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Freedom of Expression:
Historical Overview
Freedom of expression, historical
development
Relatively recent concept?
ncent e e n sacre
monarch
Egypt
Maxims of Ptahhotep (2300 BCE,
Egypt)
Sumerian tablet, c. 2400 BCE
Image:http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/wisdom.htm
Freedom of Expression, historical
development
Greeks, c. 500 BCE Parrhesia
Blasphemy & libel
Romans, c. 1st century CE Only persons in authority enjoyed free speech
Burning of Confucius books, 213 BCE
Native Americans Iroquois Council
Arab society Heresy
Parrhesia: freedom to speak publicly.
Blasphemy: sacreligious (disrispectful)comments.Libel: defamation of character.Roman politicians, could talk freely andquestion things.
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Historical development of Freedom of
Expression in the U.K.
Licensing system lasted until 1694 CE
Freed fromprior restraint
Sir William Blackstone
But, other restrictions remained:
Four major types oflibelin English courts:
Seditious libel
Obscene libel
Private libel
Blasphemy
Taxation
Historical development of freedom of
speech in the U.S.
U.S. political and legal traditions evolved from U.K. systems
Colonies had many of same restrictions
1610, Gov. Dales Code
1630s, Body of Liberties published
1649 Act of Liberation,
1682, Great Law enacted
License systems, censors, sedition laws
Historical development of freedom of
speech in the U.S.
Such censorship began to be challenged in the press
Publick Occurences Both Foreign and Domestic
Franklins New England Courant 1734, landmark Zenger case
Seditious: yer causing friction between thegovernment and the people.Obscene:
Private libel: when ye attack the reputationof a person.Blasphemy:
The regulation of freedom of speech in thecolonies was harsher.Dale's code: talking agains cristians wasdeath penalty.Body of liberty:Act of liberation: when ye were cristian, ye
couldn't be burned at stake.
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Historical development of freedom of speech
in the U.S.
End of English rule
Immediate shift to free
speech?
Image: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/declara/images/dunlap.jpg
Historical development of freedom of
speech in the U.S
1787, Constitutional Convention draft did not include a Bill
of Rights
Became political issue
Federalists v. Anti-Federalists
1789, Bill of Rights drafted
Not universally applied
First Amendment
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of
religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or
abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right
of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the
government for a redress of grievances.
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Sedition Act of 1798 (excerpt) If any person shall wr ite, print, utter or publish . . . any false,
scandalous and malicious writing or writings against the governmentof the United States, or either house of the Congress of the UnitedStates, or the President of the United States, with intent to defame . .. or to bring them . . . into contempt or disrepute; or to exciteagainst them . . . the hatred of the good people of the United States,or to stir up sedition within the United States . . . then such person . .. shall be punished by a fine not exceeding two thousand dollars, and
by imprisonment not exceeding two years.
19th century freedom of speech
Limited freedom of speech
Civil War saw government restriction of free speech
Control of telegraph lines
uspens on o a eas corpus
Arrest of journalists and closure of papers
Late 19th-Early 20th century freedom of
speech
Post-Civil War, changing environment in the U.S.
Urbanization
Industrialization
Immigration
New media not protected Courts allowed Congressional infringement of freedom of speech
World War I
Sedition & Espionage Acts
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Discussion
The First Amendment was rewritten to limit Congress
power to restrict speech. Is this fair? How would you
improve the wording of the First Amendment?
Is the First Amendment necessary, in your opinion?
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News Immediacy
Independence Disclosure
Public Relations Honest
RTNDA [Radio andTelevision News
Directors Association] Code of Ethics and
Professional Conduct
SPJ [Society of Loyalty Advocacy
Advertising Truth Substantiation Comparison
Professional Journalists] Code of Ethics
PRSA [Public RelationsSociety of America] Member Code of Ethics
AAF [AmericanAdvertising Federation] Advertising Ethics and
Principles
Moral reasoning
Analysis of involved components Whos involved
Parties
Whats involved
Ethical principles
Stakes
Possible consequences
Golden Rule
Golden Mean
Kants Categorical Imperative
Potters Box
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Define the problem
State values/principles Possible outcomes
Professional Loyalties, values and principles
Organizational philosophies, values andprinciples
Moral values rinci les and obli ations
What happens when they conflict?
Duty to ourselves
Duty to our clients/audience
Duty to our organization
Duty to society
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Wikileaks
What leads to different outcomes?
Do you agree or disagree with organizationaldecisions?
Crises in PR
When the organization is you.
Blogging & the Fourth Estate Same ethics a l to blo ers as to ournalists for an
organization?
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U.S.LEGALSYSTEM
TheU.S.LegalSystem Areyougoingtobeanattorney?
No?
Thenwhyshouldyoucare? Natureofcommunicationindustries
TheU.S.LegalSystem Sourcesoflaw
Constitutions
U.S.Constitution Stateconstitutions
Statutes
U.S.C.
Administrativeregulations&decisions C.F.R.
constitution is the law of the land. it canonly be amended by the special request bythe people.State also have constitutions, and can bedifferent laws, but they cannot be
contradicting the federal constitution.Statues are the laws passed by thecongress.Administrative agencies can passregulations that can also be consideredlaws.
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Sourcesoflaw&CourtsystemsSourcesoflaw CourtSystems Caselaw
Precedent
Jurisdiction
Personal
Hierarchyofcourts
CourtSystem
Categorizationsoflaw Typesoflitigation
Criminal
Beyondareasonabledoubt v
Preponderanceoftheevidence Tort
Negligence
Contracts
Case law.Jurisdiction is the authority and
guvernmental law.Personal is when one state laws isapplicable only in that state.Subject matter, when the federalgovernment and the state governmentstrive to use their laws.
Criminal: the state against a person orcorporations. Public law. Jail can be anoption. you need to prove yer innocencebeyond a reasonable doubt.Civil: Private law. Usually people look formoney. Jail not an option.Tort: Anything else than a contract. Mostlydefamation and negligence. You have toshow that the other party acted withnegligence.Contracts: Enforcing contracts. Are legallybinding promises.
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SpecialTopics JurisdictionandtheInternet
Physicallypresent Minimumcontacts
urpose u y recte
Verynuanced,growingarea
SpecialTopics InternationalJurisdiction
Treaties Unions
NAFTA
Whataboutinternationallawsuits? Ownpropertyorresidethere Consistency
JudicialprocessCivil Criminal
Complaint
Answer
Arrest
Criminalcomplaint
Discovery
Pretrialmotions Settlement
Trial
Decision
Appeal?
appearance
Preliminaryhearing Grandjuryindictment
Pretrialmotions Trial
Sentencing
Appeal?
In terms of internet, the court cannot claimthey jurisdiction over you. The only way isthat if you have property within the state,purposefully directed contact with people ofthe state.
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U.S.SupremeCourt Discretionaryreview Writofcertiorari Majorityopinion
Concurringopinions Dissentingopinions
ChallengestoFreeSpeech Standardprocess
Messagesent,orannouncementofmessage Righttosendmessagechallenged
Trialorhearingheld Decisionmade Decisionappealed?
FreedomofExpression Judicialapproaches tofreespeech
Absolutionism
Hierarchicalprotection Evaluationofgovernmentregulationsof
speech
Tests
Doctrines
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Issues
Lawsuits Implications
Highlylitigiousnation ImplicationsforU.S.mediaus ness
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Introduction to theIntroduction to the
Congress shall make no law respecting anestablishment of religion, or prohibiting
the free exercise thereof; or abridging thefreedom of speech, or of the press; or theright of the people peaceably to assemble,
and to petition the government for a
First AmendmentFirst Amendment
.
What does freedomof speech mean? Freedom
Speech
Freedom of thepress?
Not necessarily the
Congress
Abridge
Freedom of Expression and theFreedom of Expression and theFirst AmendmentFirst Amendment
right to gather ANDpublish
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In favor: Vital in the
democratic process
Promotes truth
discovery
Promotes individualagency and
Against: Individual rights
versus communityrights
Speech rights dont
equal true, realspeech freedoms
Why is freedom of expressionWhy is freedom of expressionimportant? (or not)?important? (or not)?
autonomy
Curbs governmentpower
Marketplace of ideas metaphor To protect diversity of ideas
Remedy for bad ideas is more speech, notmore restrictions
Freedom of ExpressionFreedom of Expression
Freedom from government censorship?
Freedom from compulsory speech or coercion?
Freedom of access to channels ofcommunication?
Freedom from government domination of
communication?
Dimensions of freedom ofDimensions of freedom ofspeechspeech
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Prior restraint Licensing
Coercion
After the factpunishment
Financial burdens Taxes
Fees?
Time, Place, andManner Content neutral
Narrowly tailored
Significantgovernment interest
Alternative available
Major restrictionsMajor restrictions
ompu sory speec Access Public funds
Attribution
c anne s
Vagueness & overbreadth Chilling effect
Balancing tests Strict scrutiny
Intermediate scrutiny When speech has less FA protection
Tests and DoctrinesTests and Doctrines
Time, place and manner restrictions
Public forums Place designed or traditionally used forcommunication
Parks, streets, sidewalks.
All public property?
Military bases, airports, schools?
Student newspapers? University press?
First Amendment and publicFirst Amendment and publicforumsforums
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Issues relating to the First Amendmentare not always clear: Zyprexa case
Judge Tries to Unring Bell Hanging Around Neck
of Horse Already Out of Barn Being Carried onShip That Has Sailed.
DiscussionDiscussion
Cy er u ying
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Clear&PresentDanger,IncitementtoIllegalConduct,&NationalSecurity
Refinementofconceptbycourts
LargelyignoredbycourtspriortoWWI
Slaves
Women
Abolitionists
Abridgements ofspeechtolerated States
Privatecitizens
Governmentownedplaceormeansofcommunication
WorldWarI
U.S.
decided
to
enter
the
war AntiwarsentimentscouldcauserisktoU.S.
militarycapabilitiesorpolicy
Legislationpassedprovidedthebasisfor
developmentofnewdoctrine
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Prohibitedawidevarietyofantigovernmentspeech
Prohibitionsextendedto: Anyonemakingfalsereportsorfalsestatementswithintentto
interferewiththeoperationorsuccessofthemilitary,orintendingtoobstructsaleofU.S.bonds.
Anyonewho,whentheUnitedStatesisatwar,causesorattemptstoinciteinsubordination,disloyalty,mutiny,orrefusalofdutyinthemilitary,orwhoattemptstodisrupttherecruitingorenlistment
Anyonewhowillfullyprints,writers,uttersorpublisheslanguageintendedtoencourageresistanceagainsttheU.S.
Anyonedisplayingtheflagofaforeignnation
AnyonewhoadvocatesthecurtailmentofproductionofproductsnecessarytotheU.S.warcause.
AggressivelyenforcedduringWWI
Morethan2,000peopleprosecutedforantiwar
AppealstoSupremeCourthelpeddelineateFreedomofExpression
Schenckv.UnitedStates (1919)
Schenck
printed
15,000
of
pamphlets
intended
for
distribution.
Pamphletsdeclaredthedraftwasunconstitutional,andurgeddrafteesnottosubmittointimidationbyauthorities
ArrestedandconvictedundertheEspionageAct
AppealedtoSupremeCourt
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SupremeCourtupheldconviction Newtestcreated:ClearandPresentDangerTest
JusticeOliverWendellHolmes:
Themoststrin ent rotectionoffrees eechwouldnot rotectamaninfalselyshoutingfireinatheater,andcausingapanic.Thequestionineverycaseiswhetherthewordsusedareusedinsuch
circumstancesandareofsuchanaturetocreateaclearandpresentdangerthattheywillbringaboutthesubstantiveevilsthat
Congresshasarighttoprevent.
Characterofspeechdependsoncircumstances Isspeechacalltoaction?
Brandenburgv.Ohio (1969) ClarenceBrandenburgwastheleaderoftheKKKin
Ohio
government,ifthegovernmentdidntstopsuppressingthewhiterace
ConvictedforviolatingtheOHCriminalSyndicalismstatute
Courtoverturnedconviction,andrefinedtestforincitementtoillegalconduct
3partsofthetestmustbemet:
Thespeechmustbedirectedtoincitingillegal
action Thespeechmustbecallingforimminentaction,
notjustconductatsomelatertime
Thespeechmustbelikelytoproducesuchconduct
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WhathappenswhenyourexpressionisperceivedtodirectlythreatenthesecurityoftheUnitedStates
TheFirstAmendmentandNationalSecurity
Whatispriorrestraint?
Prohibitiononexpressionwhichisimposedbeforethemessageiscommunicated.
W atarereasons oruseo priorrestraint?
Whengovernmentofficialsfearthatreleaseofcertaininfowillharmnationalsecurity.
Ispriorrestraintthenorm?
NO,heavypresumptionagainstit.
Nearv.Minnesota (1931) NearwasanewspapereditorinMN,goingto
publish
scandalous
material. ThegovernorofMNtriedtostophimfrom
publishing
SupremeCourtsaidthatpriorrestraintisunconstitutional
Justicesnotedthatpriorrestraintscouldbeacceptableincasesofnationalsecurity
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USv.WashingtonPost(1971) AlsoknownasPentagonPapers DanielEllsburgfoundpapersthatwerepotential
. . . Nixonadministrationtriedtostopthepapers
publicationonthegroundsthatitwouldharmnationalsecurity.
Federaljudgegavetheminjunction SupremeCourtruledpriorrestraintis
unconstitutional
USvProgressive (1979) Ajournalwasgoingtopublishanarticledetailing
howtomakeahydrogenbomb ,
causeirreparableharmtonationalsecurity CasewenttoWIFederalDistrictCourt,andthe
judgeruledforgovernment
Informationonconstruction ofahydrogen bombfallswithinextremelynarrowexceptiontoruleagainstpriorrestraint
Sneppv.U.S. (1980) SneppformerCIAagentwhowrotebook
describing
CIA
activities
in
Vietnam. CIAsuedforviolationofSneppscontractual
agreementagainstdisclosure. SupremeCourtdecidedthepublicationof
thisbookandotherslikeitcausedirreparableharmtoeffictivenessofU.S.intelligence
operations.
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BurdenofProof
Values
SocietalConsiderations
Negligence
Legaldutytoshowreasonablecare
Failuretodoso
Resultedininjury
Withexpression,oftenmustshowadditionalpointsofincitementtest
Zamorav.ColumbiaBroadcastingSystem(1979)
Doyouagreethatafterthefactpunishmentsshouldbepreferredtopriorrestraints?
Shouldpriorrestraintsbesustainedagainstspeechthatthreatensspecificindividuals,suchasastoryheadlined,
WitnessesintheFederalWitnessRelocationPro ramWhereAreTheyNow?
Theinternethasmadealotofinformationavailabletothepublic.Woulditbeappropriateforthegovernmenttoseekapriorrestraintpreventingthefollowingfrombeingpostedtowebsites: Instructionsonhowtocounterfeitmoneyorcommitcreditcardfraud
Instructionsonhowtomakeillegaldrugs
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FreedomofExpression
Restrictions:Defamationofcharacter
DefamationofCharacter
Defamationisanothercategoryofrestrictedspeech
Usedtobepunishedascriminal
Now,civilmatter
Somecriminalstatutesremain
Defamation
FAdoesnotprotectdefamatoryspeech
Whatconstitutesdefamatoryspeech?
Afalsestatement(writtenororal)thatlowersthe
re utation of another erson or sub ects him orhertoridicule,shame,ostracismordisgrace.
Speechoflowvalue
Maysuefordefamation
Compensatorydamages
Maybeawardofpunitivedamages
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Defamation
Longhistoryofprohibitinglibelousexpression.
Twoclassesofdefamation,thatnowareusedasone:
LibelLanguageusedintortlawtorefertononspokenexpressionthatinjuresthereputationofanother
SlanderOraldefamation,speechthatinjuresthereputationofanotherperson.
s ta e amat oncase
Defamatorystatement?
True?
Published?
Identified?
Notanhonestmistake?
Causedharm?
DefamationTest
Sixelements:
whatwasexpressedisfalse
thestatementwasactuallydefamatory;i.e.itput
Thestatementwaspublished
Theplaintiffwasidentified
theplaintiffwasactuallydamagedorharmedby
thestatement
Not
an
honest
mistake.
Defamation
Whenissomethingactuallydefamatory?Context
Naturaleffect
Implication
Whoprovesfalsity?Andhowfalse?Faircommentprivilege
Whenissomethingpublished?
Howissomeoneidentified?
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Damages
Compensatory
Punitive
CaseStudy
NewYorkTimesv.Sullivan (1964) SullivansuedtheNYTforlibel
Someofchargesnottrue
Statementsweredefamatory
DistrictcourtawardedSullivandamages
SupremeCourtoverturnedthejudgement
Addedadditionaltestelement
Actualmalicestatementsmadewithknowledgethattheyarefalseorwithrecklessdisregardforthetruth
Tosaythatpeoplecanbepunishedformakingfalsestatements,eveniftheywerentawareofit,wouldhavetoogreatofachillingeffectonfreepoliticalexpression.
ActualMalice
Falsestatementsaboutpublicfigures
deservedFirstAmendmentprotectioninform
ofactualmalicerule
Example:acommunicatorknewastatementwas
false,oractedwithrecklessdisregardforthe
truth.
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PublicFigures
Whyarepublicfigurestreateddifferentlyintermsof
defamationthanordinarycitizens?
Theychosetoputthemselvesinpubliceye
Higherthresholdofcriticism
Moreopportunitiestorespondtocharges
Societyisbetterservedbyhavingmoreinfoabout
publicservants
Presshastobeabletocriticize.Needsroomfor
honestmistakes.
CaseStudy
AssociatedPressv.Walker(1967) WalkersuedtheAPaftertheyreportedthatWalkerhad
ledaviolentcrowdduringriotsattheUofMississippiafterafederalcourthadorderedtheenrollmentofanAfricanAmerican
Walkerreceivedcompensatoryandpunitivedamages.
SupremeCourtsaidthatalthoughhewasretired,Walkerwasstillapublicfigure.
Fault
Gertzv.RobertWelch,Inc.(1974) Establishedactualmaliceruleonlyappliesto
pu c guresorpu co c a s
Negligence
ReasonableCare
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PublicFigures
Whoisapublicfigure?
Allpurpose Limitedpurpose
s n c o n e weenpu can pr va e gures
MonicaLewinskypublicfigure?
Instancesofindividualswhoareinvolvedin
publicissueswhoarenotlegallyclassifiedas
publicfigures
Protectionsagainstlibelsuits
Publicrecordprivilege
Qualified
Wireservices
Retractions
Statuteoflimitations
Neutralreportage?
Mediastrikeback
AntiSLAPP
Malicious
prosecution
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Internetlibel
Libelsuitsagainst:
Authorsofcontent Distributors
Problemsofdefinitionofterms
Telecommunications Act1996
Libelsuits
Casesalwaysinthenews
MSUformerfootballcoach
JeffGreene
Libeltourism
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Privacy
Privacy
Verycomplicated,growingareaoflegalstudy
Lawschangeassocietychanges
Privacy
In18th and19th centuries,littleattentionpaidtoprivacyinlaw
By1900s,timeshadchanged Why?
CivillawrightofprivacyCriminallawstoprotectprivacy
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Privacy
Fourprivacytorts:CommercialappropriationPublicdisclosureFalselight Intrusion
Appropriation
Usingsomeonesnameorlikenessforcommercialpurposeswithouttheirpermission Forcommercialpurposes NewYorkercover?
Consent
Nestlcase Nameorlikeness
Alsoknownasmisappropriation orinfringementofanindividualsrightofprivacy
Disclosure Disclosure
Concernspublicityaboutembarrassingprivatemattersthatareofnolegitimateconcerntothepublic
and
would
be
highly
offensive
to
a
reasona eperson
Highlyoffensive Trueinformation Newsworthy
Privatefacts CoxBroadcastingCorp.v.Cohn(1975)
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Falselightinvasions Publicrepresentationofsomeoneinafalse
andhighlyoffensiveway Similarto,butnotsameas,defamation
Dama es
Individuals
Forpublicfigures,mustalsoshowactualmalice
Florida
Intrusion
Intentionalinvasionofapersonsphysicalspaceorprivateaffairsinawaythatwouldbepatentlyoffensivetoareasonableperson Pu cversuspr vatep aces Offensive
Newsworthiness
Dietemannv.Time,Inc.(1971)
CompanionTorts Fraud
Intentional
infliction
of
emotional
distress
Trespass
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Defensestoprivacytorts Appropriation:consent Disclosure:newsworthiness Falselight:truth/absenceofactualmalice Intrusion:noexpectationofprivacy
Privacyandcriminalstatutes Somestateshavemadeitcriminaltoengage
incertainmethodsofinformationgathering,
Criminalstatutes Identitybetrayal
Releasingconfidential information
mediafromdisclosingtruthfulinformation,ifonlypurposeistoprotectindividualprivacy
Wiretapping
Crimetointerceptorrecordprivateconversationselectronically
Florida
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Internetandprivacy Email
Spyware
KidsandtheInternet:LivingOnline
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Why is it important?
A popular government without popularinformation or the means of acquiring it, is but aPrologue to a Farce or a Tragedy; or, perhapsboth. Knowledge will forever govern ignorance:And a people who mean to be their ownGovernors, must arm themselves with the powerwhich knowledge gives.
--James Madison,Fourth President of the United States
Access to Information
Not generally a First Amendment issue
Media not uaranteed more access than thegeneral public
Public and media depend on legislation passedto provide access to government informationand places
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Federal Legislation
Freedom of Information Act(FOIA) Applies to federal agencies Any person may request
information
Exemptions: National security Agency personnel rules/practices Exemptions required by federal law Trade secrets
Reno: greater disclosure Ashcroft: new standard for
assessing requests Holder: rescinded Ashcroft
memo; presumption towarddisclosure
Privileged gov. comm. Confidential personnel & medical
files Confidential law enforcement
records Records concerning regulation of
financial institutions Oil well information
Federal Legislation
Federal Sunshine Act
To give access to governmentmeetings
Exemptions similar to those ofthe FOIA
If exempted from the Sunshine Definition of a meeting
Agencies must provideadvance notice of a meeting,and conduct the meetingopenly
Act, a meeting may be closed Transcripts
Obtaining copies of closedsession transcripts
Access to public records held by state
Open records statutes
privacy
Jailhouse phone calls
Issues with police records
Routine incidents/arrests record
Progress of ongoing investigation
Criminal histories
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State Legislation
State Sunshine Laws Apply to agencies funded by
tax dollars Vary state to state
FL Sunshine Act One of the best in terms of
promoting openness Constitutional right of access
Definitions
Exemptions
to meetings in legislativebranch
Open meetings laws
State s Fe de r al
When having a meeting, astate agency must:
Sunshine Act of 1976
Advance public notice
Provide advance publicnotice
Conduct meetings openly
Generally applies to agencies,councils, commissions andboards at local and state levels
Executive sessions
Florida
Con uct meet ngs open y Only applies to executive
branch and to certain agencies Examples of exceptions:
National defense
Internal personnel practices
Trade secrets
Personal
information/invasion ofprivacy
Trespass & Consent
Trespass Intentional, unauthorized
entry upon property
Consent Express
Impliedpossesse y o ers
Entry without consent
Concern for media whenentering private property(i.e. with police)
Criminal trespass
Confiscation
Custom and usage
Does not extend to allactivities
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Access to publicly-owned places
Accident, crime, or natural disaster scenes May limit access
Difference with private property
Jails and prisons
Houchins v. KQED, Inc. (1978)
Selective Access
If no statute governing disclosure for aparticular office of government or type ofinformation, then government has discretion to
But once they voluntarily grant access to certainmembers of the media, then trying to restrictaccess to others can be termed selective access
Selective access is frowned upon, without acompelling government interest
Issues with Selective Access
Allow access to some individuals or entities, butnot others
Fourteenth Amendment
Due Process Clause
Fifth Amendment
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Cases in the News
Carl Paladino
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