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Transcript of OB Perceptions
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PERCEPTIONS
“You become what you thinketh”
“If everyone perceived everything the
same way, things would be a lotsimpler”
-Moorhead & Griffin
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DEFINITIONS
•
STEPHEN ROBBINS “ Perception is a process by whichindividual‟s organize and interpret thesensory impressions in order to give
meaning to their environment.”
• FRED LUTHANS
“Perception is an important mediating
cognitive process through which personsmake interpretations of the stimulus orsituation they are forced with.”
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DEFINITIONS…
• UDAI PAREEK & OTHERS “Perception can be defined as the processof receiving, selecting, organizing,checking and reacting to sensory stimuli ordata” .
In general, it can be defined as “ a process
that involves seeing, receiving, selecting,organizing, interpreting and givingmeaning to the environment” .
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MEANING
• Perceptions differ from person to person.
• Each individual perceives the samesituation differently.
• Group perceptions can influence one‟s
perception.• Individuals organize and interpret things
based on their past experiences and theimportant values they consider important.
• Employees tend to behave and act oncertain things on the basis of theirperception.
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NATURE OF PERCEPTION• Perception is the process by which an
individual gives meaning to theenvironment.
• It is a cognitive and psychological process.
The manner in which a person perceives theenvironment affects his behavior. There canbe no behavior without perception andperception lies at the base of every humanaction.
• People‟s action, emotions, thoughts andfeelings are triggered by their perceptions of their surroundings.
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• Since perception refers to the acquisition of specific knowledge about objects or events
at any particular moment, it occurswhenever stimuli activate the sense organs.
• Though perception has been defined in a
variety of ways, it basically refers to themanner in which a person experiences theworld.
• Perception is an almost automatic processand works in much the same way withineach individual, yet typically yields different
perceptions.
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• A stimulus that is not perceived has no
effect on behaviour.
• Perception is a process that operates
constantly between us and reality.
• Since perception is subjective process,different people may perceive the sameenvironment differently. So perception islike beauty, that lies in the eyes of thebeholder.
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• Perception involves the creation of gestalts.
• Perception is a unique interpretation of
the situation, not an exact recording of thesituation.
•
Perception is more complex and muchbroader than sensation.
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IMPORTANCE OF PERCEPTION• Perception plays a very important role in
shaping the personality of an individual.
• Perception is central in interpreting theworld around us.
•Perception affects the outcome of ourbehaviour because we act on the basis of what we see.
• Managers should be able to distinguish
between a perceived world and the reality.
• An understanding of perception is importantto understand and control the human
behaviour .
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• The importance of perception in managerialbehaviour are :
Attitude formation: Perceiving events andpeople is critical in attitude formation.Perception creates a basis for our attitudes,opinions, feelings, beliefs and values.
Relationship base :a) The manager‟s relationship with othersare based on perceptions of their basic
natures and motivations.b) Managers identify the perceptualstructures and implicit personality of employees before making work relations.
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Effective communication : Any message
must be received and interpreted beforethe communication attempt is complete.Communication remains ineffective if itdoes not accomplish what the source
intends.
Employment interview : Interviewers make
perceptual judgments, draw impressionsand arrive at conclusions about theapplicants. Thus perception is a majorinput in their decision.
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Performance evaluation :An employee‟s performance appraisal is very muchdependent on the perceptual outlook. Theevaluator forms a general impression of anemployee‟s work. Thus, the perceptionprocess significantly influences theappraisal outcome.
Employee effort : In many organisations,assessment of an employee‟s effort is asubjective judgment which is susceptible toperceptual distortions and bias.
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Employees loyalty :When evaluating an
employee‟s loyalty, a manager is involvedwith person‟s perception. This is animportant judgement that managers makeabout employees.
Organisational goals :The interpretation andaccomplishment of organisational goals
again depend on the philosophies andideologies of those who are expected topursue them.
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Workers‟ rights : The interpretation of workers‟ rights and responsibilities is alsodependent on the ideological motives andbeliefs of managers.
Employees unions :Perception plays a vitalrole in creating a better understanding of unions by management and vice-versa.
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PERCEPTUAL PROCESS
• Perception is an intellectual process.
• Perception is the basic cognitive orpsychological process.
• Perception is subjective process.
• Perception consists of several sub-processes.
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PERCEPTUAL PROCESS…
Simplified process of perception
Perceptualinputs
Stimuli
Perceptual throughputs
Receiving->Selecting->Organising->Interpreting
PerceptualOutputs
Actions
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• Perceptual inputs – Objects, Events and
people.
All those things in the setting where eventsoccur or contribute to the occurrence of events can be termed as Perceptual inputs.
• Perceptual Mechanism -involves threeelements viz. selection of stimuli,organisation of stimuli and interpretation of stimuli.
• Perceptual outputs – Attitudes, Opinions,Feelings & Values.
•
The result is the “ BEHAVIOUR”
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BASIC ELEMENTS IN THEPERCEPTUAL STIMULI
ENVIRONMENTAL STIMULIObjects, events or people
PERCEPTUAL SELECTIONExternal Factors Internal Factors
Size, intensity, PersonalityContrast, Motion, LearningRepetition, Novelty MotivationFamiliarity Self concept,
beliefs etc
INTERPRETATIONPerceptual defense, Stereotyping,Halo effect, Projection, ExpectancyEffects, Internal versus ExternalCauses, Caused for success andfailures
OBSERVATION (SENSES)Taste, Hearing, Touch,
Smell, Sight
PERCEPTUAL ORGANISATIONPerceptual Grouping, ContinuitProximity, Closure, Similarity
RESPONSEConvert, Attitudes, Overt,Motivations, Feelings etc.
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FACTORS INFLUENCINGPERCEPTION
• Perception is influenced by a variety of individuals and situational factors. Anyperceptual event has three components viz. – a perceiver, the person perceived and the
situational context in which the perceptionis occurring. Let‟s explore each of theseunder following headings :
• 1. Attributes of the person perceived• 2. Attributes of the perceiver and
• 3. Attributes of the situation.
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ATTRIBUTES OF THE PERSON PERCEIVED
• The first major influence on perception isof the target, that is the person perceived.In particular, the following attributes of target can be identified:
• i) Physical appearance
• ii) Verbal and non verbal communication
• iii) Status• iv) Occupation
• v) Personal characteristics
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ATTRIBUTES OF THE PERCEIVER
•
Several attributes unique to ourpersonalities can affect how we seeothers. These include the following :
• i) Self concept
• ii) Cognitive structure
• iii) Response salience
•iv) Previous experiences
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ATTRIBUTES OF THE SITUATION
• Elements in the surroundingenvironment also influenceperception process. Some of theseare as follows :
• i) Social context
• ii) Organisational role
• iii) Location of event
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INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTION
• In order to function effectively in acomplex human society, we need toperceive the behaviour, current moods andtraits of the persons around us. This is
known as social perception. It is alsocalled as interpersonal perception. It isconcerned with how one individualperceives other individuals.
• • Zalking and Castello has conducted
research for better understanding of
interpersonal perception.
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INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTION….
•
The specific characteristics of the perceiver,according to them are :
• 1. Knowing oneself makes it easier to seeothers accurately.
• 2. One‟s own characteristics affect thecharacteristics one is likely to see inothers.
• 3. People who accept themselves are more
likely to be able to see favourableaspects of other people.
• 4. Accuracy in perceiving others is not asingle skill.
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INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTION….
• Similarly the characteristics of the person
who is being perceived are:• 1. The status of the person perceived will
greatly influence others‟ perception of him.
• 2. The person being perceived is usuallyplaced into categories to simplify theviewer‟s perceptual activities. Two
common categories are status and role.• 3. The visible traits of the person
perceived will greatly influence theperception of him.
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•
The above characteristics suggest that theorganisational members must realise thattheir perceptions of others are greatlyinfluenced by characteristics of
themselves and characteristics of theother person.
• Further is necessary to develop perceptualskills of oneself and others.
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DEVELOPING PERCEPTUAL SKILLS
• Following attempts can be made toenhance perceptual skills.
• 1. Perceiving oneself accurately:One should increase awareness about
self. For this, he should obtain informationon how others perceive us from as manysources as possible. By knowing.Perceiving and understanding ourselves
accurately, we should remove blind spotsabout self.
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DEVELOPING PERCEPTUAL SKILLS….
• 2. Being empathic :
Empathy means being able to see asituation as it is experienced by others. Amanager should be sensitive to the needsof others and perceive situations fromtheir point of view as well.
• 3. Having positive attitudes : A manger should see things from a
positive angle, should be aware of
personal biases ad should try to get rid of any negative feeling he may have of others. This will help to put things inproper perspective.
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DEVELOPING PERCEPTUAL SKILLS….
• 4. Enhancing self – concept :Self-concept or a good self image is a
function of how successfully we accomplishthe things we attempt to do. When peopleperform roles where they exhibit theircompetence and get success, they develop abasic sense of self esteem and have positiveself regard.
• 5. Communication more openly :Managers should be able to effectively
communicate to employees so thatmisconceptions can be dispelled.
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DEVELOPING PERCEPTUAL SKILLS….
• 6. Avoiding common biases in perceptions :
Managers should try to considerablyminimise their perceptual biases. Theyshould consciously raise their level of awareness in their interactions with
situations.
• 7. Avoiding attributions :Mangers should try to avoid making
inappropriate attributions and should obtainas accurate as assessment of the situationas possible so that dysfunctionalconsequences can be avoided.
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LEARNING
• “ You cannot teach a man anything. You can only help him discover it
within himself.” - Galileo
•
“ You cannot give fish to a maneveryday. But if you teach how tofish, he will have fish everyday.”
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MEANING / DEFINITIONS
• Learning is the single most important
concept in the study of human behaviour.
• It is involved in almost everything we do.
Every aspect of human behaviour isresponsive to learning experiences – knowledge, skills, attitudes, language, valuesystems and personality traits.
• So we see that everything can be learnedthrough reasoning, thinking, information
processing ad perception.
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MEANING / DEFINITIONS…
• “Learning can be defined as relatively
permanent change in behaviour thepotentiality that results from reinforcedpractice or experience. - Steers & Porter.
• “Learning is any relatively permanentchange in behaviour that occurs as a resultof experience. - Stephen Robbins.
• In simple words, learning is a change inbehaviour acquired through experience.
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MEANING / DEFINITIONS…
• Learning can be defined as a “relativelypermanent change in behaviour or potentialbehaviour as a result of direct or indirect
experience”.
• There are two primary elements in this
definition that must both be present in orderto identify the process of learning.
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MEANING / DEFINITIONS….
• First is the element that the change mustbe relatively permanent. This means thatafter “learning” our behaviour must bedifferent, either better or worse as
compared to our behaviour prior to thisexperience of learning.
•The second aspect of the definition is thatthis change must occur due to some kindof experience or practice. This learning isnot caused by biological maturation.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING
• 1) Learning is an inferred process that is
believed to influence behaviour.• 2) Learning results in a relatively
permanent change in behaviour.Behaviour that is learnt, therefore, isrelatively constant over time.
• 3) Learning involves change, it may begood or bad.
• 4) Learning comes from some form of experience. Experience may be acquireddirectly through practice or observationor through reading.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING…
• 5) Learning is source of change in
behaviour and performance.• 6) Learning is continuous process. It has
the ability to respond adequately to asituation that may or may not have beenencountered. It is not restricted to theschooldays but it is a lifelong process.
• 7) Learning is the outcome of various
related factors. The important factors thatdetermine learning are motive, stimuli,response, reinforcement and retention.
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THEORIES OF LEARNING
• There are five general approaches tolearning that are identified.
• They are : –
• i) Classical Conditioning Theory,
• ii) Instrumental or Operant ConditioningTheory,
• iii) Cognitive Learning Theory,• iv) Selective Learning Theory and
• v) Social Learning theory.
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i) Classical Conditioning Theory
•
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist owescredit for developing this theory. Heconducted an experiment on dogs anddeveloped a stimulus- response
connection. This means that certainresponses can be predicted whichcontinuously result from certain inducedstimuli. Classical conditioning introduces a
simple cause-and-effect relationshipbetween one stimulus and one response.
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• It also makes the response reflexive orinvoluntary after the stimulus-responserelationship has been established. Thisleaves no ground for making choices,
which differentiates human beings fromdogs. Under certain situations classicalconditioning does explain humanbehaviour.
I l O
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ii) Instrumental or OperantConditioning Theory
• Operant conditioning is concerned withlearning that occurs as a consequence of
behaviour. It focuses on the effects of reinforcements or rewards on desiredbehaviours. This learning is based on thesimple fact that “the actions we perform
often result in some consequences”.
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• This theory was developed by Watson, acontemporary of Pavlov. He argued thatbehaviour was largely influenced by therewards one received as result of actions.In other words, we now know that people
change their behaviour by repeating actsthat are rewarded and not repeating actsthat the environment fails to reward.
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iii) Cognitive Learning Theory
•
Learning is considered as the outcome of deliberate thinking about the problem orsituation both intuitively and based uponknown facts and responding in an
objective and goal oriented manner.Cognition, in fact, is the act of knowing anitem of information and this knowledgeaffects the behaviour of the person so that
the information provides cognitive cuestowards the expected goal.
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iv) Selective Learning Theory
•Selective learning theory is alsocognitively based but it is more directlyaimed at learning. In selective learning theperson must not only associate stimulus
and response and consequenceexperiences but must also determinewhich things to connect in the mind. Underthis approach, a person chooses from awide variety of possible leaningmechanisms.
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• It involves a complex interaction amongthinking, emotions, perception andmotivation. Thus, there are manycognitions that come into play in selective
learning. This theory is also named as “insightful learning and perceptuallearning”. This is applied in relation tocomplicated learning tasks.
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v) Social Learning theory
• It is recognized that learning does not take place
only because of environmental stimuli (classicaland operant conditioning) or of individualdeterminism (cognitive approach) but is a blendof both views. It also emphasizes that peopleacquire new behaviour by observing or imitatingothers in a social setting. In addition learningcan also be gained by discipline and self-controland an inner desire to acquire knowledge orskills irrespective of the external rewards or
consequences. This process of self-control isalso partially a reflection of societal and culturalinfluences on the development and growth of human beings.
C S O G
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PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING• There are many widely recognised principles
of learning that can assist the managerattempting to influence behaviour. Some of these are principles are :
– i) Reinforcements
– ii) Punishments – iii) Avoidance Learning
– iv) Extinction
– v) Knowledge of results
– vi) Schedules of Positive Reinforcement
– vii) Acquisition - Learning curves
– viii) Spontaneous Recovery
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P nishments
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Punishments• Punishment is defined presenting an
uncomfortable consequence for aparticular behavioural response. It is usedto decrease the frequency of undesiredbehaviour. The difference betweenpunishment and negative reinforcement isthat in the former case, a noxiousconsequence is applied to decrease thefrequency of undesired behaviour,whereas in the latter, a noxious
consequence is withheld when a desiredbehaviour is exhibited.
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E ti ti
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Extinction• Extinction is non-reinforcement that leads
to an „extinction‟ of undesired behaviour.When the positive reinforcement for alearned response is withheld, theundesired behaviour decreases and willeventually disappear. Thus, the decline in
response rate as a result of a lack of positive reinforcement is called extinction.
• For example, if an employee is consistently
late, the supervisor may withhold praise.Thus , the employee may realise that beinglate is not leading to desired outcomes andmay try to be punctual.
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Knowledge of results
• Human behaviour is always a goal-directedbehaviour. Knowing goals and their results leads tolearning and behaviour modification. Employeeswho have no idea o whether they are doing an
acceptable job have little chance to improve theirperformances. The knowledge of correct behaviouris reinforcing and strengthens the precedingbehaviour.
• Edwin Locke found in his research studies that
feedback affects performance only to the extent towhich employees set higher performance goals inresponse to such feedback. Thus, goals can beachieved when employees are provided withaccurate feedback on performance.
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Schedules of Positive Reinforcement
• There are number of ways in which
reinforcements can be scheduled. Acontinuous schedule is one in whichreinforcement occurs after everyacceptable behaviour. But this is notfeasible.
• Bass and Vaughn have concluded that “learning is more permanent when correctbehaviour is rewarded only part of thetime”.
•Fester and Skinner have presented fourtypes of reinforcements schedules foroperant learning situations.
A i iti L i
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Acquisition - Learning curves
• These curves apply mainly to classicalconditioning. This principle shows thatthere is a gradually increasing strength of response for each repeated trial.
Psychologist have shown the practicalsignificance of these curves to the learningin the following ways :
• a) The more unfamiliar the task to be
learned, the more likely it is that progresswill be slow at the start and will thenincrease.
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• b) In most learning of complicated skills,there is at least one period, short or long.
In which each new trial produces animprovement o equal size.
• c) As we approach the ultimate limit of learning, progress slows down and it takesmany trials to produce even a smallamount of improvement..
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LEARNING PRINCIPLES
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LEARNING PRINCIPLES
• i) All human beings can learn.
• ii) An individual must be motivated tolearn.
• iii) Learning is active but not passive.
• iv) Learners acquire knowledge morerapidly with guidance.
• v) Time must be provided to practice
learning.• vi) Learning methods should be varied.
• vii) Standards of performance should be
set for the learners.
G C S
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LEARNING PRINCIPLES…
• viii) Different levels of learning exist.
• ix) Learning is a cumulative process.• x) Learning is closely related to
attention and concentration.
• xi) Trainees learn better when theylearn at their own place.
• xii) Make the learning meaningful byusing familiar examples and
summaries.
• xiii) When the learner has made thecorrect responses to the learningprocess, he has learned.-G.S.Sudha.
DETERMINANTS OF LEARNING
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DETERMINANTS OF LEARNING
• The important factors that determinelearning are:
• i) Motive or drive
• ii) Stimuli :- a) Generalisation• b) Discrimination
• iii) Responses
• iv) Reinforcements• v) Retention.
M ti d i
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Motive or drive
• Motives refer to certain goals that the
individual attempts to achieve. They areprimary energisers of behaviour. Motivesprompt people to action. They are largelysubjective and represent the mental
feelings of human beings. They are theways o behaviour and main springs of action. Motive arises continuously anddetermines the general direction of an
individual‟s behaviour.
Stimuli
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Stimuli
• Stimuli exists in the environment in whicha person lives. Stimuli increase theprobability of extracting a specificresponse from a person. Stimuli may betwo types :
• a) Generalisation
• b) Discrimination.
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• GENERALISATION takes place when thesimilar stimulus repeats in theenvironment. When two stimuli are
exactly the same, they will have theprobability to extract a specific response.
• DISCRIMINATION has wide applications in
organisational behaviour in view of individuals differences. In discrimination,responses of the individuals varyaccording to different stimuli.
• For example. A supervisor may respond toa high producing worker in a positivemanner, but in a different manner to oneproducing very less.
R
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Responses
• The stimulus generates response. Theresponse may be in the physical form or interms of attitudes or perception. However,
the responses need to be operationallydefined and preferably physicallyobservable.
• The response of the individuals is termedas „ behaviour „. The response may beeither positive or negative.
R i f t
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Reinforcements
• Reinforcement is a primary condition of
learning. Reinforcement is, anything thatincreases the strength of response andtends to induce repetitions of thebehaviour that precede the reinforcement.
Without reinforcement no quantifiablealteration of behaviour will take place.Reinforcement helps in the repetition of any behaviour.
• For example. If an employee is rewardedfor his hard work, he repeats hisbehaviour, i.e. he works harder to get thereward again.
R t ti
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Retention
•The learned behaviour should be retrievedaccording to the needs. Retention meansremembrance of learned behaviour overtime.
• Learning which is forgotten over time iscalled „extinction‟.
• When response behaviour returns without
any intervening reinforcement, it is called “spontaneous recovery”.