier -t is added to

the root of the numerals one and two. The term for numeral one is paha-t /one97AB2T80. This classifier indicates that what is "eing counted is an a"stract idea "ut it also

Palikur :umerals Diana Green March !3, '3!O

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could indicate a cylindrical shape. -n the case of counting without a specific o"+ect in mind, itis impossi"le to know if the classifier -trefers to the a"stract idea of num"ers or if it refers tofingers /which are cylindrical0.

*nly in the case of the terms for numeral two /pi...na0 do the classifiers occur in the middleof the root. Thus, the term for numeral two used in Ta"le ! is pi-ta-na/two97AB2T8two0.

6or morphophonemic reasons, the form of the classifier when it is infixed into the root isusually different from the form it has as a suffix.O

The classifier that indicates a series of things, -i, is used to count groups of (tens). Thus thenumeral twenty, (two tens), isp-i-na madikwa/two972@8two tens0.

6or numerals higher than ninetynine, numerical terms from the trade language are used agreat deal more than those of Palikur. This language, a 6rench creole dialect, is the tradelanguage used "y the Palikur men to speak with other indigenous people in the area as well aswith the people of 6rench Guiana. Among themsel#es the Palikur speak their mother tongueexclusi#ely. They use "orrowed terms only for elements introduced from the outside culture.2ometimes, for higher num"ers used when counting money, they com"ine "oth languages. 6orexample, to say (three hundred) they say mpama-put sah. The term for (hundred), sah, is

"orrowed from the creole dialect the term for (three), mpana /ormpamawordmedially0 isPalikur, with the addition of the Palikur morpheme -putwhich refers to multiplication /threetimessah0. 2ee example /N0.

-t would "e most interesting to know the history of the de#elopment of the Palikur system.The existence of the numerals four, six, and se#en is a mystery. -n ProtoArawak it is possi"leonly to reconstruct roots of three numerals7 (one) is more or less Rpa or Rba (two) issomething like Rpi or Rbi (three) is something like Rmapa or Rmada /Payne, !SS!0. ThePalikur language follows this pattern. 5here then did the other numerals come from And whyare their roots made up of four sylla"les, a #ery rare phenomenon in Palikur -n some otherArawak languages, the terms for (four) are deri#ed from a #er" /Aikhen#ald, to appear0. Butthere is no known etymology for the numerals four, six, and se#en in the Palikur language.

There is also no known similarity to any other language presently spoken in the area.2pecific oneword terms for the numerals six and se#en appear to "e #ery rare amongBrailian indigenous languages. Esually, in decimal and #igesimal systems, numerals higherthan fi#e are made up of a phrase like (fi#e plus one) and (fi#e plus two). -f a language doesha#e specific words for six and se#en, as the Iuechua language of Peru does, it also hasspecific words for eight and nine. Perhaps in the past the Palikur language had specific wordsfor eight and nine "ut, through disuse, they were forgotten. Another possi"ility is that the ideaof a decimal system was "orrowed from the trade language, and "efore that the people usedonly se#en numerals.

There are a few indications that the numeral se#en has some importance in the Palikurculture. 6or example, until the !SQ3s, the Palikur fashioned a kind of com"ination in#itation

andcalendar called imti(cords) to count days. As far as - know, the imtine#er had more thanse#en cords. @ach cord had a decoration at the end of it made of cotton and the wing co#ersof certain iridescent "eetles. Among other things, the imtiwas distri"uted "y one clan tomem"ers of the other clans, in#iting them to come to a special ceremony to mourn and(forget) mem"ers who had died during the year. A person who accepted an in#itation took offone decoration each day. 5hen he came to the last one, he knew it was time to attend theceremony.

O Throughout the language, the phonological form of a morpheme in wordmedial position usually differs a great dealfrom its form in wordinitial or wordfinal position.



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concepts, that is, in terms of tangi"le (whole units), (sets), and (fractions), as well as intangi"le(units) and (sets) /called (a"stractions) and (series)0. -n this way the twentyone

TALE 2Se%"ntic /"te-orie o! the Nu%er"# /#"i!ier

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TAN*ILE UNITS TAN*ILE SETS 0RA/TINS

animate inherently unconnected sideinanimate7 inherently connected /cluster0 part

irregular noninherently connected7round connected "y a tieround long /cylindrical0 connected "y a wrappingflat connected "y a "asketflat deep /conca#e0 connected "y a potextended /long0extended perimeter /"road0

plant and "ody parts7

stemHtrunk /foliform0handmouth

INTAN*ILE UNITS INTAN*ILE SETS

a"stractions seriesconnected in time "y repetition

44444444444444444444444444V44444444numerical classifiers of the Palikur language can "e summaried as indicated in Ta"le '.5hen the semantic parameters of numeral classifiers are categoried according tomathematical concepts, the category of (sets) includes the parameters in Allen)s category of

(arrangement) and also the parameters of (plural), (collections), and ("asketful) which hecategoried as (1uanta). They all fit into the category of (sets) "ecause all refer to collections,not 1uantities or measurements. :o Palikur classifier is a 1uantifier. All are 1ualifiers. S-n thecase of (sets), the classifiers re#eal the way the units within the collections are +oined together.There remains only one parameter in Allen)s (1uanta) category that doesn)t fit into (sets). -trefers to (partiti#es), which - call (fractions).

-n his discussion of the category of (1uanta), Allen mentions (cyclic time expressions). -nPalikur the classifier used with (time) words, like (day) and (night) is also used with any seriesof repeated actions, e#ents, or num"ers. They are not necessarily (cycles). 6or that reason, -call them (series). (A"stractions) and (series) are separate from the other classifiers and relatedto one another, not only "ecause they are intangi"le, "ut for reasons of distri"ution and

internal structure that will "e discussed later. 2ince these classifiers occur on numerals, it isnatural and appropriate that semantic categories fit into a "asically mathematical framework.3.1.1. Unit.-n Palikur when a numeral higher than (one) refers to a tangi"le or intangi"le

unit, it is usually followed "y a term which means (units). 5hen referring to inanimateo"+ects or a"stract ideas, the term is a-kebi/:units0 which means (neuterunits). 6orexample, (three houses) is mpana a-kebi payt /three :units house0. 5hen the termfor (units) is used with animate "eings, and often with plants, it is inflected "y other

pronominal affixes that agree with the noun in person, gender, and num"er. 6orexample, (four children /girls0) ispaxnika gu-kebi-kis bakimn-ayh /four 6unitsP9childP90, i. e. (four female units of children). (Two of us) is pi-ya-na u-kebi /two

S Adams and onklin /!SQ7'0 point out that (few analyses ha#e recognied that 1uantification phrases Kmeasurements,

like (one liter of honey)L and 1ualification phrases Klike (a slice of "read) which is not a measurement, "ut decri"es theshape of the "readL are "ased on differing sets of semantic primes and ha#e radically differing relationships with thehead nouns of the phrases.)


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97A:-Mtwo !P9units0, i. e. (two units of us). The numeral classifier doesn)tchange with the use of this term it still classifies the o"+ect !3"eing counted. The term-kebi does not occur with sets, fractions, or series it occurs only with units.

5hen a numeral refers to a tangi"le unit, the classifier always indicates whether the unit isanimate or inanimate. 5ith animate units, the numeral one has the classifier -p/(animate)0 and

also agrees in gender. 6or example, (one /male0 shaman) ispaha-p-ri iham-ri/one97A:-MM shamanM0 and (one /female0 shaman) ispaha-p-ru iham-ru/one97A:-M6 shaman60.5ith inanimate units there is no specific (inanimate) classifier instead the classifiers indicate

the geometric shape of the unit. These shapes are7 irregular, roundHs1uare, roundandlong/cylindrical0, flat, flatanddeep /conca#e0, extended, and extendedincludingperimeter/highHdeepH"road0. :umerals referring to inanimate units do not show gender. An example is(one paper)paha-k kagta/one9769AT paper0.

There are three classifiers that refer to items that seem to fall somewhere "etween "einganimate and inanimate. *ne indicates plants of all kinds two indicate specific "ody parts7handsHhandfuls and mouthfuls. All three classifiers are deri#ations of the nouns to which theyrefer. The classifier for plants is deri#ed from the term meaning (trunk or stem). The others are

deri#ed from the words for (hand) wakand (mouth) -biy. 6or example, (his two hands) is pi-wok-na gi-wak/two97A:Dtwo hishand0. (A mouthful of water) ispaha-biyu un /one97M*ET water0.3.1.2. Set. *n numerals referring to sets of tangi"le units, the classifiers indicate the manner

in which theelements are +oined to one another. There is a classifier for a set of entitiesthat are inherently separate, i. e. not physically +oined in any way /like a herd of pigs0.6or example, (a group of people) is paha-bru hiyeg/one97G8EP person0. There isanother classifier for a set of elements that are inherently +oined together /like a stalk of

"ananas0. There are others that indicate sets that are +oined in other ways, i. e. "y "eingtied together, "y "eing wrapped up together in paper, cloth, or lea#es /like a package0,

"y "eing W"asketedX together in a "asket, and "y "eing WpottedX together in a pot. 6or

example, (fi#e "askets of manioc roots) is pohowku-psi kaneg /fi#e97BA2$maniocYroot0. A "asketful or potful is treated as a set "ecause it is not used as ameasurement of #olume or weight. Measurements of #olume are nouns that areclassified according to the shape of the container. 6or example, (one liter of honey) is

paha-t lit ahayak a-nunu /one97F9 liter "ee itshoney0, "ecause liters aremeasured "y "ottles, which are cylindrical. -f the container were a large /!Sliter0s1uare kerosene can, which is often used nowadays to measure manioc flour, theclassifier would "e the one used for round or s1uare o"+ects, i. e. paho-u bom kuwak/one978:D can maniocflour0. The different kinds of "askets are all considered "ythe Palikur to "e of irregular shape and are referred to "y the use of the use of theclassifier for irregularlyshaped items. 6or example, (one K"ackpackL "asket) is paha-a

wasipna /one97-88@G "asket0. 2o the ("asket) classifier does not indicate a("asket) shape or measurement "ut rather the manner in which the items in the set are+oined together. The same is true of a set of items collected in a pot. 2ee othermeasurements in examples /3U0 to /!0.

3.1.3. 0r"ction. *n numerals referring to fractions, the classifiers refer to the parts intowhich a tangi"le o"+ect could "e di#ided. *ne classifier indicates the sides of an o"+ect./All o"+ects ha#e at least two sides.0 The other has to do with a part remo#ed from awhole. 6or example, (one side of the island) is paha-bak kewrihgi /one972-D@island0 and (one part of the island) ispaha-uhri kewrihgi /one97PA8T island0.

3.1.4. Int"n-i#e unit "tr"ction. 6or a"stractions, there is only one classifier. -t refers toall intangi"le things like (sickness), (+o"), (custom) and any specific action. 2ince these

items occur with the term for (units), akebi, it is pro"a"ly correct to think of the!3 -n this article, the term (o"+ect) does not refer to a syntactic function, unless it is specifically called a (direct o"+ect).



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classifier as indicating (intangi"le units). An example is the phrase (two words), whichis

pi-ta-na a-kebi yuwit/twoAB2T8two :units word0.3.1.5. Int"n-i#e et 6or series, there is also only one classifier. -t mainly refers to time,

such as day or night, "ut also to "reaths, heart "eats, frog +umps and other regularly

repeated e#ents or actions. 6or example, (one "reath) is paha-i kahikanaw /one972@8 "reath0. 2ee example /3N0, as well, which refers to a series of misfortunes.:umerical terms with this classifier are often inflected in different ways than others are.2ee examples /30 and /3Q0 for a few of these. *ne of these uni1ue inflections, -put,indicates repetition of actions or of any other items in the a"stract class. -t also refersto types of things. 2ee examples /0 to /N0 and /OO0 to /O0. Besides this, theclassifier for (series) also refers to a set of se#en days or a set of ten numerals.Therefore it could "e called a classifier of (intangi"le sets), sets which are connected "yrepetition.

3.2. ecrition o! the c#"i!ier in e"ch c"te-or&.- will now descri"e each classifier inmore detail. 2ee Ta"le O for a list of examples of all classifiers.

3.2.1. T"n-i#e unit "ni%"te entitie. To indicate an animate entity, the classifier is -ponthe numeral one and -yaon the numeral two. The numeral one is paha-p-ri /one97A:-MM0 or paha-p-ru /one97A:-M60.The numeral two ispi-ya-na /two97A:-Mtwo0. :umerals higher than two ha#e no classifiers when they refer toanimate creatures. The numeral one always agrees with the animate noun in gender/see section O.0 Animate "eings include people, spirits, animals, fish, "irds, snakes,turtles, and insects. 6or example, (one caterpillar) ispahapru itey. -n accordance withtheir myths, the Palikur also consider the moon, sun, and stars to "e animate. The

phrasepiyana kayg(two moons) also means (two months).3.2.2. T"n-i#e unit In"ni%"te oect.5hen inanimate o"+ects /except for plants and

some "ody parts0 are "eing counted, the classifier on the numeral indicates the o"+ects)

geometric form. 2e#en forms are distinguished. They fit into a logical and elegantpattern, which is shown in Ta"le . The terms that Palikur speakers use to descri"ethese forms in#ol#e the concept of a fourth physical dimension in addition to length /l0,width /w0, and depth /d0. - call this dimension the perimeter /p0. The term (perimeter)refers to the outer "oundary or periphery of a figure. -t denotes the whole of that

"oundary, not the length of it.The wellknown mathematician, >ames 2inger /!SS0, came #ery close to descri"ing the

Palikur (fourth dimension) when he stated, WAny point in the physical uni#erse can "e located"y reference to three gi#en axes the physical uni#erse is said, therefore, to "e threedimensional. The same space, howe#er, "ecomes fourdimensional if it is regarded as made upnot of points "ut of an infinity of spheres, "ecause then four references must "e gi#en to

determine or locate each indi#idual sphere7 the three coordinates of its center point and thelength of its radiusKitalics mineL. 2imilarly a (threedimensional) space that can "e drawn on aflat piece of paper can "e imagined, the space consisting of all the circles that can "e drawn ona plane surface. -n this case the three dimensions consist of the coordinates of the center of acircle and its radius. The use of geometrical concepts in#ol#ing more than three dimensionshas had a num"er of important applications in the physical sciences, particularly in thede#elopment of the theory of relati#ity.X!!

-n order to understand the Palikur (fourth dimension) it must "e kept in mind that all thepoints at the Wcoordinate of the radiusX are what make up the perimeter of an o"+ect. learly,this type of a (fourth dimension) is not a new concept. -t is studied in @uclidian geometry as#arious types of cur#es, and is recognied as "eing of extreme mathematical importance. -n the

!! 2inger was pro"a"ly referring in his last sentence to the idea that the fourth dimension is that of time. The Palikurlanguage classifies expressions of time as "eing a series of repetitions without physical dimensions.


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Palikur language the perimeter is so inextrica"ly in#ol#ed with the other three dimensions thatit is treated as a fourth dimension. All four references must "e considered in order todetermine the geometrical class to which a physical o"+ect "elongs.

The Palikur language is replete with terms for dimensions and geometrical forms. - discusshere only those that are related to the numeral classifiers. 2e#eral terms that nati#e speakers

use to descri"e shapes ha#e the root huwi-, which "asically means (round) "ut is also used torefer to s1uare items.!'The word huwi-patip (round@IEA9) means (round with all sidese1ual). Geometers would call a round perimeter a set of points or a cur#e with only one center

point, or (focus), and one radius. The term huwipatipis used to descri"e a sphere or cu"e, acircular o"+ect, or a painted design that is round or s1uare. The depth or solidity of the form isnot an important component of the meaning of the term, "ut the single radius or e1ual

perimeter is.Another word, huwi-bakup (roundE:@IEA9), descri"es a (round /or s1uare0 form

whose sides are not of e1ual length). -t refers to an o#al or rectangular shape. Geometerswould descri"e this as a cur#e with two foci and two radii. A third word, huwi-gakup,indicates a shape that is (round /or s1uare0 whose perimeter is in focus), for example, a ring, a

wheel, a circle of people, a room or a corral. These examples indicate that the root huwirefersto a geometrical form we can call (saliently threedimensional). owe#er, in this case, thethree dimensions are not what we commonly call length, width, and depth. Depth is not takeninto account. 5hat is taken into account is length, width, and perimeter. The importance of

perimeter as a dimension will "ecome clear as the other dimensions are examined.Another "asic geometrical form in Palikur iscalledsaba-bo-ye /flatJ9769ATDE8.M0

(flat). The morpheme bois a #er"al classifier!which also occurs on ad+ecti#es and refers to aflat shape. The morpheme -ye,which indicates a dura"le state, occurs on most ad+ecti#es. Theterm is used to descri"e a leaf or piece of paper. This geometrical form is saliently twodimensional. *nly the surface, with its two dimensions of length and width, is taken intoaccount. The perimeter is not considered.

Another important term refers to a saliently onedimensional form. This term is tara-n-ad/extend*:TAEG0 (extended). -t is used to descri"e things that are extended or linear,without thinking of the "readth or the extremities, like a ri#er, a path, a cord or a row ofthings. Although for con#enience we call this one dimension (length), the concept of(extended) does not include a "eginning and ending point that the term (long)!Oimplies, and itcan refer to height, depth, or "readth as well as length.

These four primary geometrical forms on which Palikur classifiers are "ased can "esummaried as follows7 The first and second forms are "oth saliently threedimensional /length width perimeter0, the only difference "eing the e1uality of the perimeter. 6or example aspeaker of Palikur descri"es an egg as "eing huwi-bakup, (roundune1ual) and an orange as

"eing huwi-patip (rounde1ual). The classifiers /on the numeral one0 that refer to these forms

are -a and -u, respecti#ely. - la"el the first class (irregular) "ecause the classifier is used onnumerals that refer not only to o#alshaped /huwibakup0 items "ut to all items with dimensionsthat do not fit in any of the other classes. That is, the classifier does not only indicate formswith two radii, like that of an egg it also includes forms that ha#e perimeters produced "ymany foci and radii, like those of a cloud or a house. Besides these two forms, there are twoothers of different dimensions. The third form is sababoye (flat), a form that is saliently twodimensional /length width0. The classifier that refers to this form is -k.The fourth form istaranad (extended long), a form that is saliently onedimensional /length0. The classifier that

!' To specify the idea of (s1uare) one can say, huwipatip ka-tusi-bet /round ha#ingcornerJ97ME9T-P9@YPA8T20/round with corners0, "ut the term huwipatipis freely used to descri"e "oth round and s1uare o"+ects.

! Besides the system of numeral classifiers, the Palikur language has a system of #er"al classifiers and a system of intra

locati#e classifiers, all with different markers and different semantic classes.!O The word (long) in Palikur is ki-yabwi-ye /ha#inglengthDE80. *"+ects of se#eral shape classes can "e descri"ed as

"eing kiyabwiye for example, arrows /cylindrical0, "oards /flat0, canoes /conca#e0, and ri#ers /extended long0.


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refers to this form is -tra. -t is the only classifier that appears phonologically related to thead+ecti#e that descri"es the form.

lassifiers exist for three more geometric forms that are related to these three dimensions.The difference is that the idea of a further dimension is added to each of them. :ati#e termsfor two of these shapes are made up of the root that refers to threedimensional and two

dimensional forms with the addition of the morpheme -min, as insababo-min(flatmin). Thismorpheme -minis not easy to explain. -t occurs on many roots with the idea of an addedsecondary dimension which may "e either physical or a"stract. The meaning of the "asic rootis amplified with the sense of (something more) or (something "eyond). !N 6or want of a "etterterm, it is la"eled (B@F*:D). 5hen

!N 6or example, the #er" (think) is formed "y adding -minto the #er" ipeg(look) the phrase (-)m thinking) is literally(-)m lookingminin my thoughts) ah ipeg-min-ne nu-hiyakemni/- lookB@F*:D*:T mythoughts0. A ha"itualliar is descri"ed as ha#ing a (longmin tongue) ki-yabu-min gi-nen /ha#inglengthB@F*:D histongue0. 5hen-min is added to the postposition (on) a-pit /!:on0, the resulting term a-pit-min refers to "eing higher than orsurpassing other things. -t is used to speak of "irds flying (o#er) the trees "ut also to descri"e people in positions ofleadership, the winners of a "attle, or God himself. Also when a deceased person is "eing spoken a"out, -minis always

added to his name (the deceased Paul) is !ol-min/PaulB@F*:D0. @xamples of the use of -minin this paper are /3N0,/O0, /N0, /0, and /QU0.


S


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TAB9@

The Geometric lasses *f The Palikur :umeral 2ystem"ased on the four dimensions of length /l0, width /w0, depth /d0, perimeter /p0

8

three une9u"# di%enionhuwibakup/l w p0(o#alHretangularHirregular)@x7 egg, house, cloudclassifier-a

three e9u"# di%enion three di%enion : onehuwipatip/l w p0 huwipti-min /l w p d)(roundHs1uare) (round and deep) /cylindrical0@x7 orange, "ox, circle @x7 arrow, "ranch, reed

classifier-u classifier-tt,o di%enion t,o di%enion : one

sababoye/l w0 sababo-min /l w d0(flat) )flat and deep) /conca#e0@x7 sleeping mat, "oard @x7 canoe, "owlclassifier-k classifier-mku

one di%enion one di%enion : onetaranad /l0 mihadHimuwad/ huwigakup/l p0(extended long) (extended "road)@x7 string, ri#er, path @x7 hole, waterfall, corral

classifier-tra classifier-iku4444444444444444444444444444444

the morpheme -minis used to descri"e different shapes, it indicates an additional secondarydimension that - call (depth,) though it includes what @nglishspeakers might refer to as "eing(length) in some situations. Thus, the terms "uwi-b-min /roundune1ualB@F*:D0 andhuwi-pti-min /rounde1ualB@F*:D0 are used to descri"e a form that is (primarily round andsecondarily deepHlong,) that is, a cylindrical o"+ect such as an arrow or a tree"ranch! thetermsaba-bo-min/flat9769ATB@F*:D0 is used to descri"e things that are (primarily flatand secondarily deep), that is, a conca#e o"+ect such as a canoe or a "owl!Q.

The last classifier is associated with elements that are extended, "ut they ha#e a perimeterof some kind. There are two Palikur words that descri"e this form, "oth ending with the suffix-ad/AEGM@:TAT-J@0 or its allomorphs. These terms are mih-ad/deepAEG0 (deep) andimu-wad/highAEG0 (highHtall). The numeral classifier that has to do with these forms is thesame that is used to refer to items descri"ed as huwi-gakup/(round or s1uare whose perimeteris in focus)0. 5e could say that all three of these terms indicate a shape that is (primarilyextensi#e and secondarily with the perimeter or extremities included). This classifier is usedwith items such as a high "uilding, a hole, a room or a field /when attention is on its "readth or

"oundaries, not its flatness0.ere are some examples of the difference "etween the two (onedimensional) classes. A

rope used to take water out of a well is taranad(extended) while the well is mihad (deep) or(extended with a perimeter). The wordyar, (fence), is classified as "eing taranad (extended)

! 2ome younger Palikur speakers refer to the cylindrical shape as ki-yabu-min /ha#inglengthB@F*:D0, i.e. (primarilylong and secondarily round).

!Q 2ome younger Palikur speakers refer to the conca#e shape as dudu-rik/dentedin0.


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"y the speaker who is thinking of a "arrier, without attention to its limits, and as "einghuwigakup(circular) or (extended with a perimeter) "y the speaker who is thinking of a corral.

These three forms can "e summaried as follows. A cylindrical o"+ect such as a "anana ishuwipti-min ("eyond round). (8ound) is length width perimeter. (Beyond round) is length width perimeter depth, that is, it is saliently threedimensional with an additional

dimension of depth. The classifier that refers to this form is -t. The second geometrical form,used to descri"e conca#e o"+ects like "owls or canoes, is sababo-min ("eyond flat). -t is aform that is saliently twodimensional with an additional dimension of depth /length width depth0. The classifier that refers to this shape is -mku. The final form is saliently onedimensional with an additional dimension of a perimeter /length perimeter0. Three terms areused to descri"e this form7 a wound is mih-ad (deep), a tall pile of sand is imu-wad(high), aroom is huwi-gakup(ha#ing a perimeter all around). The numeral classifier that indicates thisform is -iku.

-n the following paragraphs, the numeral classifiers are descri"ed in detail along withexamples of inanimate units that generally occur with them. @ach noun is followed "y itsgender in parentheses. 2ee Ta"les O and N for examples of numerals used with some of these

nouns.6or items considered to "e of (irregular) shape, the numeral classifier is -aon the numeralone and -saon the numeral two. The numeral one is paha-a.The numeral two ispi-sa-ya.!U

The terms for numerals higher than two do not occur with a classifier. @xamples of nouns thatoccur with this classifier are7payt(house) /n0,payt-weh-pu /housewideYrangeP90 (#illage)/n0, antiyan(egg) /n0, epti("ench) /n0, itewti(skull) /n0, ukuhne(cloud) /n0, tiket a-mey(fire:spark) /n0, etc.-t also refers to generalities like (a thing), arikna,(a container), atiy, (alight), abukri, i.e. a physical thing that pro#ides light, and e#en (a #oice), i-kupi-mna-t/literally(throatsound)0.

6or items that are huwi-patip /roundHs1uaree1ual0, the numeral classifier is -u on thenumeral one and -soin the numeral two. The terms for numerals higher than two do not occur

with a classifier. The numeral one is paho-u. The numeral two is pi-so-ya. @xamples ofspherical or s1uare o"+ects are7 uwas(orange) /f0, apuk(a#ocado) /f0, kapunma (passion fruit)/f0,papay(papaya) /f0, tukugu (gourd) /f0, tumawri (cala"ash fruit) /f0, tip (stone) /f0, waw(rattle) /f0, bul("all) /f0,gol(goalposts) /f0, kiyes("ox) /f0, malet(suitcase) /f0, etc. *"+ectswhose principle part is circular also "elong to this class. 6or example7 heloj(clock) /f0,sabbug(drum) /n0, kasru (kettle) /f0, siyo ("ucket) /f0, suyeg (pan) /f0, buwet (can) /f0, lalamp(kerosene lamp) /f0,goble (drinking glass) /f0, hadyo (radio ) /f0 /possi"ly "ecause it has acircular dial0, etc.

6or cylindrical items, that is, those that are huwi-b-min /roundune1ualB@F*:D0 orhuwi-pti-min/rounde1ualB@F*:D0, the numeral classifier is -t. The numeral one ispaha-t.The numeral two ispi-ta-na. The numerals higher than two do not occur with a classifier.

2ome o"+ects classified as "eing cylindrical are7gi-wak(Mfinger) /n0,gi-semnu(Kstrand ofLMhair) /n0, g-ib (Mtail) /n0, gi-pita (M"one) /n0, a-tawni (:"ranch) /n0, alimet(match) /n0, ayg (cigarette) /n0, kurumri(lance) /n0,matap (manioc s1ueeer) /n0, enne-tet/design-:2T80 (pencil) /n0, kakus (needle) /f0, ugiyo a-kig /drill :point0 (drill "it) /f0,

pudubdu (nail) /f0, pilatno ("anana) /f0, mayk (ear of corn) /f0, sipapa (reed) /f0, ah(stickHwood) /f0, butey("ottle) /f0, aragbus(shotgun) /f0, katux(shotgun shell) /f0, etc.

6or flat items, descri"ed assaba-bo-ye/flatJ9769ATDE80, the numeral classifier is -k.*n numerals higher than two only the classifier -buoccurs. This o"#iously comes from the#er"al classifier -bowhich also refers to flatness. -t has now "ecome firmly esta"lished as ano"ligatory numeral classifier, too. The numeral one ispaha-k. The numeral two ispi-ka-na.The numeral three is mpana-bu.2ome nouns classified as flat are7parak("oard) /f0,puwayt

!U The classifiers for roundHs1uare o"+ects /of e1ual proportions0 and irregular o"+ects /of une1ual proportions0 aremorphologically closer than the others. :umerals one and two with the former are pahaaandpisaya with the latter theyarepahowandpisoya. *ne wonders if these were the original two categories.


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(paddle) /f0, ax-tet/eat-:2T80 (ta"le) /f0, miruk(plate) /n0, kuyeg(spoon) /n0, kagta(paperor "ook) /n0,sipapa(sleeping mat) /n0,gi-wak (Mhand) /n0,gi-sipri (Mfeather) /n0,gi-hanpi (Mwing) /n0, awagi (fan) /n0, kamis(cloth) /n0, ahap(patch) /n0, aka-butik-ti ("elt)/n0!S, pudig (hammock) /n0, huw (manioc sifter) /n0, awebru (manioc pancakes) /n0, waru(mirror) /n0, was(field) /n0, kasapat(sandal) /n0, etc.

6or flatanddeep items, descri"ed as saba-bo-min /flatJ9769ATB@F*:D0, thenumeral classifier is -mku. -t occurs on all the numerals referring to o"+ects of this shape. Thenumeral one ispaha-mku. The numeral two ispi-muk-na. -tems that occur with this classifierare deeply conca#e7 tumawri(cala"ash "owl) /f0, umuh(canoe) /f0, nawiy("oat) /f0, kutimna(ship) /f0, kud("asin /made of the cur#ed "ract of the ina+& palm tree0) /f0, besin(metal "asin)/f0, etc.'3This classifier also occurs with certain o"+ects that are not conca#e, such as iwan(knife) /f0, kasipag(machete) /f0, kirikri(saw) /f0, ipihgi(raor "lade) /f0, akawakti(ring) /f0,ideptet (scissors) /f0, kirehka(coin) /f0, etc. -t seems that the sababo-min /flatB@F*:D0class has now "een amplified to include o"+ects that are (primarily flat and secondarilymetallic).'!This classifier also occurs on the interrogati#e word which means (how much doesit cost), aysaw-muk/1uantity9769ATD0. The morpheme -mukis pro"a"ly used "ecause of

the association with coins or gold.6or extended items, descri"ed as tara-n-ad/extend*:TAEG0, the classifier is -tra. -toccurs on all the numerals referring to o"+ects of this dimension. The numeral one ispaha-tra.The numeral two ispi-tahr-a. (@xtended) nouns are7 warik (ri#er) /f0,parewni (stream) /f0,ahin (path) /n0, kuwawta (corda) /n0, imedrit a-rim("ow :string) /n0, akarti (string) /n0,iyuti(headdress) /made of tiny feathers wo#en into a long string0 /n0,yar(fence /thinking ofits extension0) /n0, etc. The (long) classifier is used with any noun that refers to things in arow, including people. 6or example, (a parade of people) is hiyeg paha-tra-min-ne /peopleone97@T@:B@F*:D*:T0. -t is common to speak of rows of plants. 6or example7

/3!0 n-amutra pi-tahr-a gu-kebi-kis a-dahan paxka-pti-t!2Gplant two97@T@:two 6unitsP9 :"y four976*9-2@T

(My plants KareL two /extensi#e0 units "y sets of four /plants0)/i. e. My plants are in two rows of four each.0

6or items that are (extended with perimeter), the classifier is -iku. -t occurs on all thenumerals. -t appears to "e related to the intralocati#e classifier -iku which means (withinspatial limits). The extension can refer to height, or depth, or "readth. - la"el the class ("road).The numeral one ispaha-iku.The numeral two ispi-rik-na. -tems classified as (high), imu-wad/highAEG0, are7 tiket(fire) /f0, apetetni(waterfall) /f0,payt imuw-ad-ne-ne/house highAEG*:T.M*:T.M0 ("uilding) /n0. @xamples of units classified as deep, mih-ad/deepAEG0, are7 miyokwiye (hole) /n0, unihpna (well) /n0, imewti (gra#e) /n0, ahadru (root) /f0,busukne (wound) /n0,gi-biy (Mmouth) /n0,gi-kig a-miyokni /Mnose :hole0 (nostril)/n0, etc. @xamples of items classified as ("road) or (with a perimeter) huwi-gakup

/roundHs1uareperimeter0, are7 was (field) /when focusing on its "readth0 /n0, amutri-pwi/plantP90 (plantation) /n0, iwetrit (place) /n0,xam(room) /n0, lappot(doorway) /n0, bisik-ket/fleeplace0 (shelter) /n0, yar (fence) /n0, etc. The classifier for this shape occurs with anyitems that are high "ecause they is piled up. 6or example, (a pile of sand) is paha-iku kayh/one97B8*AD sand0 and (a pile of "ooks) is paha-iku kagta/one97B8*AD "ook0.3.2.3. T"n-i#e unit or et #"nt "nd od& "rt. The Palikur picture a plant as "eing a

trunk or stem with offshoots. The term used to descri"e all types of plants is ka-kat-ye/(ha#ingstemDE8)0. - la"el the form (foliform) to follow con#ention, although

!S aka-butik-ti/("elt)0 is a compound word that means (withwaistAB2*9ET@.) To a#oid confusion, - will not segmentother compound words. 6or the same reason, - also will not segment words with the discontinuous morpheme, i...ti/AB2*9ET@0, which is used on inaliena"ly possessed nouns when the owner is not known.

'3 The nouns (plate) and (spoon) do not occur with this classifier "ecause the original eating utensils that ser#ed as platesand spoons were not made of metal and, "eing only mildly conca#e o"+ects, they were classed as "eing (flat).

'! ould this "e a mo#e toward a category of (density)


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(stemmed) would pro"a"ly "e more correct. The numeral classifier for plants is -kti.-tis o"#iously deri#ed from the noun akati (trunkHstem). The numeral one ispaha-kti.The numeral two ispi-kat-na.This classifier occurs on all the numerals that refer to

plants.'' -t also is used with necklaces made of teeth, which are #iewed as "eingoffshoots of a stem as plants are. @xamples are7 ah akat /wood trunk0 (tree) /f0,

pilatnoakat("anana plant) /f0, uwas akat(orange tree) /f0, amutri(plant) /f0, ipuwiti(flower) /f0, akabdat(necklace /of teeth0) /f0, etc.To refer to hands or handfuls, the numeral classifier is -waku. -t occurs only on numerals

one and two. -t is deri#ed from the inaliena"ly possessed noun (hand), u-waku /ourhand0. Thenumeral one ispaha-uku. The numeral two ispi-wok-na. -t is principally used as an ad#er".6or example7

/3'0 ig huwas-e kuwak pi-wok-na gi-wak.he stir*MP9 manioc flour two97A:Dtwo Mhand(e stirred the manioc flour KwithL his two hands)

/3'0 #ya iki nutuh paha-uku kahuw.please gi#e meto one97A:D peanut(Please gi#e me one handful of peanuts.)

6or mouth or mouthfuls, the numeral classifier is -biyu. -t occurs on all the numerals. -t isderi#ed of the noun (mouth), u-biy /ourmouth0. The numeral one ispaha-biyu. The numeraltwo ispi-biy-na.6or example7/30 ig higa paha-biyu

he drink one97M*ET(e drank a mouthful)

3.2.4. T"n-i#e et. There are fi#e classifiers that refer to sets of tangi"le units, eitheranimate or inanimate. 6or a set of entities that is inherently unconnected, the numeralclassifier is -bru. -t occurs on all the numerals referring to unconnected sets. The

numeral one ispaha-bru. The numeral two ispi-bohr-a. This classifier is used whenspeaking of groups of indi#idual items such as a crowd of people /hiyeg0, a herd or

"and of animals /puwikne0, a flock of "irds /kuhipra0, a swarm of "ees /ahayak0, asoccer team /arehwa-keputne (player)0, etc. -t is also used with a pair of shoes/kasapat0 or any other small group of o"+ects, such as a "unch of "ananas /pilatno0.

6or a set of o"+ects inherently connected, such as clusters, the numeral classifier is -twi. -toccurs on all the numerals that refer to this kind of set. The numeral one is paha-twi. Thenumeral two ispi-tiw-na. This classifier is used to refer to groups of items that are firmlyconnected, such as a stalk of "ananas or palm fruits, or a "ead necklace, etc. -ts use has "eenexpanded to refer also to people connected "y "eing in the same canoe together. 2ee example/NS0.

6or a set of items tied together /wanaka0, the numeral classifier is -ki. /2ome speakers say-kih.0 -t occurs on all the numerals. The numeral one is paha-ki. The numeral two ispi-ki-na.This classifier is used when speaking of "undles of items like arrows, lea#es, or sugar cane.-t also is used with a "room or a string of fish.

6or a set of items wrapped up together /awastaka0, the numeral classifier is -imku. Thenumeral one ispaha-imku. This classifier refers to items that are wrapped together in lea#es,

paper, or cloth. The speaker may indicate the kind of wrapping that is "eing used. 6orexample, Zone "unch of rice +oined "y "eing wrapped in a "andanaZ is paha-imkumusweg dug/one9758AP "andana rice0. -t appears to "e disappearing, since only the older people useit. -t occurs only on the numeral one. The numeral two has the (irregular) classifier, -sa.

'' *n numerals higher than three, it is pronounced -pti, which is a spinoff from its allomorph on the numeral four. 2eeAppendix.


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6or items +oined "y a "asket /only large "askets0, the numeral classifier is -ih or-psi. Theclassifier -psioccurs on all the numerals higher than one. The numeral one ispaha-ih. Thenumeral two ispi-si-na. The numeral three is mpama-psi.6or example, (one "asketful ofsweet potatoes) ispaha-ih kayg/one97BA2$ sweet potato0.

6or items +oined "y a pot /only large pots0, the numeral classifier is -ap or-yap. The

classifier -yapoccurs on all the numerals higher than one. The numeral one ispaha-ap. Thenumeral two ispi-yap-na. The numeral three is mpama-yap.6or example, (one potful ofmanioc meal) ispaha-ap kuwak/one97P*T manioc meal0.

3.2.5. 0r"ction. To indicate (one side) of an o"+ect, the numeral classifier is -bak on thenumeral one and -bkon the numeral two. -t occurs only on these two terms. Thenumeral one ispaha-bak. The numeral two ispe-bk-ak.'This classifier is used with allkinds of tangi"le units, "ecause all o"+ects ha#e at least two sides. 6or example, )twosides of the paper) ispe-bk-ak kagta /two972-D@8@-P paper0. @xample /3O0 is a

"it more complicated7

/3O0 ig biyuks-e gi-wak paha-bak-ye.....pe-bk-ak-te gi-kugku

he lose*MP9 Mhand onesideDE8....twoside8@-PT*TA9 Mfoot(e lost a hand on one side....KandL his feet on "oth sides)

To indicate a (part) of an o"+ect, the numeral classifier is -uhri. -t occurs only on thenumeral one. The numeral one ispaha-uhri. This classifier is used in relation to the parts of aregion, city, or island. -t is also used when speaking of pieces of meat or manioc "read. 6orexample, (one piece of alligator meat) ispaha-uhri pareyne a-rih /one97PA8T alligatorMmeat0.

Any other numeral can represent (one part) of a unit or group when it is followed "y theword (from), ar-ay-tak/:part offrom0. 6or example, (three slices of "read) is mpana-buar-ay-tak bugut /threeJ9769AT :part offrom "read0. 6or animate units, the word(from) isg-ay-tak-kis /Mpart offromP90. The phrase (one of them) /speaking of men0 is

paha-p-ri g-ay-tak-kis /one97A:-MM Mpart offromP90.Palikur has other terms for fractions that are not related to numerals, "ut they show that the

concept of fractions is not a strange notion to them. 6or example, (a portion) is abusku (ahalf) is abuskuh-wa/portion@MP0 (one third) is kab$ abuskuh-wa/almost portion@MP0i. e. (almost a half) and (one fourth) is abusku a-tusi/portion :corner0 i. e. (a portion e1ualto one corner).3.2.6. Int"n-i#e unit "tr"ction. The numeral classifier that occurs on numerals

referring to any a"stract noun is -t. As was noted "efore, this classifier also indicates acylindrical o"+ect. -t is difficult to see any semantic relationship "etween the cylindricalshape and a"stract ideas. The morpheme -tis pro"a"ly homophonous. The nouns itrefers to are the same ones that are classed as intangi"le sets these nouns are ne#er

classed as tangi"le sets, as cylindrical o"+ects are. Also, there are #arious differences ofinflection "etween the numerals that refer to cylindrical items and those that refer toa"stract nouns. 2ome suffixes that occur on numerals referring to a"stract nouns arethe same ones that occur on numerals referring to series. 2ee examples /0, /O0,/OO0, and /ON0. @xamples of a"stract nouns are7 karayt(sickness) /n0, annut(work) /n0,annipwit (+o") /n0, abektey (example) /n0, inetit (news) /n0, yuwit (word) /n0, apat(song) /n0,gi-hawkan(Mpromise) /n0, ayap-ka (1uestion) /n0, wasaym-ka(lie) /n0,hiyakemni-ki(idea, custom) /n0, taraksa-ki(error) /n0, ka-bay-ka/ha#inggood:*M0

' 2ome speakers pronounce this term as pekbak, which would mean the classifier is -kbak. -t would "e hard to explaynphonologically the presence of the k"efore the bak, "ut then some of the other wordmedial classifiers are also difficult

to explain only on phonological grounds. /istorical and semantic factors also influence their form.0 owe#er, - feel -bkfollows phonological rules "etter, and pa...ak is a #ery common discontinuous morpheme referring to reciprocity, whichfits the idea of matching elements on "oth sides.


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("lessing) /n0, m-bay-ka/withoutgood:*M0 (affliction) /n0, kumaduka-ki(law) /n0,igis-ka(riches) /n0, watiswa-ki(+ump) /n0, etc.'O

3.2.7. Int"n-i#e et erie. 6or the series class, the classifier is -i. The numeral one ispaha-iand the numeral two isp-i-na. The terms for numerals higher than two referringto series do not occur with a classifier.:ouns that ha#e to do with a series are hawkri

(day) /n0, mtipka (night) /n0, paka (week) /n0, a-meremnit /:enlargement0 (fullmoon) /n0, kahikanaw ("reath) /n0, muwok-we-kri /rainwideYrangeseason0 (rainyseason) /n0, and madik-wa /end@MP0 (tens). The numeral one with the seriesclassifier is also used as an ad+ecti#e to descri"e any series of e#ents. 6or example7

/3N0paha-i-min-ne m-bay-kaone972@8B@F*:D*:T withoutgood:*M(a series of "ad) /i. e. a series of pro"lems0

:umerals with the series classifier are often used as ad#er"s of time. -n this case, they ha#einflections that do not occur on any other numeral, such as -e (completi#e action), as inexample /30 and -ewpi (finality) /3Q0.

/30paha-i-e in madik-eone972@8*MP9 it end*MP9

(All at once it ended)

/3Q0 ini nu-pewkan umeh-pe-n paha-i-ewpithis !2Gthought kill*MP!2G one972@86-:A9-TF(- think this will kill me once and for all)

All the numeral classifiers are listed in Ta"le O on the numerals one and two, with examplesof nouns with which they often occur.

'O 5ords that end with -kaor -kiare nominalied #er"s and ad+ecti#es. All are common words.


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TAB9@ O

@xamples of All Palikur :umeral lassifiersV4444444444444444444444444444

TAN*ILE UNITS ANIMATE

"ni%"te paha-p-riawayg one97A:-MM "oy (one "oy)%"c. pi-ya-na kayg two97A:-Mtwo moon ;two months)

"ni%"te paha-p-ru pak one97A:-M6 cow (one cow)!e%. pi-ya-na pukupku two97A:-Mtwo owl (two owls)

TAN*ILE UNITS INANIMATE

irre-u#"r paha-a kat one97-88@G "asket (one "asket)pi-sa-ya payt two97-88@Gtwo house (two houses)

round < paho-u tip one978:D stone (one stone)9u"re pi-so-ya kiyes two978:Dtwo "ox (two "oxes)

cindric"# paha-t yakkot one97F9 arrow (one arrow)pi-ta-na ayg two97F9two to"acco )two cigarettes)

!#"t paha-ksipapa one9769AT mat (one sleeping matpi-ka-na pudig two9769ATtwo hammock (two hammocks)

!#"t "nd paha-mku kud one9769ATD "asin (one "asin)dee pi-muk-na iwan two9769ATDtwo knife (two kni#es)

e=tended< paha-tra warik one979*:G ri#er (one ri#er)in " ro, pi-tahr-a a-rim two979*:Gtwo :cord (two cords)

e=tended paha-iku tiket one97B8*AD fire (one fire)< eri%. pi-rik-na was two97B8*ADtwo field (two fields)

TAN*ILE UNITS PLANTS AN > PARTS

trun$ < paha-kti pilatno one976*9- "anana (one "anana plant!o#i!or% pi-kat-na ipuwiti two976*9-two flower (two flowers)

h"nd paha-ukugi-wak one97A:D Mhand (one hand)pi-wok-na gu-wak two97A:Dtwo 6hand (two hands)

%outh pahai&u one97M*ET (one mouthful)pi-biy-na two97M*ETtwo (two mouthfuls)

TAN*ILE SETS-rou paha-bruupayan one97G8EP duck (one flock of ducks)

pi-bohr-a bot two97G8EPtwo "oot (two pairs of "oots)

c#uter paha-twi akabdat one979E2 necklace (one necklace)pi-tiw-na ah ariw two979E2two fruit (' clusters of fruit)

tied paha-ki yakkot one97T-@ arrow (! "undle of arrows)pi-ki-na im two97T-@two fish (' strings of fish)

,r"ed paha-imku ipeyti one9758AP medicine (! pkg. of medicinepi-sa-ya kamis two97-88@Gtwo clothes (' pkg. of clothes)

"$eted paha-ih kat mayk one97BA2$ "asket corn (! "asket of corn)pi-si-na kat dug two97BA2$two "asket rice (' "askets of rice)

otted paha-apdari%wit wohska one97P*T pot "rew (! pot of "rew)pi-yap-na dari%wit wohska two 97P*T pot "rew (' pots of "rew)

0RA/TINS

"rt paha-uhrikewrihri one97PA8T island (! part of the island)paha-uhri a-rih one97PA8T :meat (one piece of meat)

/(Two) does not occur.0

ide paha-bakwarik one972-D@ ri#er (! side of the ri#er)pe-bk-ak gi-kugku two972-D@ Mfoot (two sides of feet) /i. e. the feet on "oth sides?


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INTAN*ILE UNITS

"tr"ction paha-tkarayt one97AB2T8 sickness (one sickness)pi-ta-na inetit two97AB2T8two message (two messages)

INTAN*ILE SETS

erie paha-i kahikanaw one972@8 "reath (one "reath

p-i-na hawkri two972@8two day (two days)4444444444444V44444444444444444Ta"le N presents a full paradigm of numerals referring to animate units, flat units, and a set ofitems in a "asket. They occur with the nouns tino (woman), puwayt (paddle), and kat im("asket of fish). Morphemes that appear in the ta"le are -gben /P9E8A90, a-kak /:with0(with it), gu-kak/6with0 (with her), gu-kak-kis /6withP90 (with them), ar-awna /:addition0 (its addition),g-awna-kis/6HMadditionP90 (their additions).3.3. The e%"ntic +"#ue o! the nu%er"# c#"i!ier.The numeral classifier is more than a

simple agreement with certain nouns of a particular (noun class). The speaker choosesthe

TAB9@ NThree lassifiers *n :umerals !!! And '3 -n Palikur

444444444444444444444444444444

ANIMATE UNIT 0LAT UNIT SET IN ASKET

tino (woman) u,"&t (paddle) $"t i% ("asket of fish)

1 paha-p-ru tino paha-k puwayt paha-ih kat im

2 pi-ya-na tino-gben pi-ka-na puwayt pi-si-na kat im

3 mpana tino-gben mpana-bu puwayt mpama-psi kat im

4 paxnika tino-gben paxka-bu puwayt paxka-psi kat im5 pohowku tino-gben pohowku-bu puwayt pohowku-psi kat im

6 pugunkuna tino-gben pugunkunma-bu puwayt pugunkunma-psikat im

7 ntewnenker tino-gben ntewnenker-bu puwayt ntewnenker-si kat im

( ntewnenker tino-gben gu-kak paha-p-ru g-awna-kis ntewnenker-bu puwayt a-kak paha-k ar-awna

ntewnenker-si kat im a-kak paha-ih ar-awna

) ntewnenker tino-gben gu-kak-kis pi-ya-na g-awna-kis ntewnenker-bu puwayt a-kak pi-ka-na ar-awna

ntewnenker-si kat im a-kak pi-si-na ar-awna

1' madikawku tino-gben madikawku-bu puwayt madikawku-psi kat im

11 madikawku tino-gben gu-kak-kis pi-ya-na g-awna-kismadikawku-bu puwayt a-kak pi-ka-na ar-awna

madikawku-psi kat im a-kak pi-si-na ar-awna

2'p-i-na madikwa tino-gben p-i-na madikwa puwayt p-i-na madikwa kat im

&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&4&&&&&&&&&&classifier that indicates a specific characteristic of the o"+ect he is speaking a"out. 6or thatreason the classifier often defines the noun with which it occurs. 6or example, the numeralshows if the noun ahehtet(measure) means (meter), as in /3U0 or (kilogram), as in /3S0.

/3U0paha-t aheh-tet kamisone97F9 measure-:2T8 cloth /cylindrical measure, or arm(one meter of cloth) stretched from nose to fingers0


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/3S0paho-u aheh-tet kamisone978:D measure-:2T8 cloth(one kilogram of remnants) /round weight of scales0

The numeral also defines the word iwakti, which can mean either (hand) or (finger). -n thiscase, the (irregular) classifier is used to refer to a whole hand /!30 the (cylindrical) classifier

refers to a finger /!!0, the (flat) classifier refers to the palm of the hand /!'0, and the (group)classifier refers to the four fingers as a set /!0.

/!30 pi-wok-na iwakti ' pi-sa-ya iwaktitwo97A:Dtwo handHfinger two97-88@Gtwo handHfinger

(two hands)

/!!0pi-ta-na iwaktitwo97F9two handHfinger(two fingers)

/!'0pi-ka-na iwaktitwo9769ATtwo handHfinger

(two palms)/!0pi-bohr-a iwokti /width of O fingers7 measure

two97G8EPtwo handHfinger used to measure cur#ature(two sets of fingers) of canoe shell0

As is true of all words, the exact meaning of a numeral depends on the context in which itis "eing used. 6or example, the arm is used to measure the length of many different things. Theterm (one arm),pahat iwanti/one97F9 arm0, can indicate a length of approximately ''3centimeters /Q feet0 or a"out !Q3 centimeters /N feet0 or e#en of only O3 centimeters /!Qinches0. But the listener, knowing the situation, understands perfectly. -t all depends on whato"+ect is "eing measured. 5hen the speaker is measuring the length of his field with a pole, the

term (arm) refers to the height a man can reach with his arm stretched a"o#e his head. -n thiscase, (one arm) means more than two meters /two yards0. 6or example7

/!O0 nu-was-ra a-yabwi paxnika madikwa iwanti!2Gfield8@9 :length four tens arm(The length of my field KisL forty (arms) /O3 x ''3 cmCUU meters0.

5hen a man speaks of the length of his canoe or house, the term (arm) refers to his twoarms stretched out from his sides. -n this case, (one arm) is less than two meters. 6or example7/!N0 nu-pin pohowku iwanti a-yabwi a-kak mpana iwanti a-rik

!2Ghouse fi#e arm :length :with three arm :within(My house KisL fi#e arms long /N x !Q3 cmCU.N meters0 and three arms wide / x !Q3cmCN meters0)

5hen the man speaks of the length of the long cylindrical manioc s1ueeer he is wea#ing,the term (arm) refers to his forearm. -n this case, (one arm) means less than half a meter. 6orexample7

/!0 inin matap a-yabwi pi-ta-na iwanti a-kak pi-sa-ya iwoktithis s1ueeer :length '97F9' arm :with '97-88@G' hand(The length of this s1ueeer KisL two arms /' x O3 cmCU3 cm0 and two hands /' x UcmC! cm0) /i. e. one meter0

4. *ender "-ree%ent.*nly the cardinal numeral one and the ordinal numeral two agree ingender with the noun they refer to, and then only with animate nouns. -n these casesgender agreement is o"ligatory. 6or example, (one girl( is paha-p-ru himano /one97A:-M6 girl0 (two girls) is pi-ya-na gu-kebi-kis himano-pyo /two97A:-Mtwo


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/!S0 eg kuwis ewk a-pe-ki-n a-kak a-mapnam-ki-nshe already "ring :-two97T-@8@9 :with :three97T-@8@9(2he already "rought the second and the third /"undles of sugar cane0.

/'30 ig danuh a-bet a-pe-i-ni-pi-ye mtipkahe arri#e :in :two972@88@92TDE8 night

(e arri#ed the second night)5hen the ordinal numeral occurs in a noun phrase, the common ad+ecti#al suffixes -pi

/2TAT-J@0 and -ye/DE8AT-J@0 are always added. ompare the form of the followingordinal numeral when it functions as a pronoun with its form when it functions as a 1uantifier.

/'!0gi-mapnam-kis awna gi-mapnam-pi-ye awayg awnaMthreeP9 speak Mthree 2TDE8.M man speak (The third spoke) (The third man spoke)

E- i&"n" -u$"%$"&h tino-en. A%"n"%@i&e? ","&-. @/$ out i&e in thi"er.B

The terms for ordinal numerals higher than (sixth) can "e expressed "y the phrase7 (one

/noun0 making/the numeral0). 6or example7/''0paha-i hawkri keh-pi-ye ntewnenker a-kak p-i-na ar-awna

one972@8 day make2TDE8 se#en :with two972@8two :addition(one day making se#en with two in addition) /i. e. the ninth day0

-t appears that the younger generation is not using the ordinal numerals with all theclassifiers. Many prefer to use only the (series) classifier, no matter what nouns the numeralsoccur with. This makes sense since ordinal numerals form a kind of series. 6or example, to say(the second "ook), the younger generation says (a-pe-i-ni kagta) /:two972@88@9

"ook0 while the older generation says, (a-pe-k kagta) /:two9769AT "ook0.5.2 Addition.The other types of numerical inflection in#ol#e only the addition of a suffix. The

suffix indicating addition is the morpheme -wa /(additional)0.'

/'0 nah ik pi-t paha-a-wa arikna- gi#e youto one97-88@GAITINAL thing(- will gi#e you one %orething)

/'O0 ig-kis manuk paha-uhri-wa kewrihgi akiwheP9 cross one97PA8TAITINAL island more(They crossed o#er KtoL one %orepart of the island)

5.3. Sutr"ction.The suffix indicating su"traction is the morpheme -e /(remainder)0.

/'N0 usekw-e pehe-k-e parakremain*MP9 one9769ATREM "oard

(There remained one "oard /#e!t o+er0)/'0 ku nah wiwh paha-t ah ar-iwntak paxnika a-kebi usakwa mpanm-e

if - take one97F9 wood :from four :units remain three8@M(-f - take one of the four sticks, three will "e left)

5.4. Tot"#it&.Another suffix, -te /(total)0, indicates the totality of a unit or group, as inexamples /'Q0/30, /3O0, /NU0, and /Q!0.

/'Q0pilatno bus-ip paha-twi-te"anana spoil2T one979E2TTAL(The stalk of "ananas is co%#ete#&spoiled)

' This morpheme is homophonous with the morpheme -wa/@MPA2-20 which can occur on almost any word.


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/'U0 datkar daker-e takarak paha-p-ru-te"oa swallow*MP9 chicken one97A:-M6TTAL(The "oa swallowed the chicken ,ho#e)

/'S0 ig pituk-e antiyan ntewnenker-tehe "reak*MP9 egg se#enTTAL

(e "roke "## se#en eggs)/30 nah k-annipwi-ye paha-i-te hawkri

- hadworkDE8 one972@8TTAL day(- worked one ,ho#eday)

5.5. Nu%eric"# #i%it.The suffix indicating numerical limits is the morpheme -o/(limited)0 orits allomorph -wo. -t is usually followed "y the morpheme -wa /emphasis0, as inexamples /!0 and /'0, "ut sometimes is not, as in examples /'0 and /0.

/!0 mewka k-an-yo paha-i-wo-wa a-dahan paha-k kamu-kriturtle layDE8.6 one972@8LIM@MP :"y one9769AT sunseason(The turtle lays eggs on#&once a year)

A idea of limitation is also sometimes a mathematical concept. -n the following sentence theuse of the (limited) morpheme indicates semantically that (others ha#e more and - ha#e less). 'Q

/'0 nah pi-ka-n-mo-wa nu-kawih-ni- two9769ATtwoLIM@MP !2Gclothes8@9(- Kha#eL on#&two outfits)

5.6. Mu#ti#ic"tion. The suffix indicating multiplication is the morpheme -put /(multiplied)0.This morpheme occurs only on numerals that refer to (series) like p-i-ma-put /two972@8twoME9T0 (two times). -t also occurs on the interrogati#e word which means(how many times), aysaw-put/howYmanyME9T0. The morpheme occurs on all thenumerals referring to series, except the numeral one. /*"#iously, any numeral multiplied

"y one remains the same.0 2ee examples /0, /O0, and /0./0 ig hasih paxka-put

he sneee fourMULT(e sneeed four ti%e)

/O0 nah isim-e ini kamis mpama-put a-tiwnih a-pit-min akiw- "uy*MP9 this cloth threeMULT :price :o#erB@F*:D more(- "ought this cloth for a price three ti%eas much)

The Palikur use these numerals to count money. Esing the term sah(hundred) "orrowedfrom the creole dialect of 6rench Guiana, they count like this7/N0p-i-ma-put sah, mpama-put sah, paxka-put sah

*972@8'ME9T hundred, threeMULT hundred, fourME9T hundred(two hundred /'330, three hundred /330, four hundred /O330)

5.7. Set o! unit. -n section .!.'. - descri"ed numerals used to count #arious kinds of setslike (two sets /groups0 of people) which is pi-bohr-a hiyeg /two97G8EPtwo people0.There are also two numeral suffixes that specify the num"er of elements that make up a set,such as the num"er of items in a group, as in examples /Q0, a cluster /NS0, or a row /3!0and /S"0. The first affix, -me/(pair)0, occurs only on the numeral two. 6or example, a do#eand its mate arepi-ya-n-meugus /two97A:-MtwoPAIRdo#e0. The other affix occurs on

'Q The Palikur use the word a-pit-min/ito#erB@F*:D0 (surpassing) to express the concept of (more) and the phrasewarikap a-kebi/"elow :units0 (lower amount) for the concept of (less). -f, for example, - ha#e one egg and my friend

has three, then he has pi-sa-ya a-pit-min (two surpassing) and - ha#epi-sa-ya warikap a-kebi g-iw(two units lowerthan him). But it is more common to say that he has three and - ha#e (only one)paha-a-wo-wa /one97-88@G9-M@MP0.


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any numeral. -t e#en occurs on the numeral two, when more than one set of pairs is "eingnum"ered. This morpheme is -t, or its allomorphs -at and -it /(set)0. 6or example, peoplesitting in a canoe with two on each seat arepi-ya-n-m-at hiyeg /two97A:-MtwoPAIRSETpeople0 (two people in a set). -f the canoe has four seats, the people are descri"ed as inexample /07

/0paxka-bru gi -kebi-kis a-dahan pi-ya-n-m-atfour97G8EP MunitsP9 :of two97A:-MtwoPAIRSET(four etof two each)

/Q0 ig turuh akawakti pi-muk-na-m-athe pierce ring two9769ATDtwoPAIRSET(e car#ed out etof two rings Kfrom each nutL)

This morpheme (set) also occurs on the numeral one, forming a set of only one element4aprofound mathematical a"straction. 5hen this morpheme is affixed to the numeral one, we cantranslate it (each one) or (one for each). 6or example7/U0 nah ik paha-p-ri-t im

- gi#e one97A:-MMSET fish(- ga#e one fish to e"ch/person0)

/S0 ig-kis ax paho-u-it uwasheP9 eat one978:DSET orange(They ate one orange e"ch)

/O30 ig ewk gi-mana-kis gi-t-kis paha-p-ri-t hiyeghe "ring MfoodP9 MtoP9 one97A:-MMSET people(e "rought food for e"chone)

5.(. Set o! i%u#t"neou e+ent. 2tates and e#ents constitute another type of set when theyare simultaneous, as in example /O!0. This includes an action performed at the same time

"y se#eral actors as in examples /O'0 and /30, or an action recei#ed at the same time "yse#eral patients /O0. The suffix indicating simultaneous action is -nam/(simultaneous)0.

/O!0 ig mpa-nam gi-kah-rihe threeSIM Millness8@9(e KhasL three illnesses i%u#t"neou#&)

/O'0 ig-kis kah pi-ya-namheP9 pull two97A:-MSIM(They "oth pulled i%u#t"neou#&)

/O0 ig takig-e ah pi-ta-namhe "reak*MP9 wood two97F9SIM

(e "roke the two sticks i%u#t"neou#&)5hen speaking of intangi"le units that are simultaneous, in the case of the numeral two the

morpheme -put/(multiplied)0 is always added "efore the morpheme -nam, as in examples /OO0and /ON0. This also occurs when speaking of types of tangi"le items /"ut not the itemsthemsel#es0, as in example /O0.

/OO0eg pi-put-nam gu-hiyakem-nishe twoMULTSIM 6thoughts8@9(2he KhasL two i%u#t"neouways of thinking) /i.e. 2he is twofaced.0

/ON0 ig k-annu keh pi-put-nam annipwithe hasa"ility do twoMULTSIM work

(e can do two +o"s i%u#t"neou#&)


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/O0pi-put-nam ax-ka ay kitere akak suwiyetwoME9T2-M eat:*M here sweet and sour(KThere areL two kinds of food here4sweet and sour)

5.). Set o! e9uenti"# e+ent. 5e can also speak of sets of se1uential e#ents which takeplace (one "y one) or (two "y two). The suffix indicating se1uential action is the

morpheme -empi/(se1uential)0 or its allomorphs. This suffix occurs only on numeralsfunctioning as ad#er"s, as in example /OQ0, /OU0 and /U0. A similar morpheme occurs on#er"s to indicate that the su"+ect is mo#ing along.

Ta"le summaries these nine uni1ue inflections of Palikur numerals. The suffixes appearin "oldface with the numeral one that refers to round o"+ects,paho-u/one978:D0, and thenumeral two that refers to animate units, pi-ya-na/two97A:-Mtwo0. -n cases where asuffix does not occur on the numeral one, the numeral two that refers to round o"+ects is used7

pi-so-ya/two978:Dtwo0. 5hen a prefix is added to form ordinal numerals, the form ofthe root of numeral two,pi-so-ya, changes tope-s /two978:D0 and the form of the root ofthe numeral two, pi-ya-na, changes to pe-p /two97A:-M0. The suffix concerningmultiplication is shown with the numeral two that refers to a series, p-i-na /two972@8

two0.


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TAB9@

@xamples of The Eni1ue -nflections *f Palikur :umerals

V4444444444444444444444444444

nu%eric"# a-pes-ru (the second /orange0)order gi-pep-ri (the second /man0)

"ddition pahow-wa uwas (one more orange)piyanma-wa awayg (two more men)

utr"ction pahow-re uwas (one remaining orange)@re%"inder? piyanm-e awayg (tworemaining men)

tot"#it& pahow-te uwas (a whole orange)piyanma-te awayg (all two /"oth0 men)

nu%eric"# pahow-wo-wa uwas (only one orange)#i%it"tion piyanm-o-wa awayg (only two men)

%u#ti#ic"tion #was atiwnih pima-putakiw (The price of the orangeorange price twoME9T more is two times as much)

+g padak uwas mpama-put (e tossed thehe throw orange threeME9T orange three times)

unit in " et +g pukuh uwas pisoya-m-at. (e counted the orangeshe count orange twoPA-82@T in sets of two /', O, 0)

+gkis bat piyan-m-at hiyeg. (They are sitting inthey sit twoPA-82@T people groups of two)

et o! e+ent +g pidik uwas pisoya-nam. e s1ueeed the two@i%u#t"neou? he s1ueee orange two2-M oranges simultaneously)

+gkis kah piya-nam. (The two pulledthey pull two2-M simultaneously)

+g pi-put-nam g-annipwi. (e KhasL two +o"s)he twoME9T2-M M+o"

et o! e+ent #was tuguhe pahow-rumpi. (The oranges fell@e9uenci"#? orange fall one2@I one "y one)

gkis mpiya piyan-empi. (They passed "ythey pass two2@I two "y two)

44444444444444444444444V44444

/OQ0 eg-kis pes pi-ya-n-empisheP9 lea#e two97A:-Mtwo2@IE@:T-A99F(They left two "y two)

/OU0 ig kanum gi-u paha-i-impihe call Mname one972@8 2@IE@:T-A99F(e said his name one "y one)/i. e. e spelled his name letter "y letter.0


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/NQ0 no-ne-wa pi-sam-ru paha-p-ru-wat-nanothat.62AM@@MP yoursi"ling6 one97A:-M6@MP*:T.DE8.6(that only youngersister of yours)

/NU0 ner-as nu-kagmada-pu pi-ya-nma-te-kisthat.MP9 !2GfriendP9 two97A:-MtwoT*TA9P9

("oth of those friends of mine)-n descripti#e clauses, the numeral follows the noun, as in examples /NS0 and /30 although

often the su"+ect is repeated after it, as in example /!0. -t is sometimes inflected with themorpheme -ye /(durati#e.M)0 which occurs only on ad+ecti#es,'Uas in example /'0.

/NS0 ig-kis pi-tiw-na-m-atheP9 two979E2twoPA-82@T(They /the hunters0 KwereL in groups of two)/i. e. two in one canoe and two in the other, the preferred way to hunt0

/30 ig-kis mpan-nam gi-tiputheP9 three2-M Magainst

(They KwereL three attacking him simultaneously)/!0gi-sam-ri paha-p-o ig

Msi"lingM one97A:-M9-M he(is younger "rother KisL alone)

/'0 ig ner kaybune ig paha-i-wot-ne-yehe that snake he one972@89-M*:TDE8.M(That snake Kis aL (one time only) KkindL) /i. e. poisonous0

6.2. Nu%er"# " "d+er. As ad#er"s, numerals generally occur after the direct o"+ect oftransiti#e #er"s, as in example /0 or following the intransiti#e #er" as in /0.

/0 ig biwh-e gi-kamkayh p-i-ma-put a-kak ahhe hit*MP9 Mchild two972@8twoME9T :with stick(e hit his son two times with a stick)

5hen numerals function as ad#er"s, they may "e inflected with many of the same numeralsuffixes that 1uantifying numerals do, that is, those referring to totality, numerical limits,multiple action and simultaneous e#ents. -n addition, they can occur with the suffix referring tose1uential e#ents, as in /U0.

These numerals may also "e inflected with many morphemes that occur in other parts of thelanguage, such as -paor -ap/(#ast)0 /O0, -min/("eyond)0 /N0 and /0, -ne /(continuous)0/N0 and /0, -pu/(plural)0 /Q0, and repetition of the first sylla"le, which indicates repeatedaction /U0.

/O0 was mutuh-ka paha-ik-apfield plantPA22 one97B8*ADHB8*ADJA2T(The field is planted all o#er the #ast "readth of it)

/N0paha-i-min-ne ig danuh-pa wo-t-huone972@8B@F*:D*:T he arri#eJA2T !P9to!@9(6rom time to time he #isits us)

/0 nah hiy$ paha-p-ri hiyeg pi-ya-na-min- see one97A:-MM person two97A:-MtwoB@F*:D(- see a person dou"led) /dou"le #ision0

'U -n noun phrases, -yedoes not occur on numerals, unless they are on ordinal numerals.


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/Q0 usuh ay pi-ya-nma-puwe.@9 here two97A:-MtwoP9(5e "oth KareL here together)

/U0 eg pak-no apat pa-paha-i-mpishe sing*:T.6 song 8@P@T-T-*:one972@82@I

(2he was singing songs one after the other)6.3. Nu%er"# " ronoun.A numeral often takes the place of a noun "ecause, since the

numeral shows the class of the noun, it is not difficult to know what the noun is.onsider the following monologue a"outpilatno ("ananas)7

/Sa0 nah kadahan paha-kti pilatno- ha#e one970LI "anana(- ha#e one "anana /plant0)

/S"0 eg pikat-na-ma-t gu-hinani-ushe two970LItwoPA-82@T 6side"y(-t KhasL two /sprouts0 "eside it)

/Sc0 nah kuwis matis-e paha-twi- already pick*MP9 one97/LUS(- already picked one /stalk0)

/Sd0 ba pis muwaka ax paha-t-:T@88*G you want eat one97/>L(Do you want to eat one /"anana0

/Se0 ahah. nah ik pi-t paha-bruere. - gi#e youto one97*RUP(ere. -Zll gi#e you one /"unch0)

5hen ser#ing as a pronoun, the numerals may "e inflected with any of the numerical affixes/Q30, as well as the plural -kis, as in Ta"le Q, and the negati#e -ma, as in /Q!0./Q300ahi gu-paxnika-n ka-kahri-ye

Maria 6four8@9 ha#ingsicknessDE8.M(Mary)s fourth KchildL is sick)

/Q!0 ig-kis ka umah pi-ya-n-ma-te-maheP9 :@G kill two97A:-MtwoPA-8T*TA9:@G(They did not kill them "oth)

:umerals functioning as pronouns also occur with a suffix that often occurs on pronounsand, at times, on demonstrati#es and nouns. -t is the morpheme -me/(contrast)0. This suffix is

used to contrast two participants or e#ents. 6or example7/Q'0 mpana gi-kebi-kis atak pi-ya-na-me ka atakthree MunitsP9 go two97A:-Mtwo*:T8A2T :@G go(Three are going two, howe#er, are not)

6.4. Nu%er"# " +er. Jer"s are sometimes deri#ed from numerals "y the addition of themorpheme -h, /(#er"alier)0. @xamples /Q0 to /QQ0 of #er"s "ased on numerals exhi"itthe common #er"al suffixes -wa/(reflexi#e)0 and -e /(completi#e action)0.

/Q0 ig paha-p-ri-h-w-ehe one97A:-MMJ8B8@69*MP9(e WoneedX himself) /i. e. he withdrew, isolated himself0


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/QO0 eg-kis pi-ye-n-me-h-w-esheP9 two97A:-MtwoPA-8J8B8@69*MP9(They WtwoedX themsel#es) /i. e. they married0

/QN0 ig kuwis pahe-tre-h-e gi-hiyakem-nihe already one97@T@:J8B*MP9 Mthoughts8@9

(e already WoneedX his mind) /i. e. he decided, lined up his thoughts0/Q0 eg-kis paha-dru-h-wa atere

sheP9 one97 G8EPJ8B8@69 there(They WoneedX themsel#es there) /i. e. they met together0

/QQ0 ig paha-dru-h g-ewkan-bethe one97G8EPJ8B M"elongingME9T-P9@ PA8T2(e WoneedX his "elongings) /i. e. he gathered them together0

6.5. Nu%er"# " noun. A few nouns are also deri#ed from numerals "y the addition of thesuffix -kaor -ki/(nominalier)0, as seen in /QU0 to /U30.

/QU0 ig-kis keh paha-tra-min-ka a-dahan parek-wiyeheP9 make one97@T@:B@F*:D:*M :for enter-(They formed a WoneextendedX /i.e. line0 in order to enter)

/QS0 ig-kis paha-dru-pu ayre a-bet paha-dru-h-kaheP9 one97G8EPP9 there :in one97G8EPJ8B:*M(They KareL WoneedX /i.e. gathered0 together at the WoneingX /i.e. meeting0)

/U30 ig paha-p-ri ar-ayt-tak ini paha-dru-h-wa-kihe one97A:-M :part offrom this one97G8EPJ8B8@69:*M(That one is a mem"er of this WselfoneingX /i.e. group0)

7. Re#"ti+e order o! the nu%er"# "!!i=e.As has "een seen, the "asic stem of a Palikurnumeral is composed of a root plus a classifier. *n the numeral one used with animateentities, a suffix is o"ligatorily added to the stem which indicates the gender of the entity.*ther affixes are often added. The next in order are those uni1ue to numerals whichexpress mathematical concepts. 6ollowing these are modifying affixes that occur on other

parts of speech as well and modify the noun or #er" to which the numeral refers. :o morethan three modifiers occur on a numeral at one time. The order of the #arious affixes isillustrated in Ta"le Q.

TAB9@ Q

8elati#e *rder *f The :umeral Affixes

V444444444444444444444444444444444

8**T 9A22 G@:D@8. PA-8 MAT. M*D-6-@82

paha -p -ri -wa -adone 97A:-M M ADD AEM(one more "ig male)

pi ya-n -ma -te -kistwo 97A:-M PA-8 T*TA9 P9("oth of them)

paha -i -wo -wat-nene

one 972@8-@2 9-M-T @MP*:T.DE8.M(at only one time in existence)


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pikat-na -ma -t- -ne-matwo 976*9-6*8M PA-8 2@T *:T.M:@GAT-*:(not in sets of two plants each)

pi -sa-ya -ma -te -bettwo 978*E:D PA-8 T*TA9 ME9T-P9@ PA8T2

("oth of the round multiple parts) /the two heads of a monster0paha -k -es-ne-waone 9769AT D-M*:T@MP(one small flat area) /an underground world0

44444444444444444444444V4444444

(. /onc#uion. -t is fitting that the Palikur wordpukuh(to count) also means (to understand).The study of the numerical system of the Palikur language not only re#eals how the

people count "ut also how well they understand "asic mathematical concepts. Manyarithmetical relationships are expressed in the morphology of the numerical terms and thus

are easier to percei#e. The affixation of the numerals confirms linguistically that culturesoutside of our own ha#e many mathematical concepts similar to ours. -t makes it clearthat e#en in an illiterate society, where written numerical sym"ols were ne#er thought of,systematic mathematical concepts may "e wellde#eloped. *"#iously the people of thissocalled (primiti#e) culture are a"le to think "oth a"stractly and analytically[

-n the numerical system of this language, we can o"ser#e !0 the "asic organiation of allclassifiers into units, sets, and fractions, '0 the idea of series, 0 welldefined geometricalcategories "ased on four dimensions instead of three, with su"categories esta"lished on theconcept of -min (something more), O0 uni1ue numerical inflections that express "asicarithmetical concepts like that of numerical order, addition, su"traction, multiplication, moreand less, wholes and parts, and N0 extensi#e reference to #arious kinds of sets. This raises the

1uestion7 could the study of mathematical terms in indigenous languages lead to the disco#eryof some small "ut #ital concept that would contri"ute to the science of mathematics ingeneral

Another 1uestion is whether mathematics will influence the way linguists categorienumerical classifiers. Much analysis and description of linguistic structure and semantics hasalready fruitfully "een done along the lines of mathematical relationships. The Palikur termsreaffirm the existence of an intricate relationship "etween language and mathematics,especially when it concerns numerals. The ease and precision with which the numeralclassifiers can "e categoried according to units, sets, and fractions suggests that this kind of(mathematical) categoriation may pro#ide a useful framework for the description of num"erclassifiers in other languages as well. The disco#ery of the elegant arrangement of the

geometrical classes was made possi"le only "y considering the nati#e speakers) owndescriptions of the forms they are "ased on. -t indicates the importance of studying theindigenous terms for these classes. -t also demonstrates the necessity of descri"ing classesaccording to their primary and secondary dimensions, keeping in mind the possi"ility of theexistence of a fourth dimension of (perimeter).

The morphological structure of the Palikur numerals supports the morphosyntactictypology of noun classification systems and classifiers proposed "y Der"yshire and Payne/!SS30. -t is apparent that nominal agreement systems /such as gender0, modifying affixes/such as those indicating sie or plurality0, and affixes referring to mathematical concepts/such as addition, remainders, limitation, and totality0 are not classifiers and should "e treatedseparately. The numerical terms of Palikur furnish a rare example of all these types of

morphemes on the numerals of a single language.6**T:*T@


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The semantic typology of the numeral classifiers has "een addressed in more detail inWPalikur and the typology of classifiersX /Aikhen#ald \ Green, !SSU0which compares thenumeral classifiers of Palikur with the #er"al and locati#e classifiers, as well as the concordialnoun classification system and the demonstrati#e referents. The com"ination of so manysystems of classifiers in one language, all with different markers and different semantic classes,

is 1uite unusual and may "e uni1ue.

8@6@8@:@2

ADAM2, $A8@:. 9. \ *:$9-:, :A:F. 6. !SQ. Toward a theory of naturalclassification, Papers from the Sth 8egional Meeting, hicago 9inguistic 2ociety, pp. !!3

A-$@:JA9D, A9@A:D8A !SSO. Wlasse nominal e g]nero em l?nguas aru&kX.1oletimdo 0useu !araense mlio 2oeldi:P1. Bel%m, Jol. !3/'07!Q'NS.

A-$@:JA9D, A9@A:D8A F. '333. lassifiers7 A typology of noun classificationde#ices, :ew Fork7 *xford Eni#ersity Press, Pp. NN.

A-$@:JA9D, A9@A:D8A F. \G8@@:, D-A:A. !SSU. Palikur and the typology ofclassifiers. Anthropological 9inguistics O3/07O'SVOU3.

A99A:, $@-T. !SQQ. lassifiers, 9anguage N, pp. 'UO!3.

D@8BF2-8@, D@2M*:D \ PAF:@, D*8-2. !SS3. :oun classification systems ofAmaonian languages, Amaonian 9inguistics, ed. Doris Payne. Austin, Eni#ersity of Texas

press, pp. 'O'Q'.

G8@@:, A8*9D. !SQS. omo se pergunta em Palikur, 8e#ista de Atualidade -nd?gena.Bras?lia, /!U0 pp. 'S.

9A$*66, G@*8G@. !SU. lassifiers as a reflection of mind, :oun classes andcategoriation, ed. . raig. AmsterdamHPhiladelphia, >ohn Ben+amin, pp. !N'.

PAF:@, DAJ-D. !SS!. A classification of Maipuran /Arawakan0 languages "ased on sharedlexical retentions. -n7 and"ook of Amaonian 9anguages, eds. D.. Der"yshire \ G.$.Pullum. Berlin, Mouton de Gruyter, Jol. 7NNOSS.

2-:G@8, >AM@2. !SS. Geometry,0icrosoft ncarta. Microsoft orp. 6unk \ 5agnallZsorp.

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