Odyssey

This article is about Homer’s epic poem. For other uses,see Odyssey (disambiguation).“Homer’s Odyssey” redirects here. For The Simpsonsepisode, see Homer’s Odyssey (The Simpsons).The Odyssey (/ˈɒdəsi/;[1] Greek: Ὀδύσσεια Odýsseia,

Greek text of the Odyssey's opening passage

pronounced [o.dýs.sej.ja] in Classical Attic) is one of twomajor ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. Itis, in part, a sequel to the Iliad, the other work ascribed toHomer. The poem is fundamental to the modernWesterncanon, and is the second oldest extant work of Westernliterature, the Iliad being the oldest. Scholars believe itwas composed near the end of the 8th century BC, some-where in Ionia, the Greek coastal region of Anatolia.[2]

The poem mainly centers on the Greek hero Odysseus(known as Ulysses in Roman myths) and his journeyhome after the fall of Troy. It takes Odysseus ten yearsto reach Ithaca after the ten-year Trojan War.[3] In hisabsence, it is assumed he has died, and his wife Penelopeand son Telemachusmust deal with a group of unruly suit-ors, the Mnesteres (Greek: Μνηστῆρες) or Proci, whocompete for Penelope’s hand in marriage.It continues to be read in the Homeric Greek and trans-lated into modern languages around the world. Manyscholars believe that the original poem was composedin an oral tradition by an aoidos (epic poet/singer), per-haps a rhapsode (professional performer), and was morelikely intended to be heard than read.[2] The details of theancient oral performance, and the story’s conversion toa written work inspire continual debate among scholars.The Odyssey was written in a poetic dialect of Greek—aliterary amalgam of Aeolic Greek, Ionic Greek, and otherAncient Greek dialects—and comprises 12,110 lines ofdactylic hexameter.[4][5] Among the most noteworthy ele-ments of the text are its non-linear plot, and the influenceon events of choices made by women and serfs, besides

the actions of fighting men. In the English language aswell as many others, the word odyssey has come to referto an epic voyage.The Odyssey has a lost sequel, the Telegony, which wasnot written by Homer. It was usually attributed in antiq-uity to Cinaethon of Sparta. In one source, the Telegonywas said to have been stolen from Musaeus by Eugamonor Eugammon of Cyrene (see Cyclic poets).

1 Synopsis

1.1 Exposition

The Odyssey began ten years after the end of the ten-year Trojan War (the subject of the Iliad), and Odysseushas still not returned home from the war. Odysseus’ sonTelemachus is about 20 years old and is sharing his ab-sent father’s house on the island of Ithaca with his motherPenelope and a crowd of 108 boisterous young men, “theSuitors”, whose aim is to persuade Penelope to marryone of them, all the while enjoying the hospitality ofOdysseus’ household and eating up his wealth.Odysseus’ protectress, the goddess Athena, discusses hisfate with Zeus, king of the gods, at a moment whenOdysseus’ enemy, the god of the sea Poseidon, is ab-sent from Mount Olympus. Then, disguised as a Taphianchieftain named Mentes, she visits Telemachus to urgehim to search for news of his father. He offers her hos-pitality; they observe the suitors dining rowdily whilethe bard Phemius performs a narrative poem for them.Penelope objects to Phemius’ theme, the “Return fromTroy”,[6] because it reminds her of her missing husband,but Telemachus rebuts her objections.That night Athena, disguised as Telemachus, finds a shipand crew for the true Telemachus. The next morning,Telemachus calls an assembly of citizens of Ithaca to dis-cuss what should be done with the suitors. Accompaniedby Athena (now disguised as Mentor), he departs for theGreek mainland and the household of Nestor, most ven-erable of the Greek warriors at Troy, now at home inPylos. From there, Telemachus rides overland, accom-panied by Nestor’s son, Peisistratus, to Sparta, where hefinds Menelaus and Helen who are now reconciled. He istold that they returned to Sparta after a long voyage byway of Egypt. There, on the island of Pharos, Menelausencountered the old sea-god Proteus, who told him thatOdysseus was a captive of the nymph Calypso. Inciden-

1

2 1 SYNOPSIS

tally, Telemachus learns the fate of Menelaus’ brotherAgamemnon, king of Mycenae and leader of the Greeksat Troy: he was murdered on his return home by his wifeClytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus.

Charles Gleyre, Odysseus and Nausicaä

1.2 Escape to the Phaeacians

The second part tells the story of Odysseus. After havingspent seven years in captivity on Calypso’s island, Ogygia,Calypso falls deeply in love with him but he has con-sistently spurned her advances. She is persuaded to re-lease him by Odysseus’ great-grandfather, the messengergod Hermes, who has been sent by Zeus in response toAthena’s plea. Odysseus builds a raft and is given cloth-ing, food and drink by Calypso. When Poseidon finds outthat Odysseus has escaped, he wrecks the raft but, helpedby a veil given by the sea nymph Ino, Odysseus swimsashore on Scherie, the island of the Phaeacians. Nakedand exhausted, he hides in a pile of leaves and falls asleep.The next morning, awakened by the laughter of girls, hesees the young Nausicaa, who has gone to the seashorewith her maids to wash clothes after Athena told her ina dream to do so. He appeals to her for help. She en-courages him to seek the hospitality of her parents, Areteand Alcinous, or Alkinous. Odysseus is welcomed andis not at first asked for his name. He remains for severaldays, takes part in a pentathlon, and hears the blind singerDemodocus perform two narrative poems. The first is anotherwise obscure incident of the TrojanWar, the “Quar-rel of Odysseus and Achilles"; the second is the amusingtale of a love affair between two Olympian gods, Ares andAphrodite. Finally, Odysseus asks Demodocus to returnto the Trojan War theme and tell of the Trojan Horse, astratagem in which Odysseus had played a leading role.Unable to hide his emotion as he relives this episode,Odysseus at last reveals his identity. He then begins totell the story of his return from Troy.

1.3 Odysseus’ account of his adventures

After a piratical raid on Ismaros in the land of theCicones, he and his twelve ships were driven off course

Odysseus Overcome by Demodocus' Song, by Francesco Hayez,1813–15

by storms. They visited the lethargic Lotus-Eaters whogave two of his men their fruit which caused them toforget their homecoming, and then were captured bythe Cyclops Polyphemus, escaping by blinding him witha wooden stake. While they were escaping, however,Odysseus foolishly told Polyphemus his identity, andPolyphemus told his father, Poseidon, that Odysseus hadblinded him. Poseidon then curses Odysseus to wanderthe sea for ten years, during which he would lose all hiscrew and return home through the aid of others. Aftertheir escape, they stayed with Aeolus, the master of thewinds and he gave Odysseus a leather bag containing allthe winds, except the west wind, a gift that should haveensured a safe return home. However, the greedy sailorsfoolishly opened the bag while Odysseus slept, thinking itcontained gold. All of the winds flew out and the result-ing storm drove the ships back the way they had come,just as Ithaca came into sight.After unsuccessfully pleading with Aeolus to helpthem again, they re-embarked and encountered thecannibalistic Laestrygonians. All of Odysseus’s ships ex-cept his own entered the harbor of the Laestrygonians’Island and were immediately destroyed. He sailed onand visited the witch-goddess Circe. She turned half ofhis men into swine after feeding them cheese and wine.Hermes warned Odysseus about Circe and gave Odysseusa drug called moly which gave him resistance to Circe’smagic. Circe, surprised by Odysseus’ resistance, agreedto change his men back to their human form in exchangefor Odysseus’ love. They remained with her on the is-land for one year, while they feasted and drank. Finally,guided by Circe’s instructions, Odysseus and his crewcrossed the ocean and reached a harbor at the westernedge of the world, where Odysseus sacrificed to the dead.He first encountered the spirit of crewmember Elpenor,who had gotten drunk and fallen from a roof to his death,which had gone unnoticed by others, before Odysseus andthe rest of his crew had left Circe. Elpenor’s ghost toldOdysseus to bury his body, which Odysseus promised todo. Odysseus then summoned the spirit of the old prophetTiresias for advice on how to appease the gods upon his

1.5 Slaying of the Suitors 3

return home. Next Odysseus met the spirit of his ownmother, who had died of grief during his long absence.From her, he got his first news of his own household,threatened by the greed of the Suitors. Finally, he metthe spirits of famous men and women. Notably he en-countered the spirit of Agamemnon, of whose murder henow learned, and Achilles, who told him about the woesof the land of the dead (for Odysseus’ encounter with thedead, see also Nekuia).

Odysseus and the Sirens, eponymous vase of the Siren Painter,ca. 480-470 BC, (British Museum)

Returning to Circe’s island, they were advised by her onthe remaining stages of the journey. They skirted the landof the Sirens, who sang an enchanting song that normallycaused passing sailors to steer toward the rocks, only tohit them and sink. All of the sailors except for Odysseus,who was tied to the mast as he wanted to hear the song,had their ears plugged upwith beeswax. They then passedbetween the six-headed monster Scylla and the whirlpoolCharybdis, Odysseus losing six men to Scylla, and landedon the island of Thrinacia. Zeus caused a storm whichprevented them leaving. While Odysseus was away pray-ing, his men ignored the warnings of Tiresias and Circeand hunted down the sacred cattle of the sun god Heliosas their food had run short. The Sun God insisted thatZeus punish the men for this sacrilege. They suffered ashipwreck as they were driven towards Charybdis. Allbut Odysseus were drowned; he clung to a fig tree aboveCharybdis. Washed ashore on the island of Ogygia, hewas compelled to remain there as Calypso’s lover until shewas ordered by Zeus, via Hermes, to release Odysseus.

1.4 Return to Ithaca

Having listened with rapt attention to his story, thePhaeacians, who are skilled mariners, agree to helpOdysseus get home. They deliver him at night, while heis fast asleep, to a hidden harbour on Ithaca. He findshis way to the hut of one of his own slaves, the swine-herd Eumaeus. Athena disguises Odysseus as a wander-ing beggar so he can see how things stand in his house-hold. After dinner, he tells the farm laborers a fictitioustale of himself: He was born in Crete, had led a party of

Cretans to fight alongside other Greeks in the TrojanWar,and had then spent seven years at the court of the king ofEgypt; finally he had been shipwrecked in Thesprotia andcrossed from there to Ithaca.Meanwhile, Telemachus sails home from Sparta, evad-ing an ambush set by the Suitors. He disembarks on thecoast of Ithaca and makes for Eumaeus’s hut. Father andson meet; Odysseus identifies himself to Telemachus (butstill not to Eumaeus), and they decide that the Suitorsmust be killed. Telemachus goes home first. Accom-panied by Eumaeus, Odysseus returns to his own house,still pretending to be a beggar. When Odysseus’s dog(who was a puppy before he left) saw him, he was soexcited that he died.[7]He is ridiculed by the Suitors inhis own home, especially by one extremely impertinentman named Antinous. Odysseus meets Penelope andtests her intentions by saying he once met Odysseus inCrete. Closely questioned, he adds that he had recentlybeen in Thesprotia and had learned something there ofOdysseus’s recent wanderings.Odysseus’s identity is discovered by the housekeeper,Eurycleia, when she recognizes an old scar as she is wash-ing his feet. Eurycleia tries to tell Penelope about the beg-gar’s true identity, but Athena makes sure that Penelopecannot hear her. Odysseus then swears Eurycleia to se-crecy.

1.5 Slaying of the Suitors

The next day, at Athena’s prompting, Penelope maneu-vers the Suitors into competing for her hand with anarchery competition using Odysseus’ bow. The man whocan string the bow and shoot it through a dozen axe headswould win. Odysseus takes part in the competition him-self: he alone is strong enough to string the bow and shootit through the dozen axe heads, making him the win-ner. He then turns his arrows on the Suitors and withthe help of Athena, Telemachus, Eumaeus and Philo-teus the cowherd, he kills all the Suitors. Odysseus andTelemachus hang twelve of their household maids, whohad betrayed Penelope or had sex with the Suitors, orboth; they mutilate and kill the goatherdMelanthius, whohad mocked and abused Odysseus. Now at last, Odysseusidentifies himself to Penelope. She is hesitant, but acceptshim when he mentions that their bed was made from anolive tree still rooted to the ground. Many modern andancient scholars take this to be the original ending of theOdyssey, and the rest to be an interpolation.The next day he and Telemachus visit the country farm ofhis old father Laertes, who likewise accepts his identityonly when Odysseus correctly describes the orchard thatLaertes had previously given him.The citizens of Ithaca have followed Odysseus on theroad, planning to avenge the killing of the Suitors, theirsons. Their leader points out that Odysseus has nowcaused the deaths of two generations of themen of Ithaca:

4 4 GEOGRAPHY OF THE ODYSSEY

his sailors, not one of whom survived; and the Suitors,whom he has now executed. The goddess Athena inter-venes and persuades both sides to give up the vendetta, adeus ex machina. After this, Ithaca is at peace once more,concluding the Odyssey.

2 Character of Odysseus

Main article: Odysseus

Odysseus’ name means “trouble” in Greek, referring toboth the giving and receiving of trouble—as is often thecase in his wanderings. An early example of this is theboar hunt that gave Odysseus the scar by which Eurycleiarecognizes him; Odysseus is injured by the boar and re-sponds by killing it. Odysseus’ heroic trait is his mētis, or“cunning intelligence": he is often described as the “Peerof Zeus in Counsel”. This intelligence is most often man-ifested by his use of disguise and deceptive speech. Hisdisguises take forms both physical (altering his appear-ance) and verbal, such as telling the Cyclops Polyphemusthat his name is Οὖτις, “Nobody”, then escaping afterblinding Polyphemus. When asked by other Cyclopeswhy he is screaming, Polyphemus replies that “Nobody”is hurting him, so the others assume that, “If alone as youare [Polyphemus] none uses violence on you, why, thereis no avoiding the sickness sent by great Zeus; so you hadbetter pray to your father, the lord Poseidon”.[8] The mostevident flaw that Odysseus sports is that of his arroganceand his pride, or hubris. As he sails away from the is-land of the Cyclopes, he shouts his name and boasts thatnobody can defeat the “Great Odysseus”. The Cyclopsthen throws the top half of a mountain at him and praysto his father, Poseidon, saying that Odysseus has blindedhim. This enrages Poseidon, causing the god to thwartOdysseus’ homecoming for a very long time.

3 Structure

The Odyssey was written in dactylic hexameter. TheOdyssey opens in medias res, in the middle of the over-all story, with prior events described through flashbacksor storytelling. This device is also used by later authorsof literary epics, such as Virgil in the Aeneid, Luís deCamões in Os Lusíadas[9] and Alexander Pope in TheRape of the Lock.In the first episodes, we trace Telemachus' efforts to as-sert control of the household, and then, at Athena’s ad-vice, to search for news of his long-lost father. Then thescene shifts: Odysseus has been a captive of the beautifulnymph Calypso, with whom he has spent seven of his tenlost years. Released by the intercession of his patronessAthena, through the aid of Hermes, he departs, but hisraft is destroyed by his divine enemy Poseidon, who is

angry because Odysseus blinded his son, Polyphemus.When Odysseus washes up on Scherie, home to thePhaeacians, he is assisted by the young Nausicaa and istreated hospitably. In return, he satisfies the Phaeacians’curiosity, telling them, and the reader, of all his adven-tures since departing from Troy. The shipbuilding Phaea-cians then loan him a ship to return to Ithaca, where he isaided by the swineherd Eumaeus, meets Telemachus, re-gains his household, kills the Suitors, and is reunited withhis faithful wife, Penelope.All ancient and nearly all modern editions and translationsof the Odyssey are divided into 24 books. This division isconvenient but it may not be original. Many scholars be-lieve it was developed by Alexandrian editors of the 3rdcentury BC. In the Classical period, moreover, several ofthe books (individually and in groups) were given theirown titles: the first four books, focusing on Telemachus,are commonly known as the Telemachy. Odysseus’ nar-rative, Book 9, featuring his encounter with the cyclopsPolyphemus, is traditionally called the Cyclopeia. Book11, the section describing his meeting with the spirits ofthe dead is known as the Nekuia. Books 9 through 12,wherein Odysseus recalls his adventures for his Phaea-cian hosts, are collectively referred to as the Apologoi:Odysseus’ “stories”. Book 22, wherein Odysseus killsall the Suitors, has been given the title Mnesterophonia:“slaughter of the Suitors”. This concludes the Greek EpicCycle, though fragments remain of the “alternative end-ing” of sorts known as the Telegony.This Telegony aside, the last 548 lines of theOdyssey, cor-responding to Book 24, are believed by many scholars tohave been added by a slightly later poet. Several passagesin earlier books seem to be setting up the events of Book24, so if it were indeed a later addition, the offending ed-itor would seem to have changed earlier text as well. Formore about varying views on the origin, authorship andunity of the poem see Homeric scholarship.

4 Geography of the Odyssey

Main articles: Homer’s Ithaca and Geography of theOdyssey

The events in the main sequence of the Odyssey (ex-cluding Odysseus’ embedded narrative of his wanderings)take place in the Peloponnese and in what are now calledthe Ionian Islands. There are difficulties in the appar-ently simple identification of Ithaca, the homeland ofOdysseus, whichmay ormay not be the same island that isnow called Ithake. The wanderings of Odysseus as told tothe Phaeacians, and the location of the Phaeacians’ ownisland of Scheria, pose more fundamental problems, ifgeography is to be applied: scholars, both ancient andmodern, are divided as to whether or not any of the placesvisited by Odysseus (after Ismaros and before his return

5

to Ithaca) are real.

5 Dating the Odyssey

In 2008, scientistsMarceloO.Magnasco andConstantinoBaikouzis at Rockefeller University used clues in the textand astronomical data to attempt to pinpoint the timeof Odysseus’s return from his journey after the TrojanWar.[10]

The first clue is Odysseus’ sighting of Venus just beforedawn as he arrives on Ithaca. The second is a new moonon the night before the massacre of the Suitors. The finalclue is a total eclipse, falling over Ithaca around noon,when Penelope’s Suitors sit down for their noon meal.The seer Theoclymenus approaches the Suitors and fore-tells their death, saying, “The Sun has been obliteratedfrom the sky, and an unlucky darkness invades the world.”The problem with this is that the 'eclipse' is only seen byTheoclymenus, and the Suitors toss him out, calling himmad. No one else sees the sky darken, and it is there-fore not actually described as an eclipse within the story,merely a vision by Theoclymenus.Doctors Baikouzis and Magnasco state that "[t]he oddsthat purely fictional references to these phenomena (sohard to satisfy simultaneously) would coincide by acci-dent with the only eclipse of the century are minute.”They conclude that these three astronomical references"'cohere', in the sense that the astronomical phenomenapinpoint the date of 16 April 1178 BCE” as the mostlikely date of Odysseus’ return.This dating places the destruction of Troy, ten years be-fore, to 1188 BC, which is close to the archaeologicallydated destruction of Troy VIIa circa 1190 BC.

6 Influences on the Odyssey

Scholars have seen strong influences from Near Easternmythology and literature in the Odyssey. MartinWest hasnoted substantial parallels between the Epic of Gilgameshand the Odyssey.[11] Both Odysseus and Gilgamesh areknown for traveling to the ends of the earth, and on theirjourneys go to the land of the dead. On his voyage to theunderworld, Odysseus follows instructions given to himby Circe, a goddess who is the daughter of the sun-godHelios. Her island, Aeaea, is located at the edges of theworld, and seems to have close associations with the sun.LikeOdysseus, Gilgamesh gets directions on how to reachthe land of the dead from a divine helper: in this case, thegoddess Siduri, who, like Circe, dwells by the sea at theends of the earth. Her home is also associated with thesun: Gilgamesh reaches Siduri’s house by passing througha tunnel underneath Mt. Mashu, the high mountain fromwhich the sun comes into the sky. West argues that thesimilarity of Odysseus’ and Gilgamesh’s journeys to the

edges of the earth are the result of the influence of theGilgamesh epic upon the Odyssey.The Cyclops’ origins have also been surmised to be theresults of Ancient Greeks finding an elephant skull, by pa-leontologist Othenio Abel in 1914. The enormous nasalpassage in the middle of the forehead could have lookedlike the eye socket of a giant, to those who had never seena living elephant.[12]

7 Text history

• The Athenian tyrant Peisistratos, who ruled between546 and 527 BC, is believed to have established aCommission of Editors of Homer to edit the text ofthe poems and remove any errors and interpolations,thus establishing a canonical text.[13]

• The earliest papyrus fragments date back to the 3rdcentury BC.[13]

• The oldest complete manuscript is the Laurentianusfrom the 10th or 11th century.[13]

• The editio princeps of both the Iliad and theOdysseyis by Demetrius Chalcondyles in Florence, mostlikely from 1488.

8 Cultural impact

• Cyclops by Euripides, the only extant satyr play,retells the respective episode with a humorous twist.

• True Story, written by Lucian of Samosata in the 2ndcentury AD, is a satire on theOdyssey and on ancienttravel tales, describing a journey sailing westward,beyond the Pillars of Hercules and to the Moon,the first known text that could be called science fic-tion.[14]

• Merugud Uilix maicc Leirtis (“On the Wanderingof Ulysses, son of Laertes”) is an eccentric OldIrish version of the material; the work exists in a12th-century AD manuscript that linguists believeis based on an 8th-century original.[15][16]

• Dante Alighieri has Odysseus append a new endingto the Odyssey in canto XXVI of the Inferno.

• Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria, first performed in 1640,is an opera by Claudio Monteverdi based on the sec-ond half of Homer’s Odyssey.

• Every episode of James Joyce's modernist novelUlysses (1922) has an assigned theme, technique andcorrespondences between its characters and those ofHomer’s Odyssey.

6 9 NOTABLE ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS

• The first canto of Ezra Pound's The Cantos (1922)is both a translation and a retelling of Odysseus’journey to the underworld.

• Nikos Kazantzakis aspires to continue the poem andexplore more modern concerns in The Odyssey: AModern Sequel (1938).

• Homer’s Daughter by Robert Graves is a novel imag-ining how the version we have might have been in-vented out of older tales.

• The Japanese-French anime Ulysses 31 (1981) up-dates the ancient setting into a 31st-century spaceopera.

• Omeros (1991), an epic poem by Derek Walcott,is in part a retelling of the Odyssey, set on theCaribbean island of St. Lucia.

• The Odyssey (1997), a made-for-TV movie directedby Andrei Konchalovsky, is a slightly abbreviatedversion of the epic.

• Similarly, Daniel Wallace's Big Fish: A Novel ofMythic Proportions (1998) adapts the epic to theAmerican South, while also incorporating tall talesinto its first-person narrative much as Odysseus doesin the Apologoi (Books 9-12).

• The Coen Brothers' 2000 film O Brother, Where ArtThou? is loosely based on Homer’s poem.

• Zachary Mason's The Lost Books of the Odyssey(2007) is a series of short stories that reworkHomer’s original plot in a contemporary style remi-niscent of Italo Calvino.

• The film Ulysses’ Gaze (1995) directed by Theo An-gelopoulos has many of the elements of the Odysseyset against the backdrop of the most recent and pre-vious Balkan Wars.

• The poem "Ulysses" by Alfred, Lord Tennyson isnarrated by an aged Ulysses who is determined tocontinue to live life to the fullest.

• Between 1978 and 1979, German director TonyMunzlinger made a documentary series called Un-terwegs mit Odysseus (roughly translated: “Journey-ing with Odysseus”), in which a film team sailsacross the Mediterranean Sea trying to find traces ofOdysseus in the modern-day settings of the Odyssey.

• Cream's 1967 song "Tales of Brave Ulysses" isbased on the encounters that Odysseus had on hisway back, such as the sirens.

• SteelyDan's 1977 song "Home at Last (song)" on thealbum Aja (album) is based loosely on Odysseus'sefforts to return home. It includes lyrics such as,“Well, the danger on the rocks is surely past/Still Iremain tied to the mast/Could it be that I have foundmy home at last?/Home at last.”

• Margaret Atwood's 2005 novella The Penelopiad isan ironic rewriting of The Odyssey from Penelope'sperspective.

9 Notable English translations

Further information: English translations of Homer

This is a partial list of translations into English of Homer’sOdyssey.

• George Chapman, 1616 (couplets)

• Thomas Hobbes, 1675

• Alexander Pope, 1725–1726 (iambic pentametercouplets); Project Gutenberg edition; Gutenberg.org

• William Cowper, 1791 (blank verse) An audio CDrecording abridged by Perry Keenlyside and readby Anton Lesser is available (ISBN 9626345314),1995.

• Samuel Henry Butcher and Andrew Lang, 1879(prose); Project Gutenberg edition

• William Cullen Bryant, 1871 (blank verse)

• Mordaunt Roger Barnard, 1876 (blank verse)

• William Morris, 1887

• Samuel Butler, 1898 (prose); Gutenberg.org ProjectGutenberg edition or Perseus Project Od.1.1

• Padraic Colum, 1918 (prose), Bartleby.com

• A. T. Murray (revised by George E. Dimock),1919; Loeb Classical Library (ISBN 0-674-99561-9). Available online here.

• George Herbert Palmer, 1921, prose. An audio CDrecording read by Norman Deitz is available (ISBN1-4025-2325-4), 1989.

• T. E. Shaw (T. E. Lawrence), 1932

• W. H. D. Rouse, 1937, prose

• E. V. Rieu, 1945, prose (later revised in 1991 byD.C.H. Rieu for increased literal accuracy)

• Robert Fitzgerald, 1963, unrhymed poetry withvaried-length lines (ISBN 0-679-72813-9) An audioCD recording read by John Lee is available (ISBN1-4159-3605-6) 2006

• Richmond Lattimore, 1965, poetry (ISBN 0-06-093195-7)

• Albert Cook, 1967 (Norton Critical Edition), po-etry, very accurate line by line version

7

• Walter Shewring, 1980 (ISBN 0-19-283375-8),Oxford University Press (Oxford World’s Classics),prose

• Allen Mandelbaum, 1990 Verse Translation[17]

• Robert Fagles, poetry, 1996 (ISBN 0-14-026886-3); an unabridged audio recording by Ian McKellenis also available (ISBN 0-14-086430-X).

• Stanley Lombardo, Hackett Publishing Company,2000 (ISBN 0-87220-484-7). An audio CD record-ing read by the translator is also available (ISBN 1-930972-06-7).

• Martin Hammond, 2000, prose

• Rodney Merrill, 2002, unrhymed dactylic hexam-eter, accurate line by line version, University ofMichigan Press

• Edward McCrorie, 2004 (ISBN 0-8018-8267-2),Johns Hopkins University Press.

• Barry B. Powell, 2014 ISBN 978-0199360314, Ox-ford University Press

10 See also

• Hellenismos portal

• Odyssean gods

11 References[1] “Odyssey”. Random House Webster’s Unabridged Dictio-

nary.

[2] D.C.H. Rieu's introduction to The Odyssey (Penguin,2003), p. xi.

[3] The dog Argos dies autik' idont' Odusea eeikosto eniauto(“seeing Odysseus again in the twentieth year”), Odyssey17.327; cf. also 2.174-6, 23.102, 23.170.

[4] Homer (1996). The Odyssey. Trans. by Robert Fagles.Introduction by Bernard Knox. United States of America:Penguin Books. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-14-026886-7.

[5] Fox, Robin Lane (2006). The Classical World: An EpicHistory from Homer to Hadrian. United States of Amer-ica: Basic Books. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-465-02496-4.

[6] This theme once existed in the form of another epic,Nostoi, of which only fragments remain.

[7] Homer. The Odyssey. p. Scroll 17 Line 8-8. Retrieved16 January 2015.

[8] From the Odyssey of Homer translated by Richmond Lat-timore [Book 9, page 147/8, lines 410 - 412].

[9] “The Lusiads”. World Digital Library. 1800–1882. Re-trieved 2013-08-31.

[10] Baikouzis, Constantino; Magnasco, Marcelo O. (June 24,2008), “Is an eclipse described in the Odyssey?", Proceed-ings of the National Academy of Sciences (Proceedingsof the National Academy of Sciences) 105 (26): 8823,doi:10.1073/pnas.0803317105, PMC 2440358, PMID18577587, retrieved 2008-06-27.

[11] West, Martin. The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Ele-ments in Greek Poetry and Myth. (Oxford 1997) 402-417.

[12] Abel’s surmise is noted by Adrienne Mayor, The FirstFossil Hunters: Paleontology in Greek and Roman Times(Princeton University Press) 2000.

[13] Odyssey Criticism.

[14] Swanson, Roy Arthur:

Lucian of Samosata, the Greco-Syriansatirist of the second century, appears todayas an exemplar of the science-fiction artist.There is little, if any, need to argue thathis mythopoeic Milesian Tales and his liter-ary fantastic voyages and utopistic hyperbolecomport with the genre of science fiction; ...

[15] Merugud Uilix maicc Leirtis. KunoMeyer (ed), First edi-tion [v + 36 pp.; v–xii Introduction; 1–15 Critical edi-tion of Text; 16–29 Translation; 30–36 Index Verborum.]David Nutt270 Strand, London (1886)

[16] https://archive.org/details/meruguduilixmai00homegoog

[17] Homer’s Odyssey. New York: Bantam. 1991. Trans.Mandelbaum, Allen. ISBN 978-0-553-21399-7.

12 External links• Odyssey on Perseus Project:

• Ancient Greek• English translation by Samuel Butler, 1900• English translation by A.T. Murray, 1919

• Homer’sOdyssey: A Commentary byDenton JaquesSnider on Project Gutenberg

• BBC audio file. In our time BBC Radio 4 discussionprogramme. 45 minutes.

• The Meaning of Tradition in Homer’s Odyssey inEnglish

• The Odyssey Comix A detailed retelling and expla-nation of Homer’s Odyssey in comic-strip format byGreek Myth Comix

8 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text• Odyssey Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odyssey?oldid=675965053 Contributors: Derek Ross, Eloquence, Vicki Rosenzweig,Bryan Derksen, Stephen Gilbert, Koyaanis Qatsi, Ffaker, Ed Poor, Andre Engels, Eclecticology, XJaM, Oliverkroll, Ben-Zin~enwiki,Bobn, Ydd, Tucci528, Mrwojo, Edward, Infrogmation, Kaijan, DopefishJustin, Ixfd64, GTBacchus, (, Looxix~enwiki, Ihcoyc, Mdebets,Ahoerstemeier, Angela, Jebba, Mark Foskey, Jll, Kimiko, Andres, Adam Bishop, EALacey, Ww, Andrewman327, Zoicon5, Radiojon,IceKarma, Itai, Paul-L~enwiki, Jose Ramos, Fvw, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Wetman, Gakrivas, Johnleemk, Commander bonbon, Kev,Shafei, Francs2000, JorgeGG, Danarchy, Lumos3, Shantavira, Nufy8, Chris Roy, Merovingian, Timrollpickering, Sunray, UtherSRG,Mandel, Quadalpha, SoLando, Mlk, David Koller, TOO, Cobaltbluetony, Tom harrison, Hagedis, Everyking, Bkonrad, Varlaam, Yugure,Dmmaus, Xorx77, AdamMcMaster, Mmm~enwiki, Oklonia, Gadfium, R. fiend, Abu badali, Antandrus, The Singing Badger, Jongo, Lore-master, HistoryBA, Adamsan, Oneiros, Ruzulo, Ellsworth, Pmanderson, Icairns, Illyrianka, Robin Hood~enwiki, Mschlindwein, Robinklein, Fanghong~enwiki, Mike Rosoft, Venu62, Archer3, DanielCD, Discospinster, Ffirehorse, YUL89YYZ, Luxdormiens, LindsayH,Arthur Holland, Dbachmann, Pavel Vozenilek, Paul August, Bender235, Hapsiainen, Aranel, CanisRufus, MBisanz, El C, Cafzal, -jkb-,Shanes, Briséis~enwiki, RoyBoy, Wareh, Pablo X, Bobo192, NetBot, Marblespire, Smalljim, Filiocht, Dungodung, JW1805, Arcadian,Chrisvls, La goutte de pluie, Kjkolb, Bart van der Pligt~enwiki, Sam Korn, Hagerman, Pearle, Nsaa, Tamaal, Nickeveritt, Alansohn,Gary, Gero~enwiki, Coma28, Mo0, ChristopherWillis, Free Bear, Kessler, Ben davison, Wiki-uk, Riana, AzaToth, Bart133, DreamGuy,Snowolf, Ross Burgess, Wtmitchell, Velella, BanyanTree, Crobzub, Yuckfoo, Tony Sidaway, Mikeo, H2g2bob, Kusma, Coolgamer,Bookandcoffee, Ceyockey, Mahanga, Pcpcpc, Bobrayner, Gmaxwell, The JPS, Alvis, Buckmin~enwiki, FeanorStar7, JarlaxleArtemis,Camw, LOL, Percy Snoodle, Thiois, WadeSimMiser, Dodiad, The Wordsmith, MrDarcy, Ferg2k, Macaddct1984, Chris Lovell, Tutmosis,Wayward, Prashanthns, RomeW, Palica, Dysepsion, Mandarax, Graham87, Magister Mathematicae, Buxtehude, Cuchullain, Kbdank71,FreplySpang, Canderson7, Sjakkalle, Agrumer, Coemgenus, Koavf, Jake Wartenberg, Kinu, Wackie, Fireant202, Chochem, Thatsright-jack, Nneonneo, Rebelgecko, The wub, Dolphonia, Nguyen Thanh Quang, Yamamoto Ichiro, FayssalF, FlaBot, RobertG, Ivandeniso-vitch, SouthernNights, JYOuyang, RexNL, Gurch, Alexjohnc3, KeeganB, Jfiling, King of Hearts, Chobot, DaGizza, DTOx, Bgwhite,Gwernol, EamonnPKeane, Satanael, YurikBot, SkyCaptain~enwiki, Pip2andahalf, RussBot, Red Slash, Splash, Pigman, GLaDOS, Tr-linden, SpuriousQ, Stephenb, Ravenous, Megistias, Odysses, Shanel, NawlinWiki, Edinborgarstefan, TEB728, Wiki alf, Petrouchka,Iani, Grafen, Meekrob, Johann Wolfgang, Kvn8907, AeonicOmega, MacGyver07, JDoorjam, Jpowell, Moe Epsilon, Onno Zweers,Gabrielbodard, Misza13, FlyingPenguins, Syrthiss, Deucalionite, Falcon9x5, DeadEyeArrow, Bota47, Botteville, Wknight94, Pegship,Paul Magnussen, 21655, Zzuuzz, Homagetocatalonia, Lt-wiki-bot, Closedmouth, Jwissick, Skenmy, H01101000, Xaxafrad, Alias Flood,CWenger, Scoutersig, Garion96, Kubra, Katieh5584, Darrel francis, RG2, Shtove, GrinBot~enwiki, Jeff Silvers, DVD R W, Luk, Cmon, Yakudza, SmackBot, Reedy, KnowledgeOfSelf, Royalguard11, Olorin28, Kimon, Unyoyega, Blue520, JPH-FM, KocjoBot~enwiki,AndreasJS, Jfurr1981, Bwithh, EncycloPetey, Number seven, Vendettanine, Frymaster, Fnfd, Edgar181, HalfShadow, Rmx256, Jwest-brook, Ogdred, Gilliam, Portillo, Korvar, Hmains, Skizzik, Fogster, GwydionM, Carl.bunderson, TRosenbaum, ERcheck, Tv316, MasterJay, TimBentley, Xpi6, Quinsareth, Jprg1966, Pylori, Jimmo the Nerd, MalafayaBot, SchfiftyThree, Hibernian, Bazonka, Dlohcierekim’ssock, SquarePeg, Sparsefarce, Darth Panda, Haphazardjoy, CaveatLector, John Reaves, 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JForget, CRGreathouse, Tanthalas39, Darobat, Tinymonster4,Ale jrb, Basawala, RanmaSaotome, ShelfSkewed, MWeller77, Moreschi, Casper2k3, Guitarmankev1, Ken Gallager, Karenjc, Mike 7,Simeon, Hemlock Martinis, Shanew2, Nilfanion, Snoogans, Veracon.net, Sighrik, Perfect Proposal, Vanished user vjhsduheuiui4t5hjri,Michaelas10, Gogo Dodo, Corpx, Dark567, Islander, JamesLucas, Pascal.Tesson, Fuzzibloke, Michael C Price, Chrislk02, DBaba, Ssil-vers, Gnfnrf, Po132, Hello17, Vanished User jdksfajlasd, Dyanega, RedWolfX, Lo2u, Martin Blythe, BetacommandBot, Thijs!bot,Epbr123, Wikid77, RatedRestricted, Bobsaget, Cruncher, Pers3us, Interested2, TonyTheTiger, Wakantanka, HappyInGeneral, Mojo Hand,Oliver202, Aka khan, Marek69, Missvain, John254, NorwegianBlue, Tellyaddict, NicosT, Grayshi, EdJohnston, Big Bird, Dpenguinman,Scottandrewhutchins, Igorwindsor~enwiki, Mentifisto, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, Goldenrowley, Jj137, Pikalax, D. Webb, PloniAlmoni,Ourania, Farosdaughter, MylesMc, JohnJackson~enwiki, AubreyEllenShomo, Abeyi76, Gökhan, Res2216firestar, JAnDbot, WANAX,Leuko, MER-C, Fetchcomms, Wizardboy777, Hut 8.5, YK Times, Bzuk, MegX, Kerotan, Xact, Acroterion, ΚΕΚΡΩΨ, Bibi Saint-Pol,Philip.marshall, EvilPizza, Cassiestrombone2010, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Tripbeetle, QuizzicalBee, JamesBWatson, Lucyin, Tedickey,CTF83!, Antiphus, Aka042, Avicennasis, Slartibartfast1992, Fabrictramp, Animum, Bridgdill, Huseyx2, Allstarecho, Fang 23, Vssun,Glen, Agamemnon117, DerHexer, Edward321, Starry maiden Gazer, Patstuart, Kayau, Nander, Cocytus, Gjd001, Ksero, Jemijohn, Neon-blak, Hdt83, MartinBot, Schmloof, Mmoneypenny, Santiago Saint James, Yasingam, Gustavus53, Ultraviolet scissor flame, Jerry teps,Nyp, Mschel, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Eceresa, Fjord3, LedgendGamer, J.delanoy, Beelo, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Nev1,Trusilver, Euku, Bogey97, Uncle Dick, Msmaggiemay, Ginsengbomb, Ian.thomson, Monkeyman1332, Marcusmax, TheChrisD, It Is MeHere, Shawn inMontreal, DarkFalls, LordAnubisBOT,McSly, Gurchzilla, JayJasper, Pyrospirit, Brian201, Robertson-Glasgow, M-le-mot-dit, Exdejesus, NewEnglandYankee, Sd31415, SJP, Thesis4Eva, TheChrisParker, Hanacy, Cmichael, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, ParanoidEyes, Vanished user 39948282, KakistocraticLaw, The Jackal God, Sarregouset, Doctoroxenbriery, Ja 62, Inwind, Frickeg, Dorftrot-tel, Halmstad, Funandtrvl, Spellcast, Abc2992, Mastrchf91, Wikieditor06, Black Kite, Igolder, This stuff is gay, Deor, Hacker4934,VolkovBot, CWii, ABF, DSRH, ICE77, Floppydog66, Jeff G., Indubitably, Kyle the bot, LeilaniLad, Philip Trueman, RPlunk2853,Charleca, TXiKiBoT, Erik the Red 2, Adamwang, Cosmic Latte, Davehi1, Vipinhari, Ridernyc, Anonymous Dissident, Qxz, J AndyKane, Martin451, Digby Tantrum, LeaveSleaves, Psyche825, Noformation, Yaay!!, Z99zazn, Cremepuff222, Wikiisawesome, Soytuculo,Saturn star, MearsMan, BigDunc, Policewomanxtori, Animamea~enwiki, Hodness, Falcon8765, Insanity Incarnate, Brianga, Monty845,AlleborgoBot, Quantpole, Logan, Thewiz11, NHRHS2010, EmxBot, Austriacus, Red, Fireburn, SieBot, Blademachine, Tosun, Ttony21,Nubiatech, Portalian, Tiddly Tom, Jauerback, Dawn Bard, Caltas, MistahFAB, Triwbe, Yintan, Ode2joy, John J Jackson, Keilana, Sil-verbay312, Xenophon777, Radon210, The Evil Spartan, Oda Mari, Allmightyduck, Ayudante, Oxymoron83, Faradayplank, AngelOfSad-ness, Harry~enwiki, Goustien, KPH2293, Steven Crossin, Lightmouse, Techman224, BenoniBot~enwiki, Macy, Gangstamike, Smilo Don,Dawn PM, Mygerardromance, LaVey Charkus Veros BeruDeJusu, Dimboukas, PerryTachett, LarRan, Randy Kryn, MaxwellHansen, Th-eCatalyst31, Loren.wilton, Tanvir Ahmmed, FlamingSilmaril, Elassint, ClueBot, Snigbrook, Ideal gas equation, The Thing That Should

13.2 Images 9

Not Be, Rapunzelina, Crowe537, Gogoalie, Cambrasa, Jagun, Jan1nad, Top$raz, RashersTierney, Drmies, Uncle Milty, Ifnkovhg, Coun-terVandalismBot, The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance, Dylan620, RafaAzevedo, Cjcbaseball, Neverquick, Auntof6, Mspraveen, JacobShamsian, Nimrod666, Pittsburgh Poet, Robert Skyhawk, Excirial, Anonymous101, -Midorihana-, Jusdafax, CrazyChemGuy, Jafar44,XSolidxSnake, Tryce34, Zaharous, Lartoven, Geckoxiii, NuclearWarfare, Hattak, MwNNrules, Cenarium, Afamiglietti, Rochester high,Qwedsa67, Jorganyarts, Perlhead~enwiki, Razorflame, Huntthetroll, Shimo 05, Thehelpfulone, C628, Catalographer, Thingg, Adilliwal-lah, Jieship, Aitias, Horselover Frost, Lillie666, Godyeinahole, Scalhotrod, Versus22, Santaclaus92, Mattyp6705, SoxBot III, Argoskuon,NERIC-Security, Mavericstud9, RMFan1, BarretB, XLinkBot, PeterAS, Roxy the dog, CorticoSpinal, Kyameren Shiroi, Ikuo, Doc9871,NellieBly, Mifter, Jasynnash2, Noctibus, Mm40, Thatguyflint, Addbot, Xp54321, Wran, Willking1979, AVand, Some jerk on the Internet,Fambo2893, Mksalva, Guoguo12, Davidleearaguz, Redlady120, DougsTech, 3uler, JD77, CBR125, Ronhjones, Ironholds, CanadianLin-uxUser, Fluffernutter, Hammer223, Nyshano, Cst17, Bobonfire, Download, CarsracBot, PranksterTurtle, Glane23, Tripler2, D dizzle4,Omnipedian, Favonian, Bellagio2, LinkFA-Bot, Devadatta, Tassedethe, Тиверополник, Numbo3-bot, Mr.Xp, Erutuon, Tide rolls, Light-bot, OlEnglish, Ggryllos, Gail, Cmano13, Jackelfive, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, WikiDan61, 2D, Grendelarm, Andreasmperu, SenatorPalpatine, Fraggle81, TaBOT-zerem, Ytiugibma, IaM7DeadlySins, Donfbreed, Usedcarry, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, QueenCake,AnakngAraw, Tempodivalse, Synchronism, TheHighTree, AnomieBOT, Ciphers, Kristen Eriksen, Jim1138, IRP, Galoubet, Tucoxn, Pi-ano non troppo, Thetaswegian, Kingpin13, Hello1234hello, Ulric1313, Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, Rtyq2, Babygirlserafina, Citationbot, Felyza, Barriodude, Frankenpuppy, Neurolysis, Xqbot, Beegs1690, Zad68, SueDoncaster, 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13.2 Images• File:Beginning_Odyssey.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Beginning_Odyssey.svg License: Publicdomain Contributors: Own work (using Wikisource for text) Original artist: User:Bibi Saint-Pol

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• File:Francesco_Hayez_028.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Francesco_Hayez_028.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed byDIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Francesco Hayez

• File:Homer_British_Museum.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Homer_British_Museum.jpg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here.. Original uploader was JW1805 aten.wikipedia Original artist: ?

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• Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Marc-Charles-Gabriel Gleyre• File:Odysseus_Sirens_BM_E440_n2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Odysseus_Sirens_BM_E440_n2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jastrow (2006) Original artist: English: Siren Painter (eponymous vase)

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