ORGANIZATIONALORGANIZATIONAL SOCIALSOCIAL STRUCTURESTRUCTURE

ساختار اجتماعی سازمان هاساختار اجتماعی سازمان ها

ChapterChapter 44

Mary Jo Hatch with Ann L. Cunliffe

Organizational Social StructureOrganizational Social Structure

The relationships among people

who assume the roles of the

organization, and the organizational

groups or units to which they

belong (e.g., departments, divisions).

Table 4.1 Table 4.1 Weber’s Ideal BureaucracyWeber’s Ideal Bureaucracy

• A fixed division of labor (تقسیم کار)

A clearly defined hierarchy of offices, each with its own sphere of competence ( سلسله (مراتب

Candidates for offices are selected on the basis of technical qualifications and are appointed rather than elected (صالحیت)

Officials are remunerated by fixed salaries paid in money (دستمزد ثابت)

The office is the primary occupation of the office holder and constitutes a career ( مسیر(شغلی

Promotion is granted according to seniority or achievement and is dependent upon the judgment of superiors (ارتقاء) Official work is to be separated from ownership of the means of administration ( جدایی

(مالکیت

A set of general rules governing the performance of offices; strict discipline and control in the conduct of the office is expected (قوانین)

Source: Parsons (1947); Scott (1992)

Division of LaborDivision of Labor

The distribution of work responsibilities and tasks within

an organization.

E.g., divisions, functions, departments

Hierarchy of AuthorityHierarchy of Authority

The distribution of authority in an organization and formal reporting

relationships

Manager

Employee

Scalar principle

Unity of command

FormalizationFormalization((رسمیترسمیت))

The extent to which explicit rules, regulations, policies, and procedures govern activities.

– Organization charts ( چارت(سازمانی

– Policies, handbooks (سیایت ها)

– Job descriptions (شرح شغل)

– Operating procedures ( فرآیند های(کاری

– MbO, PERT

FormalizationFormalization

High formalization

Low formalization

Low employee discretion, increased managerial control, strict observance of positional authority…

Greater employee discretion, flexibility, spontaneity…

Table 4.2Table 4.2 Dimensions of Organizational Social StructureDimensions of Organizational Social StructureDimension Measure

Size Number of employees.

Administrative component

Line departments are involved directly in the production of

organizational outputs, staff are advisory and support functions. Differentiation The allocation of people and resources to tasks (vertical & horizontal).

Integration The coordination of activities.

Centralization The extent to which decision making authority resides at the top of the organization.

Standardization The extent to which standard procedures govern the operations and activities of the organization.

Formalization The extent to which the organization uses written communications and procedures.

Specialization Extent to which work is divided into narrowly defined tasks assigned to

specific employees.

DIFFERENTIATIONDIFFERENTIATION((تفکیک یا تخصصی سازیتفکیک یا تخصصی سازی))

The process by which organizations allocate people and resources to tasks and establish relationships in order to achieve goals.

i.e. how things are divided up.

Vertical & Horizontal DifferentiationVertical & Horizontal Differentiation

Vertical

• The number of levels in the hierarchy.

• Reporting relationships.

Horizontal

• Departmentation, the way tasks are grouped into functions & competencies.

• The span of control: the number of employees reporting to a manager.

DifferentiationDifferentiation

Tall Organization

Flat Organization

Low horizontal, high vertical differentiation High horizontal, low vertical differentiation

Differentiation/IntegrationDifferentiation/Integrationتفکیک و تلفیقتفکیک و تلفیق

• As an organization grows, it differentiates to meet the more varied demands of its now larger environment and its own internal complexity.

• In order to keep its differentiated activities aligned to its strategy, integration is required.

• Further differentiation (e.g., adding layers of management) leads to a need for further integration (e.g., more coordination mechanisms).

Contingency TheoriesContingency Theories

The dimensions of social structure will depend on the relationship between an

organization’s environment and its strategy, technology, size, etc.

Table 4.3 Table 4.3 Comparing Mechanistic & Organic Comparing Mechanistic & Organic OrganizationsOrganizations

Mechanistic Structures Organic Structures

High horizontal & vertical differentiation. High/complex horizontal & vertical integration.

High formalization Low formalization

Centralization Decentralization

Standardization Mutual adjustment

Close supervision Personal expertise & creativity without supervision.

Vertical communication Lateral communication

Mechanistic & Organic OrganizationsMechanistic & Organic Organizations

Mechanistic Structures

• High horizontal and vertical differentiation.

• High formalization.

• Centralized decision making.

• Standardization through written rules, procedures, SOPs.

• Close supervision with authority and status based on position.

• Vertical communication.

• Status oriented. (Burns & Stalker, 1961)

Mechanistic & Organic OrganizationsMechanistic & Organic Organizations

Organic Structures

• High/complex horizontal and vertical integration.

• Low formalization.

• Decentralized decision making.

• Mutual adjustment through joint problem solving and interaction.

• Personal expertise, creativity without supervision.

• Lateral communication.

• Expertise oriented.

(Burns & Stalker, 1961)

DifferentiationDifferentiation

Four dimensions of differentiation:

– Formality (رسمیت)– Task or relationship orientation (وظیفه)– Time orientation (long or short term) (زمان)– Goal orientation (هدف)

(Lawrence & Lorsch, 1967(Lawrence & Lorsch, 1967))

IntegrationIntegration

The process of coordinating tasks, people, & functions to achieve unity of effort:

•Hierarchy

•Rules, procedures, schedules

•Liaison roles

•Task forces

•Cross functional teams

•Direct communication

Increased integration

Organizational Social Structure & the Organizational Social Structure & the EnvironmentEnvironment

Stable environment

Unstable environment

Higher differentiation

High integration - direct communication

Decentralization

Lower differentiation

High integration

- hierarchy

Centralization

(Lawrence & Lorsch, (Lawrence & Lorsch, 1967)1967)

CentralizationCentralizationتمرکزتمرکز

Where decisions (strategic & work-

related) are made, or services located:

– Top (centralization)

– All levels (decentralization)

Structure in FivesStructure in Fives (Mintzberg, 1983)(Mintzberg, 1983)

Simple structure

ساختار های ساده

Machine bureaucracy

بروکراسی ماشینی

Professional bureaucracy

بروکراسی حرفه ایAdhocracy

ادهوکراسی

Divisionalized

بخش بندی

چرخه حیات سازمانی

Leadership crisis

Autonomy crisis

Control crisis

Red-tape crisis

Renewal crisis

Entrepreneurial phase

Collectivity phase

Delegation phase

Formalization phase

Collaboration phase

Figure 4.2 Figure 4.2 Greiner’s Greiner’s Model of Model of Organizational Organizational LifecyclesLifecycles

OUTPUTSTechnical Core

INPUTS

The Katz and Kahn ModelThe Katz and Kahn Model

TransformationprocessesInputs Outputs

First we meet our old friend . . .

. . . which becomes

Sales OUTPUTSTECHCOREPurchasingINPUTS

The Katz and Kahn Model then adds a layer of The Katz and Kahn Model then adds a layer of

support to ensure that the technical core has support to ensure that the technical core has

needed inputs . . .needed inputs . . .

support support

Maintenance

Accounting, Personnel, Facilities

Sales OUTPUTSTECHCORE

PurchasingINPUTS

. . . then a layer of maintenance to keep the technical . . . then a layer of maintenance to keep the technical and support layers focused on technical tasks . .and support layers focused on technical tasks . . . .

Maintenance

Accounting, Personnel, Facilities

Sales OUTPUTSTECHCORE

PurchasingINPUTS

. . . then adaptive activities so the organization . . . then adaptive activities so the organization responds to changes in the environment. responds to changes in the environment.

AdaptationExecutive decision making, strategic planning, R & D, and P. R.

Giddens’ Duality of StructureGiddens’ Duality of Structure

• Repeated interactions become standard practices (e.g., ways of manufacturing a product, coordinating a meeting, evaluating an employee)

• As practices become established, they are institutionalized within the culture as norms and expectations

• Institutionalized practices crystallize into what we regard to be structural patterns of relationship, but these change with changes in organizational members’ actions that are contextualized by them

ساختار سازمان

ساختار سازمان

Symbolic-Interpretive ApproachesSymbolic-Interpretive Approaches

• Routines and Improvisations

• Symbols• Practices and ways of

doing things• Stories & storytellers

Routines and ImprovisationRoutines and Improvisation

Routinesروال عادی

The reproduction of actions.باز تولید اقدامات

• Techniques, practices, plans, systems, procedures.

• Stability (ثبات).• Preserve & transfer

knowledge.

Improvisationsابتکار

Emergent, unfolding behaviors.رفتار های فوری

• Interacting outside established practices.

• Perform in gaps.• Take advantage of opportunities.

Institutional LogicsInstitutional Logicsمنطق های نهادینه شدهمنطق های نهادینه شده

Mindsets, cognitive frames and mental models configuring

thought and systems.

behavioral symbolic

Organization invested with meaning

Communities of PracticeCommunities of Practiceاجتماع رویه هااجتماع رویه ها

Community of Practice

Shared repertoires

فهرست های مشترک

Mutual learning

یادگیری دوطرفه

Local meanings

معانی محلی

Identities

هویت ها

Shared interests etc.

منافع مشترک

Emerging connections and improvisations

Language CommunitiesLanguage Communitiesزبانی زبانی اجتماعات اجتماعات

What are the casualties today?

We’re fighting a battle to survive…

Boom! Something happens ... That’s one of the dark tunnels…

It’s such a band-aid approach…

Comments by managers in a small manufacturing organization. (Cunliffe, 2001)

Creating features of an organization’s social landscape in everyday talk…

Postmodern Approaches to Postmodern Approaches to

Organizational Social StructureOrganizational Social Structure

Organization …

سازمان

~ order (نظم)

~ routine (روتین)

~ rationality (منطقی)

Disorganization …

بی سازمانی )بهم ریختگی(

~ disorder (بی نظمی)

~ spontaneous ( خود(انگیختگی

~ irrational (بی منطقی)

Some Postmodern Ideas…Some Postmodern Ideas…

De-differentiation:

نفکیک زدایی- self manage

- self-coordinate

- self-organize

Feminist Organizations:

سازملن های فمینیستی- equitable, participatory structures

- in/formality

- expressing views & emotions

Deconstruction:

ساختار زدایی- male gendered organizations

- rationality

Anti-administration:

ضد مدیریت- radical skepticism towards ends & means

- rationality / justice & morality