Oil Platform

4/4/2015 OilplatformWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_platform 1/12

OilplatformP51offtheBraziliancoastisasemisubmersibleplatform.

OilplatformMittelplateintheNorthsea

OilplatformFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Anoilplatform,offshoreplatform,or(colloquially)oilrigisalargestructurewithfacilitiestodrillwells,toextractandprocessoilandnaturalgas,ortotemporarilystoreproductuntilitcanbebroughttoshoreforrefiningandmarketing.Inmanycases,theplatformcontainsfacilitiestohousetheworkforceaswell.

Dependingonthecircumstances,theplatformmaybefixedtotheoceanfloor,mayconsistofanartificialisland,ormayfloat.Remotesubseawellsmayalsobeconnectedtoaplatformbyflowlinesandbyumbilicalconnections.Thesesubseasolutionsmayconsistofoneormoresubseawells,orofoneormoremanifoldcentresformultiplewells.

Contents

1History2Types

2.1Fixedplatforms2.2Complianttowers2.3Semisubmersibleplatform2.4Jackupdrillingrigs2.5Drillships2.6Floatingproductionsystems2.7Tensionlegplatform2.8Gravitybasedstructure2.9Sparplatforms2.10Condeepplatforms2.11Normallyunmannedinstallations(NUI)2.12Conductorsupportsystems

3Particularlylargeexamples4Maintenanceandsupply5Crew

5.1Essentialpersonnel5.2Incidentalpersonnel

6Drawbacks6.1Risks6.2Ecologicaleffects

7Deepestoilplatforms



Offshoreplatform,GulfofMexico

8Seealso9References10Externallinks

History

Around1891,thefirstsubmergedoilwellsweredrilledfromplatformsbuiltonpilesinthefreshwatersoftheGrandLakeSt.Marys(a.k.a.MercerCountyReservoir)inOhio.Thewidebutshallowreservoirwasbuiltfrom1837to1845toprovidewatertotheMiamiandErieCanal.

Around1896,thefirstsubmergedoilwellsinsaltwaterweredrilledintheportionoftheSummerlandfieldextendingundertheSantaBarbaraChannelinCalifornia.Thewellsweredrilledfrompiersextendingfromlandoutintothechannel.

OthernotableearlysubmergeddrillingactivitiesoccurredontheCanadiansideofLakeErieinthe1900sandCaddoLakeinLouisianainthe1910s.Shortlythereafter,wellsweredrilledintidalzonesalongtheGulfCoastofTexasandLouisiana.TheGooseCreekfieldnearBaytown,Texasisonesuchexample.Inthe1920s,drillingwasdonefromconcreteplatformsinLakeMaracaibo,Venezuela.

TheoldestsubseawellrecordedinInfield'soffshoredatabaseistheBibiEibatwellwhichcameonstreamin1923inAzerbaijan.LandfillwasusedtoraiseshallowportionsoftheCaspianSea.

Intheearly1930s,theTexasCompanydevelopedthefirstmobilesteelbargesfordrillinginthebrackishcoastalareasofthegulf.

In1937,PureOilCompany(nowpartofChevronCorporation)anditspartnerSuperiorOilCompany(nowpartofExxonMobilCorporation)usedafixedplatformtodevelopafieldin14feet(4.3m)ofwater,onemile(1.6km)offshoreofCalcasieuParish,Louisiana.

In1946,MagnoliaPetroleumCompany(nowpartofExxonMobil)erectedadrillingplatformin18ft(5.5m)ofwater,18milesoffthecoastofSt.MaryParish,Louisiana.

Inearly1947,SuperiorOilerectedadrilling/productionplatformin20ft(6.1m)ofwatersome18milesoffVermilionParish,Louisiana.ButitwasKerrMcGeeOilIndustries(nowAnadarkoPetroleumCorporation),asoperatorforpartnersPhillipsPetroleum(ConocoPhillips)andStanolindOil&Gas(BP),thatcompleteditshistoricShipShoalBlock32wellinOctober1947,monthsbeforeSuperioractuallydrilledadiscoveryfromtheirVermilionplatformfartheroffshore.Inanycase,thatmadeKerrMcGee'swellthefirstoildiscoverydrilledoutofsightofland.[1][2]

TheBritishMaunsellFortsconstructedduringWorldWarIIareconsideredthedirectpredecessorsofmodernoffshoreplatforms.Havingbeenpreconstructedinaveryshorttime,theywerethenfloatedtotheirlocationandplacedontheshallowbottomoftheThamesandtheMerseyestuary.[2][3]



AfixedplatformbaseunderconstructiononaLouisianariver

Types

Largerlakeandseabasedoffshoreplatformsanddrillingrigforoil.

1,2)conventionalfixedplatforms3)complianttower4,5)verticallymooredtensionlegandminitensionlegplatform6)spar7,8)semisubmersibles9)floatingproduction,storage,andoffloadingfacility10)subseacompletionandtiebacktohostfacility.[4]

Fixedplatforms

Theseplatformsarebuiltonconcreteorsteellegs,orboth,anchoreddirectlyontotheseabed,supportingadeckwithspacefordrillingrigs,productionfacilitiesandcrewquarters.Suchplatformsare,byvirtueoftheirimmobility,designedforverylongtermuse(forinstancetheHiberniaplatform).Varioustypesofstructureareused,steeljacket,concretecaisson,floatingsteelandevenfloatingconcrete.Steeljacketsareverticalsectionsmadeoftubularsteelmembers,andareusuallypiledintotheseabed.ToseemoredetailsregardingDesign,constructionandinstallationofsuchplatformsreferto:[5]and.[6]

Concretecaissonstructures,pioneeredbytheCondeepconcept,oftenhaveinbuiltoilstorageintanksbelowtheseasurfaceandthesetankswereoftenusedasaflotationcapability,allowingthemtobebuiltclosetoshore(NorwegianfjordsandScottishfirthsarepopularbecausetheyareshelteredanddeepenough)andthenfloatedtotheirfinalpositionwheretheyaresunktotheseabed.Fixedplatformsareeconomicallyfeasibleforinstallationinwaterdepthsuptoabout520m(1,710ft).

Complianttowers

Theseplatformsconsistofslender,flexibletowersandapilefoundationsupportingaconventionaldeckfordrillingandproductionoperations.Complianttowersaredesignedtosustainsignificantlateraldeflectionsandforces,andaretypicallyusedinwaterdepthsrangingfrom370to910metres(1,210to2,990ft).

Semisubmersibleplatform



400feet(120m)talljackuprigbeingtowedbytugboats,KachemakBay,Alaska

Theseplatformshavehulls(columnsandpontoons)ofsufficientbuoyancytocausethestructuretofloat,butofweightsufficienttokeepthestructureupright.Semisubmersibleplatformscanbemovedfromplacetoplaceandcanbeballastedupordownbyalteringtheamountoffloodinginbuoyancytanks.Theyaregenerallyanchoredbycombinationsofchain,wireropeorpolyesterrope,orboth,duringdrillingand/orproductionoperations,thoughtheycanalsobekeptinplacebytheuseofdynamicpositioning.Semisubmersiblescanbeusedinwaterdepthsfrom60to3,000metres(200to10,000ft).

Jackupdrillingrigs

JackupMobileDrillingUnits(orjackups),asthenamesuggests,arerigsthatcanbejackedupabovetheseausinglegsthatcanbelowered,muchlikejacks.TheseMODUs(MobileOffshoreDrillingUnits)aretypicallyusedinwaterdepthsupto120metres(390ft),althoughsomedesignscangoto170m(560ft)depth.Theyaredesignedtomovefromplacetoplace,andthenanchorthemselvesbydeployingthelegstotheoceanbottomusingarackandpiniongearsystemoneachleg.

Drillships

Adrillshipisamaritimevesselthathasbeenfittedwithdrillingapparatus.Itismostoftenusedforexploratorydrillingofnewoilorgaswellsindeepwaterbutcanalsobeusedforscientificdrilling.Earlyversionswerebuiltonamodifiedtankerhull,butpurposebuiltdesignsareusedtoday.Mostdrillshipsareoutfittedwithadynamicpositioningsystemtomaintainpositionoverthewell.Theycandrillinwaterdepthsupto3,700m(12,100ft).[7]

Floatingproductionsystems

ThemaintypesoffloatingproductionsystemsareFPSO(floatingproduction,storage,andoffloadingsystem).FPSOsconsistoflargemonohullstructures,generally(butnotalways)shipshaped,equippedwithprocessingfacilities.Theseplatformsaremooredtoalocationforextendedperiods,anddonotactuallydrillforoilorgas.Somevariantsoftheseapplications,calledFSO(floatingstorageandoffloadingsystem)orFSU(floatingstorageunit),areusedexclusivelyforstoragepurposes,andhostverylittleprocessequipment.Thisisoneofthebestsourcesforhavingfloatingproduction.

Theworld'sfirstfloatingliquefiednaturalgas(FLNG)facilityiscurrentlyunderdevelopment.Seethesectiononparticularlylargeexamplesbelow.

Tensionlegplatform

TLPsarefloatingplatformstetheredtotheseabedinamannerthateliminatesmostverticalmovementofthestructure.TLPsareusedinwaterdepthsuptoabout2,000meters(6,600feet).The"conventional"TLPisa4columndesignwhichlookssimilartoasemisubmersible.ProprietaryversionsincludetheSeastarandMOSESminiTLPstheyarerelativelylowcost,usedinwaterdepthsbetween180and1,300metres(590and4,270ft).MiniTLPscanalsobeusedasutility,satelliteorearlyproductionplatformsforlargerdeepwaterdiscoveries.

Gravitybasedstructure



Devil'sTowersparplatform

AGBScaneitherbesteelorconcreteandisusuallyanchoreddirectlyontotheseabed.SteelGBSarepredominantlyusedwhenthereisnoorlimitedavailabilityofcranebargestoinstallaconventionalfixedoffshoreplatform,forexampleintheCaspianSea.ThereareseveralsteelGBSintheworldtoday(e.g.offshoreTurkmenistanWaters(CaspianSea)andoffshoreNewZealand).SteelGBSdonotusuallyprovidehydrocarbonstoragecapability.Itismainlyinstalledbypullingitofftheyard,byeitherwettowor/anddrytow,andselfinstallingbycontrolledballastingofthecompartmentswithseawater.TopositiontheGBSduringinstallation,theGBSmaybeconnectedtoeitheratransportationbargeoranyotherbarge(provideditislargeenoughtosupporttheGBS)usingstrandjacks.ThejacksshallbereleasedgraduallywhilsttheGBSisballastedtoensurethattheGBSdoesnotswaytoomuchfromtargetlocation.

Sparplatforms

SparsaremooredtotheseabedlikeTLPs,butwhereasaTLPhasverticaltensiontethers,asparhasmoreconventionalmooringlines.Sparshavetodatebeendesignedinthreeconfigurations:the"conventional"onepiececylindricalhullthe"trussspar",inwhichthemidsectioniscomposedoftrusselementsconnectingtheupperbuoyanthull(calledahardtank)withthebottomsofttankcontainingpermanentballastandthe"cellspar",whichisbuiltfrommultipleverticalcylinders.ThesparhasmoreinherentstabilitythanaTLPsinceithasalargecounterweightatthebottomanddoesnotdependonthemooringtoholditupright.Italsohastheability,byadjustingthemooringlinetensions(usingchainjacksattachedtothemooringlines),tomovehorizontallyandtopositionitselfoverwellsatsomedistancefromthemainplatformlocation.ThefirstproductionsparwasKerrMcGee'sNeptune,anchoredin590m(1,940ft)intheGulfofMexicohowever,spars(suchasBrentSpar)werepreviouslyusedasFSOs.

Eni'sDevil'sTowerlocatedin1,710m(5,610ft)ofwaterintheGulfofMexico,wastheworld'sdeepestsparuntil2010.Theworld'sdeepestplatformiscurrentlythePerdidosparintheGulfofMexico,floatingin2,438metresofwater.ItisoperatedbyRoyalDutchShellandwasbuiltatacostof$3billion.[8][9]

ThefirsttrusssparswereKerrMcGee'sBoomvangandNansen.Thefirst(andonly)cellsparisKerrMcGee'sRedHawk.[10]

Condeepplatforms

Condeepplatformgotitsbreakthroughinthesummerof1973.WhenacontractwassignedbetweentheNorwegianContractors(NC)andMobilontheconstructionofBerylAandtheShellBrentB.IthadnotbeenimplementedonboldbuildingprojectsinNorwaysincetheRjukandevelopment.TheNorwegianCondeepplatformsattractedinternationalattention,andtheconstructionwasawardedtheprizeforthetechnologicalinnovationintheworld'slargestoilconferenceinHoustonin1975.

InternationallyCondeepistheepitomeofoiloperationsintheNorthSea.Condeepplatformshavebeenthemostsignificantindependentcontributionstotheoffshoreindustry.ThelatestandgreatestCondeepplatformisTrollA,whichwassubmittedtoShellin1995.



A'Statfjord'gravitybasedstructureunderconstructioninNorway.Almostallofthestructurewillendupsubmerged.

Table31providesanoverviewofallCondeepplatformbuilt,11arelocatedintheNorwegiansector.

ThefirstconcreteplatformsintheUKsectorwasCondeepplatformsbuiltbytheNC.SeveralofthenextBritishconcreteplatformhadmultipledesignresemblingCondeep.

In1978,thereweredemandsfromNPDthatplatformsshouldalsobedesignedforremoval,thisincludedthenineCondeepplatformsfromtheStatfjordB.However,thefullextentoftheremovalprocessisnotgenerallyconsideredintheoriginaldesign.

Normallyunmannedinstallations(NUI)

Theseinstallationsarethenaddedtotheseawater.(sometimescalledtoadstools)aresmallplatforms,consistingoflittlemorethanawellbay,helipadandemergencyshelter.Theyaredesignedtobeoperatedremotelyundernormalconditions,onlytobevisitedoccasionallyforroutinemaintenanceorwellwork.

Conductorsupportsystems

Theseinstallations,alsoknownassatelliteplatforms,aresmallunmannedplatformsconsistingoflittlemorethanawellbayandasmallprocessplant.Theyaredesignedtooperateinconjunctionwithastaticproductionplatformwhichisconnectedtotheplatformbyflowlinesorbyumbilicalcable,orboth.

Particularlylargeexamples

ThePetroniusPlatformisacomplianttowerintheGulfofMexicomodeledaftertheHessBaldpateplatform,whichstands2,000feet(610m)abovetheoceanfloor.Itisoneoftheworld'stalleststructures.[11]

TheHiberniaplatforminCanadaistheworld'slargest(intermsofweight)offshoreplatform,locatedontheJeanneD'ArcBasin,intheAtlanticOceanoffthecoastofNewfoundland.Thisgravitybasestructure(GBS),whichsitsontheoceanfloor,is111metres(364ft)highandhasstoragecapacityfor1.3millionbarrels(210,000m3)ofcrudeoilinits85metre(279ft)highcaisson.Theplatformactsasasmallconcreteislandwithserratedouteredgesdesignedtowithstandtheimpactofaniceberg.TheGBScontainsproductionstoragetanksandtheremainderofthevoidspaceisfilledwithballastwiththeentirestructureweighinginat1.2milliontons.

RoyalDutchShelliscurrentlydevelopingthefirstFloatingLiquefiedNaturalGas(FLNG)facility,whichwillbesituatedapproximately200kmoffthecoastofWesternAustraliaandisdueforcompletionaround2017.[12]Whenfinished,itwillbethelargestfloatingoffshorefacility.Itisexpectedtobeapproximately488mlongand74mwidewithdisplacementofaround600,000twhenfullyballasted.[13]

Maintenanceandsupply



Atypicaloilproductionplatformisselfsufficientinenergyandwaterneeds,housingelectricalgeneration,waterdesalinatorsandalloftheequipmentnecessarytoprocessoilandgassuchthatitcanbeeitherdelivereddirectlyonshorebypipelineortoafloatingplatformortankerloadingfacility,orboth.Elementsintheoil/gasproductionprocessincludewellhead,productionmanifold,productionseparator,glycolprocesstodrygas,gascompressors,waterinjectionpumps,oil/gasexportmeteringandmainoillinepumps.

LargerplatformsassistedbysmallerESVs(emergencysupportvessels)liketheBritishIolairthataresummonedwhensomethinghasgonewrong,e.g.whenasearchandrescueoperationisrequired.Duringnormaloperations,PSVs(platformsupplyvessels)keeptheplatformsprovisionedandsupplied,andAHTSvesselscanalsosupplythem,aswellastowthemtolocationandserveasstandbyrescueandfirefightingvessels.

Crew

Essentialpersonnel

Notallofthefollowingpersonnelarepresentoneveryplatform.Onsmallerplatforms,oneworkercanperformanumberofdifferentjobs.Thefollowingalsoarenotnamesofficiallyrecognizedintheindustry:

OIM(offshoreinstallationmanager)whoistheultimateauthorityduringhis/hershiftandmakestheessentialdecisionsregardingtheoperationoftheplatformoperationsteamleader(OTL)offshoreoperationsengineer(OOE)whoistheseniortechnicalauthorityontheplatformPSTLoroperationscoordinatorformanagingcrewchangesdynamicpositioningoperator,navigation,shiporvesselmaneuvering(MODU),stationkeeping,fireandgassystemsoperationsintheeventofincidentautomationsystemsspecialist,toconfigure,maintainandtroubleshoottheprocesscontrolsystems(PCS),processsafetysystems,emergencysupportsystemsandvesselmanagementsystemssecondmatetomeetmanningrequirementsofflagstate,operatesfastrescuecraft,cargooperations,fireteamleaderthirdmatetomeetmanningrequirementsofflagstate,operatefastrescuecraft,cargooperations,fireteamleaderballastcontroloperatortooperatefireandgassystemscraneoperatorstooperatethecranesforliftingcargoaroundtheplatformandbetweenboatsscaffolderstorigupscaffoldingforwhenitisrequiredforworkerstoworkatheightcoxswainstomaintainthelifeboatsandmanningthemifnecessarycontrolroomoperators,especiallyFPSOorproductionplatformscateringcrew,includingpeopletaskedwithperformingessentialfunctionssuchascooking,laundryandcleaningtheaccommodationproductiontechstoruntheproductionplanthelicopterpilot(s)livingonsomeplatformsthathaveahelicopterbasedoffshoreandtransporting



workerstootherplatformsortoshoreoncrewchangesmaintenancetechnicians(instrument,electricalormechanical).Fullyqualifiedmedic.Radiooperatortooperateallradiocommunications.

Incidentalpersonnel

Drillcrewwillbeonboardiftheinstallationisperformingdrillingoperations.Adrillcrewwillnormallycomprise:

ToolpusherDrillerRoughnecksRoustaboutsCompanymanMudengineerMotormanDerrickhandGeologistWeldersandWelderHelpers

Wellservicescrewwillbeonboardforwellwork.Thecrewwillnormallycomprise:

WellservicessupervisorWirelineorcoiledtubingoperatorsPumpoperatorPumphangerandranger

Drawbacks

Risks

Thenatureoftheiroperationextractionofvolatilesubstancessometimesunderextremepressureinahostileenvironmentmeansriskaccidentsandtragediesoccurregularly.TheU.S.MineralsManagementServicereported69offshoredeaths,1,349injuries,and858firesandexplosionsonoffshorerigsintheGulfofMexicofrom2001to2010.[14]OnJuly6,1988,167peoplediedwhenOccidentalPetroleum'sPiperAlphaoffshoreproductionplatform,onthePiperfieldintheUKsectoroftheNorthSea,explodedafteragasleak.TheresultinginvestigationconductedbyLordCullenandpublicizedinthefirstCullenReportwashighlycriticalofanumberofareas,including,butnotlimitedto,managementwithinthecompany,thedesignofthestructure,andthePermittoWorkSystem.Thereportwascommissionedin1988,andwasdeliveredNovember1990.[15]Theaccidentgreatlyacceleratedthepracticeofprovidinglivingaccommodationsonseparateplatforms,awayfromthoseusedforextraction.



NOAAmapofthe3,858oilandgasplatformsextantintheGulfofMexicoin2006

Theoffshorecanbeinitselfahazardousenvironment.InMarch1980,the'flotel'(floatinghotel)platformAlexanderL.KiellandcapsizedinastormintheNorthSeawiththelossof123lives.[16]

In2001,Petrobras36inBrazilexplodedandsankfivedayslater,killing11people.

Giventhenumberofgrievancesandconspiracytheoriesthatinvolvetheoilbusiness,andtheimportanceofgas/oilplatformstotheeconomy,platformsintheUnitedStatesarebelievedtobepotentialterroristtargets.AgenciesandmilitaryunitsresponsibleformaritimecounterterrorismintheUS(CoastGuard,NavySEALs,MarineRecon)oftentrainforplatformraids.

OnApril21,2010,theDeepwaterHorizonplatform,52milesoffshoreofVenice,Louisiana,(propertyofTransoceanandleasedtoBP)exploded,killing11people,andsanktwodayslater.Theresultingunderseagusher,conservativelyestimatedtoexceed20millionUSgallons(76,000m3)asofearlyJune,2010,becametheworstoilspillinUShistory,eclipsingtheExxonValdezoilspill.

Ecologicaleffects

InBritishwaters,thecostofremovingallplatformrigstructuresentirelywasestimatedin2013at30billion.[17]

Aquaticorganismsinvariablyattachthemselvestotheunderseaportionsofoilplatforms,turningthemintoartificialreefs.IntheGulfofMexicoandoffshoreCalifornia,theseaaroundoilplatformsarepopulardestinationsforsportsandcommercialfishermen,becauseofthegreaternumbersoffishneartheplatforms.TheUnitedStatesandBruneihaveactiveRigstoReefsprograms,inwhichformeroilplatformsareleftinthesea,eitherinplaceortowedtonewlocations,aspermanentartificialreefs.IntheUSGulfofMexico,asofSeptember2012,420formeroilplatforms,about10percentofdecommissionedplatforms,havebeenconvertedtopermanentreefs.[18]

OntheUSPacificcoast,marinebiologistMiltonLovehasproposedthatoilplatformsoffCaliforniaberetainedasartificialreefs,insteadofbeingdismantled(atgreatcost),becausehehasfoundthemtobehavensformanyofthespeciesoffishwhichareotherwisedecliningintheregion,inthecourseof11yearsofresearch.[19]Loveisfundedmainlybygovernmentagencies,butalsoinsmallpartbytheCaliforniaArtificialReefEnhancementProgram.Divershavebeenusedtoassessthefishpopulationssurroundingtheplatforms.[20]

Deepestoilplatforms

Theworld'sdeepestoilplatformisthefloatingPerdido,whichisasparplatformintheGulfofMexicoinawaterdepthof2,438metres(7,999ft).

Nonfloatingcomplianttowersandfixedplatforms,bywaterdepth:

PetroniusPlatform,535m(1,755ft)BaldpatePlatform,502m(1,647ft)



BullwinklePlatform,413m(1,355ft)PompanoPlatform,393m(1,289ft)BenguelaBelizeLobitoTombocoPlatform,390m(1,280ft)TombuaLandanaPlatform,366m(1,201ft)HarmonyPlatform,366m(1,201ft)TrollAPlatform,303m(994ft)GulfaksCPlatform,217m(712ft)

Seealso

AccommodationplatformChukchiCapNorthSeaoilOffshoreconcretestructureOffshoredrillingOffshoregeotechnicalengineeringProtocolfortheSuppressionofUnlawfulActsagainsttheSafetyofFixedPlatformsLocatedontheContinentalShelfRigstoReefsSubmarinepipelineSAR201TEMPSCTexasTowersUnitedStatesoffshoredrillingdebate

References

1. Refaccessed021289bytechnicalaspectsandcoastmapping.KerrMcGee2. ProjectRedsand(http://www.projectredsand.com/)3. 11.2Azerbaijan'sOilHistoryBriefOilChronologysince1920Part2byMirYusifMirBabayev

(http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai112_folder/112_articles/112_chronology.html)4. OfficeofOceanExplorationandResearch(15December2008)."TypesofOffshoreOilandGasStructures"

(http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/06mexico/background/oil/media/types_600.html).NOAAOceanExplorer:ExpeditiontotheDeepSlope.NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration.Retrieved23May2010.

5. http://www.slideshare.net/amirkabirsadeghi/jsas0020401sadeghi6. http://www.slideshare.net/amirkabirsadeghi/jsas004077sadeghi7. "ChevronDrillshipaccessdate=20100524"(http://www.chevron.com/news/press/release/?id=20100311).

20100311.8. ShellstartsproductionatPerdido(http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSN3123683920100331)



WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoOilplatform.

Externallinks

OilRigDisposal(pdf)(http://www.parliament.uk/post/pn065.pdf)PostnoteissuedbytheUKParliamentaryOfficeofScienceandTechnology.OverviewofConventionalPlatforms(http://www.vulcanhammer.info/off/conventional.php)PictoraltreatmentontheinstallationofplatformswhichextendfromtheseabedtotheoceansurfaceExploringtheFutureofOffshoreOilandGasDevelopmentinBC:LessonsfromtheAtlantic

9. Fahey,Jonathan,AssociatedPress,"DeepGulfdrillingthrives18mos.afterBPspill(http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45825598/ns/us_newsenvironment/t/deepgulfdrillingthrivesmosafterbpspill/)",JapanTimes,4January2012,p.11"Theoffshoredrillinglife:crampedanddangerous(http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5gzJrDDvRM0_zBWa3CWjEGhvB0xw?docId=7c57a1cc233d4a2d9ee7d047ef6d32cc)",1January2012.

10. "FirstCellSparaccessdate=20100524"(http://www.fmctechnologies.com/en/SubseaSystems/GlobalProjects/NorthAmerica/US/KMGRedHawk.aspx?tab=%7BB01D40AB5E2F4710954319C658AF29F5%7D).

11. "WhatistheWorld'sTallestBuilding?"(http://www.allaboutskyscrapers.com/tallest_building.htm).AllAboutSkyscrapers.2009.Retrieved23May2010.

12. http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/9ccaed4a82ba11e0b97c00144feabdc0.html#axzz1NADgzzOH13. http://gastoday.com.au/news/flng_gets_serious/042981/14. "Potentialforbigspillafteroilrigsinks"(http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/36683314/ns/us_newslife/).

MSNBC.20100422.Retrieved20100604.15. http://www.oilandgas.org.uk/issues/piperalpha/v0000864.cfm16. "NorthSeaplatformcollapses"

(http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/27/newsid_2531000/2531091.stm).BBCNews.19800327.Retrieved20080619.

17. http://www.raeng.org.uk/publications/reports/decommissioninginthenorthsea.18. NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration,GulfdecomissioningandRigstoReefs,FAQs

(http://sero.nmfs.noaa.gov/habitat_conservation/documents/pdfs/efh/gulf_decommissioning_and_rigs_to_reefs_faqs_final.pdf),2012.

19. PageM,DuganJ,LoveM,LenihanH."EcologicalPerformanceandTrophicLinks:ComparisonsAmongPlatformsAndNaturalReefsForSelectedFishAndTheirPrey"(http://www.coastalresearchcenter.ucsb.edu/cmi/ecoperformance.html).UniversityofCalifornia,SantaBarbara.Retrieved20080627.

20. SACox,CRBeaver,QRDokken,andJRRooker.(1996)."Diverbasedunderwatersurveytechniquesusedtoassessfishpopulationsandfoulingcommunitydevelopmentonoffshoreoilandgasplatformstructures"(http://archive.rubiconfoundation.org/4689).In:MALang,CCBaldwin(Eds.)theDivingforScience...1996,"MethodsandTechniquesofUnderwaterResearch".ProceedingsoftheAmericanAcademyofUnderwaterSciences(16thAnnualScientificDivingSymposium).Retrieved20080627.



(http://www.sfu.ca/cstudies/science/oilgas.htm)OffshoreOilDrillingNews(http://www.offshoremag.com/drillingandcompletion/)OffshoreOilDrillingNewsOilRigDisasters(http://www.oilrigdisasters.co.uk)ListingofOilRigAccidentsOilRigPhotos(http://www.oilrigphotos.com)CollectionofpicturesofDrillingRigsandProductionPlatformsAnindependentreviewofOffshorePlatformsintheNorthSea(http://www.divinglore.com/Offshore_Platforms.htm)TheMaureenAlphaStory(http://www.maureenalpha.eu)Novelconcepttouseoffshoreoilplatformsforfreshwaterproduction(http://www.spacewx.com/SpaceWater.html)TouringtheHermosaOilPlatformoffthecoastofLompoc,California(http://semicultured.com/?q=node/111)OilRigJobs(http://www.oiljobsoffshore.com/jobs.html)

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