Methods of Enquiry in Psychology Chapter - Prashanth...

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Transcript of Methods of Enquiry in Psychology Chapter - Prashanth...

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• explain the goals and nature of psychological enquiry,• understand different types of data used by psychologists,• describe some important methods of psychological enquiry,• understand the methods of analysing data, and• learn about the limitations of psychological enquiry and ethical

considerations.

After reading this chapter, you would be able to

IntroductionGoals of Psychological Enquiry

Steps in Conducting Scientific ResearchAlternative Paradigms of Research

Nature of Psychological DataSome Important Methods in Psychology

Observational MethodExample of an Experiment (Box 2.1)Experimental MethodCorrelational ResearchSurvey ResearchExample of Survey Method (Box 2.2)Psychological TestingCase Study

Analysis of DataQuantitative MethodQualitative Method

Limitations of Psychological EnquiryEthical Issues

Key TermsSummaryReview QuestionsProject Ideas

Contents

An idea that is developed and put intoaction is more important than an idea

that exists only as an idea.

– Gautam Buddha

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Prediction : The second goal of scientificenquiry is prediction of behaviour. If you areable to understand and describe the behaviouraccurately, you come to know the relationshipof a particular behaviour with other types ofbehaviours, events, or phenomena. You canthen forecast that under certain conditionsthis particular behaviour may occur within acertain margin of error. For example, on thebasis of study, a researcher is able to establisha positive relationship between the amount ofstudy time and achievement in differentsubjects. Later, if you come to know that aparticular child devotes more time for study,you can predict that the child is likely to getgood marks in the examination. Predictionbecomes more accurate with the increase inthe number of persons observed.

Explanation : The third goal of psychologicalenquiry is to know the causal factors ordeterminants of behaviour. Psychologists areprimarily interested in knowing the factorsthat make behaviour occur. Also, what are theconditions under which a particular behaviourdoes not occur. For example, what makessome children more attentive in the class? Why

GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ENQUIRY

Like any scientific research, psychologicalenquiry has the following goals: description,prediction, explanation, and control ofbehaviour, and application of knowledge sogenerated, in an objective manner. Let us tryto understand the meaning of these terms.

Description : In a psychological study, weattempt to describe a behaviour or aphenomenon as accurately as possible. Thishelps in distinguishing a particular behaviourfrom other behaviours. For example, theresearcher may be interested in observingstudy habits among students. Study habitsmay consist of diverse range of behaviours,such as attending all your classes regularly,submitting assignments on time, planningyour study schedule, studying according tothe set schedule, revising your work on a dailybasis etc. Within a particular category theremay be further minute descriptions. Theresearcher needs to describe her/his meaningof study habits. The description requiresrecording of a particular behaviour whichhelps in its proper understanding.

You have read in the first chapter that psychology is the study of experiences,behaviours, and mental processes. You may now be curious to know howpsychologists study these phenomena. In other words, what methods are used tostudy behaviour and mental processes? Like all scientists, psychologists seek todescribe, predict, explain and control what they study. For this, psychologists relyon formal, systematic observations to address their questions. It is the methodologythat makes psychology a scientific endeavour. Psychologists use a variety of researchmethods because questions about human behaviour are numerous and all of themcannot be studied by a single method. Methods such as observation, experimental,correlational research, survey, psychological testing and case study are morefrequently used to study the problems of psychology. This chapter will familiariseyou with the goals of psychological enquiry, the nature of information or data thatwe collect in psychological studies, the diverse range of methodological devicesavailable for the study of psychology, and some important issues related topsychological studies.

Introduction

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some children devote less time for study ascompared to others? Thus, this goal isconcerned with identifying the determinantsor antecedent conditions (i.e. conditions thatled to the particular behaviour) of thebehaviour being studied so that cause-effectrelationship between two variables (objects) orevents could be established.

Control : If you are able to explain why aparticular behaviour occurs, you can controlthat behaviour by making changes in itsantecedent conditions. Control refers to threethings: making a particular behaviour happen,reducing it, or enhancing it. For example, youcan allow the number of hours devoted tostudy to be the same, or you can reduce themor there may be an increase in the study hours.The change brought about in behaviour bypsychological treatment in terms of therapyin persons, is a good example of control.

Application : The final goal of the scientificenquiry is to bring out positive changes in thelives of people. Psychological research isconducted to solve problems in varioussettings. Because of these efforts the qualityof life of people is a major concern ofpsychologists. For example, applications ofyoga and meditation help to reduce stress and

increase efficiency. Scientific enquiry is alsoconducted to develop new theories orconstructs, which leads to further research.

Steps in Conducting Scientific Research

Science is not so defined by what itinvestigates as by how it investigates. Thescientific method attempts to study aparticular event or phenomenon in anobjective, systematic, and testable manner.The objectivity refers to the fact that if twoor more persons independently study aparticular event, both of them, to a greatextent, should arrive at the same conclusion.For instance, if you and your friend measurethe length of a table using the same measuringdevice, it is likely that both of you would arriveat the same conclusion about its length.

The second characteristic of scientificresearch is that it follows systematicprocedure or steps of investigation. It includesthe following steps: conceptualisation of aproblem, collection of data, drawingconclusions, and revising research conclusionsand theory (see Fig.2.1). Let us discuss thesesteps in some detail.

(1) Conceptualising a Problem : The processof scientific research begins when a researcher

Fig.2.1 : Steps in Conducting Scientific Enquiry

Conceptualising a Problem

Selecting a topic for study

Collecting Data

Participants, methods,tools and procedure

Revising ResearchConclusions

Restating existing hypothesis/formulating revised or anew theory

Drawing Conclusions

Using statistical methods

1

4

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selects a theme or topic for study. Then s/henarrows down the focus and develops specificresearch questions or problems for the study.This is done on the basis of review of pastresearch, observations, and personalexperiences. For example, earlier you read thata researcher was interested in observing thestudy habits of students. For this purpose,s/he may identify different facets of studyhabits first, and then decide whether s/he isinterested in study habits shown in the classor at home.

In psychology we study a diverse range ofproblems related to behaviour andexperiences. These problems may be relatedto (a) understanding our own behaviour (forexample, how do I feel and behave when I amin a state of joy or grief? How do we reflect onour own experiences and behaviour? Why dowe forget?); (b) understanding otherindividual’s behaviour (for example, Is Abhinavmore intelligent than Ankur? Why is someonealways not able to complete her or his work ontime? Can the habit of smoking be controlled?Why do some people suffering from chronicillness not take medicines?); (c) groupinfluences on individual behaviour (forexample, why does Rahim spend more timemeeting with people than doing his work?,Why does a cyclist perform better when cyclingbefore a group of persons than when cyclingalone?); (d) group behaviour (for example, whydoes risk-taking behaviour increase whenpeople are in a group?), and (e) organisationallevel (for example, why are some organisationsmore successful than others? How can anemployer increase the motivation ofemployees?). The list is long and you will learnabout these various facets in subsequentchapters. If you are inquisitive, you can writedown a number of problems which you maylike to probe.

After identification of the problem, theresearcher proceeds by developing a tentativeanswer of the problem, which is calledhypothesis. For example, based on the earlierevidence or your observation, you mightdevelop a hypothesis ‘greater is the amountof time spent by children in viewing violence

on television, higher is the degree of aggressiondisplayed by them’. In your research, you shallnow try to prove whether the statement is trueor false.

(2) Collecting Data : The second step inscientific research is to collect data. Datacollection requires developing a researchdesign or a blueprint of the entire study. Itrequires taking decisions about the followingfour aspects: (a) participants in the study,(b) methods of data collection, (c) tools to beused in research, and (d) procedure for datacollection. Depending upon the nature of thestudy, the researcher has to decide who wouldbe the participants (or informants) in thestudy. The participants could be children,adolescents, college students, teachers,managers, clinical patients, industrialworkers, or any group of individuals in whom/where the phenomenon under investigationis prevalent. The second decision is related tothe use of methods of data collection, such asobservation method, experimental method,correlational method, case study, etc. Theresearcher needs to decide about appropriatetools (for example, interview schedule,observation schedule, questionnaire, etc.) fordata collection. The researcher also decidesabout how the tools need to be administeredto collect data (i.e. individual or group). Thisis followed by actual collection of data.

(3) Drawing Conclusions : The next step is toanalyse data so collected through the use ofstatistical procedures to understand what thedata mean. This can be achieved throughgraphical representations (such as preparationof pie-chart, bar -diagram, cumulativefrequencies, etc.) and by the use of differentstatistical methods. The purpose of analysisis to verify a hypothesis and draw conclusionsaccordingly.

(4) Revising Research Conclusions : Theresearcher may have begun the study with ahypothesis that there exists a relationshipbetween viewing violence on television andaggression among children. S/he has to seewhether the conclusions support this

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attempting to disturb its natural flow. Forexample, an explorer does not know what s/he is looking for, how to look for it, and whatto expect. Rather, s/he tries to map anuncharted wilderness, with little or no priorknowledge of the area, and her/his main taskis to record detailed descriptions of what isfound in a particular context.

Both scientific and interpretive traditionsare concerned with studying behaviour andexperiences of others. What about our ownpersonal experiences and behaviour? As astudent of psychology, you may ask yourselfthe question: why am I feeling sad? Many timesyou take a pledge that you will control yourdiet or devote more time to studies. But whenit actually comes to eating or studying youforget this. You might be wondering why onedoes not have control over one’s behaviour.Should psychology not help you in analysingyour own experiences, thought processes, andbehaviour? It certainly should. Thepsychological enquiry does aim atunderstanding the self by reflecting on one’sown experiences and insights.

NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DATA

You may want to consider how psychologicaldata are different as compared to othersciences. Psychologists collect a variety ofinformation from different sources employingdiverse methods. The information, also calleddata (singular = datum), relate to theindividuals’ covert or overt behaviour, theirsubjective experiences, and mental processes.Data form an important input in psychologicalenquiry. They in fact approximate the realityto some extent and provide an opportunity toverify or falsify our ideas, hunches, notions,etc. It should be understood that data are notindependent entities. They are located in acontext, and are tied to the method and theorythat govern the process of data collection. Inother words, data are not independent of thephysical or social context, the personsinvolved, and the time when the behaviouroccurs. We behave differently when alone thanin a group, or at home and in office. You may

hypothesis. If they do, the existing hypothesis/theory is confirmed. If not, s/he will revise orstate an alternative hypothesis/theory andagain test it based on new data and drawconclusions which may be verified by futureresearchers. Thus, research is a continuousprocess.

Alternative Paradigms of Research

Psychologists suggest that human behaviourcan and should be studied following themethods adopted by sciences like physics,chemistry, and biology. The key assumptionof this view is that human behaviour ispredictable, caused by internal and externalforces, and can be observed, measured, andcontrolled. In order to achieve these goals, thediscipline of psychology, for larger part of thetwentieth century, restricted itself to the studyof overt behaviour, i.e. the behaviour thatcould be observed and measured. It did notfocus on personal feelings, experiences,meanings, etc.

In recent years, a different method knownas interpretive has emerged. It emphasisesunderstanding over explanation andprediction. It takes the stand that, in view ofcomplex and variable nature of humanbehaviour and experience, its method ofinvestigation should be different from themethod of investigation of the physical world.This viewpoint emphasises the importance ofhow human beings give meaning to events andactions and interpret them as they occur in aparticular context. Let us take the experiencesthat may occur in some unique contexts, suchas persons experiencing suffering due toexternal factors (for example, people affectedby tsunami, earthquake, cyclone) or internalfactors (for instance, prolonged illness, etc.).In such types of situations, objectivemeasurement is neither possible nor desirable.Everyone interprets reality in her/his own waybased on past experiences and contexts.Therefore, we need to understand thesubjective interpretation of the reality. The goalhere is to explore the different aspects ofhuman experiences and behaviour without

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hesitate to talk in front of your parents andteachers but not when you are with friends.You may have also noticed that not all peoplebehave in exactly the same manner in the samesituation. The method of data collection (survey,interview, experiment, etc.) used and thecharacteristics of respondents (such as,individual or group, young or old, male orfemale, rural or urban, etc.) also influence thenature and quality of data. It is possible thatwhen you interview a student, s/he may reportbehaving in a particular manner in a givensituation. But when you go for actualobservation you may find just the opposite ofwhat s/he had reported. Another importantfeature of data is that it does not in itself speakabout reality. Inferences have to be made fromdata. A researcher attaches meaning to the databy placing it in its proper context.

In psychology, different types of data orinformation are collected. Some of these typesare :i) Demographic Information : This information

generally includes personal information likename, age, gender, birth order, number ofsiblings, education, occupation, maritalstatus, number of children, locality ofresidence, caste, religion, parentaleducation, occupation, and family income,etc.

ii) Physical Information : This categoryincludes information about ecologicalconditions (hilly/desert/forest), mode ofeconomy, housing conditions, size of rooms,facilities available at home, in theneighbourhood, in the school, mode oftransportation, etc.

iii) Physiological Data : In some studiesphysical, physiological and psychologicaldata are collected about height, weight,heart rate, level of fatigue, Galvanic SkinResistance (GSR), electrical activity of thebrain measured by Electro-encephalograph(EEG), blood oxygen levels, reaction time,duration of sleep, blood pressure, patternof dream, amount of salivation, running andjumping rates (in case of animal studies),etc., are collected.

iv) Psychological Information : Psychologicalinformation collected, may relate to such

areas as intelligence, personality, interest,values, creativity, emotions, motivation,psychological disorders, illusions,delusions, hallucinations, perceptualjudgment, thought processes,consciousness, subjective experiences, etc.

The above information could be from thepoint of view of measurement somewhat crude.Like, in the form of categories (such as high/low, yes/no), ranks which provide ordinal data,viz. first, second, third, fourth, etc., or scores(10, 12, 15, 18, 20, etc.) on scales. We alsoobtain verbal reports, observation records,personal diaries, field notes, archival data, etc.Such types of information is analysedseparately using qualitative methods. You willget some idea about this later in this chapter.

SOME IMPORTANT METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY

In the previous section you read about widevariety of data that we collect in psychologicalstudies. All these varieties of data cannot becollected through a single method of enquiry.Psychologists use a variety of methods likeObservation, Experimental, Correlational,Survey, Psychological Testing, and Case Studyto collect data. The aim of this section is toguide you to select the methods which may beappropriate for different research purposes. Forexample:

• You can observe the behaviour of spectatorswatching a football match.

• You can conduct an experiment to see ifchildren taking an examination do betterin the classroom in which they had studiedthe subject or in the examination hall(cause-effect relationship).

• You can correlate intelligence with, say, self-esteem (for prediction purposes).

• You can survey students’ attitude towardsprivatisation of education.

• You can use psychological tests to find outindividual differences.

• You can conduct a case study on thedevelopment of language in a child.

The main characteristics of these methodsare described in the following sections.

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Observational Method

Observation is a very powerful tool ofpsychological enquiry. It is an effective methodof describing behaviour. In our daily life, weremain busy with observing numerous thingsthroughout the day. Many times, we do nottake notice of what we are seeing or what wehave seen. We see but we do not observe. Weremain aware of only a few things that we seedaily. Have you experienced such a thing? Youmay also have experienced that if you carefullyobserve a person or event for some time, youcome to know many interesting things aboutthe person or the event. A scientificobservation dif fers from day-to-dayobservation in many respects. These are :

(a) Selection : Psychologists do not observe allthe behaviour that they encounter. Rather,they select a particular behaviour forobservation. For example, you may beinterested to know how children studying inClass XI spend their time in school. Two thingsare possible at this stage. As a researcher, youmight think that you have a fairly good ideaabout what happens in school. You mightprepare a list of activities and go to the schoolwith a view to finding out their occurrences.Alternatively, you might think that you do notknow what happens in the school and, by yourobservation you would like to discover it.

(b) Recording : While observing, a researcherrecords the selected behaviour using differentmeans, such as marking tallies for the alreadyidentified behaviour whenever they occur,taking notes describing each activity in greaterdetail using short hand or symbols,photographs, video recording, etc.

(c) Analysis of Data : After the observationshave been made, psychologists analysewhatever they have recorded with a view toderive some meaning out of it.

It is important to know that making goodobservations is a skill. A good observer knowswhat s/he is looking for, whom s/he wants toobserve, when and where the observation

needs to be made, in what form theobservation will be recorded, and whatmethods will be used to analyse the observedbehaviour.

Types of Observation

Observation can be of the following types :

(a) Naturalistic vs Controlled Observation :When observations are done in a natural orreal-life settings (in the above example, it wasa school in which observation was made), it iscalled naturalistic observation. In this casethe observer makes no effort to control ormanipulate the situation for making anobservation. This type of observation isconducted in hospitals, homes, schools, daycare centers, etc. However, many a times youmight need to control certain factors thatdetermine behaviour as they are not the focusof your study. For this reason, many of thestudies in psychology are conducted in thelaboratory. For example, if you read Box 2.1,you will come to know that smoke could onlybe introduced in a controlled laboratorysituation. This type of observation, calledControlled Laboratory Observation, actually,is obtained in laboratory experiments.

(b) Non-Participant vs Participant Observation :Observation can be done in two ways. One,you may decide to observe the person or eventfrom a distance. Two, the observer maybecome part of the group being observed. Inthe first case, the person being observed maynot be aware that s/he is being observed. Forexample, you want to observe the pattern ofinteraction between teachers and students ina particular class. There are many ways ofachieving this goal. You can install a videocamera to record the classroom activities,which you can see later and analyse.Alternatively, you may decide to sit in a cornerof the class without interfering or participatingin their everyday activities. This type ofobservation is called non-participantobservation. The danger in this type of set-up is that the very fact that someone

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(an outsider) is sitting and observing may bringa change in the behaviour of students and theteacher.

In participant observation, the observerbecomes a part of the school or the group ofpeople being observed. In participantobservation, the observer takes some time toestablish a rapport with the group so that theystart accepting her/him as one of the groupmembers. However, the degree of involvementof the observer with the group being observedwould vary depending upon the focus of thestudy.

The advantage of the observation methodis that it enables the researcher to studypeople and their behaviour in a naturalisticsituation, as it occurs. However, theobservation method is labour intensive, timeconsuming, and is susceptible to theobserver’s bias. Our observation is influencedby our values and beliefs about the person orthe event. You are familiar with the popularsaying: "We see things as we are and not asthings are". Because of our biases we mayinterpret things in a different way than whatthe participants may actually mean.Therefore, the observer should record thebehaviour as it happens and should notinterpret the behaviour at the time ofobservation itself.

Experimental Method

Experiments are generally conducted toestablish cause-effect relationship betweentwo sets of events or variables in a controlledsetting. It is a carefully regulated procedurein which changes are made in one factor andits effect is studied on another factor, whilekeeping other related factors constant. In theexperiment, cause is the event being changedor manipulated. Effect is the behaviour thatchanges because of the manipulation.

The Concept of Variable

You read earlier that in the experimentalmethod, a researcher attempts to establishcausal relationship between two variables.What is a variable? Any stimulus or event

A few students can observe one period when thepsychology teacher is teaching in the class. Notedown, in detail, what the teacher does, what thestudents do, and the entire pattern of interactionbetween the teacher and the students. Discussthe observations made with other students andteacher. Note the similarities and differences inobservation.

ActivityActivityActivityActivityActivity 2.1

Two American psychologists, Bibb Latane andJohn Darley, conducted a study in 1970. In orderto participate in this study, the students ofColumbia University arrived individually at alaboratory. They were given the impression thatthey would be interviewed on a certain topic.Each student was sent to a waiting room tocomplete a preliminary questionnaire. Some ofthem found two other people already seated inthe room, while others sat down alone. Soon afterthe students had started working on thequestionnaire, smoke began filling the roomthrough a wall vent. The smoke could hardly be

BoxBoxBoxBoxBox 2.1 Example of an ExperimentExample of an ExperimentExample of an ExperimentExample of an ExperimentExample of an Experiment

ignored; within four minutes the room containedenough smoke to interfere with vision and breathing.Latane and Darley were primarily interested inknowing how frequently students simply got up andleft the room to report the emergency. Most (75 percent) of the students who were waiting alone reportedthe smoke, but those reporting in groups were farless. Groups consisting of three naïve studentsreported it only 38 per cent of the time. When thestudents waited with two other confederates, whowere instructed before hand by the researchers todo nothing, only 10 per cent students reportedsmoke.

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which varies, that is, it takes on differentvalues (or changes) and can be measured is avariable. An object by itself is not a variable.But its attributes are. For example, the penthat you use for writing is NOT a variable. Butthere are varieties of pens available in differentshapes, sizes, and colour. All of these arevariables. The room in which you are sittingis NOT a variable but its size is as there arerooms of different sizes. The height of theindividuals (5' to 6') is another variable.Similarly, people of different races havedifferent colours. Young people have starteddyeing their hair in different colours. Thus,colour of hair becomes a variable. Intelligenceis a variable (there are people with varyinglevels of intelligence — high, moderate, low).The presence or absence of persons in theroom is a variable as shown in the experimentin Box 2.1. Thus, the variation can be in thequality or quantity of objects/events.

Variables are of many types. We willhowever focus on independent and dependentvariables. Independent variable is thatvariable which is manipulated or altered orits strength varied by the researcher in theexperiment. It is the effect of this change inthe variable which the researcher wants toobserve or note in the study. In the experimentconducted by Latane and Darley (Box 2.1), theresearchers wanted to examine the effect ofthe presence of other persons on reporting ofthe smoke. The independent variable waspresence or absence of other persons in theroom. The variables on which the effect ofindependent variable is observed is calleddependent variable. Dependent variablerepresents the phenomenon the researcherdesires to explain. It is expected that changein the dependent variable will ensue fromchanges in the independent variable. Thefrequency of reporting of smoke in the abovecase was the dependent variable. Thus, theindependent variable is the cause, anddependent variable the ef fect in anyexperimental situation.

One must remember that independent anddependent variables are interdependent.Neither of them can be defined without the

other. Also, independent variable chosen bythe researcher is not the only variable thatinfluences the dependent variable. Anybehavioural event contains many variables. Italso takes place within a context. Independentand dependent variables are chosen becauseof the researcher’s theoretical interest.However, there are many other relevant orextraneous variables that influence thedependent variable, but the researcher maynot be interested in examining their effects.These extraneous variables need to becontrolled in an experiment so that aresearcher is able to pin-point the cause andeffect relationship between independent anddependent variables.

Experimental and Control Groups

Experiments generally involve one or moreexperimental groups and one or more controlgroups. An experimental group is a group inwhich members of the group are exposed toindependent variable manipulation. Thecontrol group is a comparison group that istreated in every way like the experimentalgroup except that the manipulated variable isabsent in it. For example, in the study byLatane and Darley, there were twoexperimental groups and one control group.As you may have noted, the participants inthe study were sent to three types of rooms.In one room no one was present (controlgroup). In the other two rooms, two personswere already seated (experimental groups). Ofthe two experimental groups, one group wasinstructed not to do anything when smokefilled in the room. The other group was notgiven any instructions. After the experimentalmanipulation had occured the performanceof the control group measured in terms ofreporting of smoke was compared with thatof the experimental group. It was found thatthe control group participants reported inmaximum numbers about the emergency,followed by the first experimental groupmembers where the participants were notgiven any instructions, and the secondexperimental group (consisting of

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confederates) reported the emergencysituation, the least.

It should be noted that in an experiment,except for the experimental manipulation,other conditions are kept constant for bothexperimental and control groups. Oneattempts to control all those relevant variableswhich can influence the dependent variable.For example, the speed with which smokestarted entering the rooms, the total amountof smoke in the rooms, physical and otherconditions of the rooms were similar in caseof all the three groups. The distribution ofparticipants to experimental and controlgroups was done randomly, a method thatensures that each person has an equal chanceof being included in any of the groups. If inone group the experimenter had included onlymales and in the other group females, theresults obtained in the study, could be due tothe differences in gender rather than due toexperimental manipulation. All relevantvariables in experimental studies that mightinfluence the dependent variable need to becontrolled. These are of three major types:organismic variables (such as anxiety,intelligence, personality, etc.), situational orenvironmental variables operating at the timeof conducting the experiment (such as noise,temperature, humidity), and sequentialvariables. The sequence related variablesassume significance when the participants inexperiments are required to be tested inseveral conditions. Exposure to manyconditions may result in experimental fatigue,or practice effects, which may influence theresults of the study and make theinterpretation of the findings difficult.

In order to control relevant variables,experimenters use several control techniques.Some illustrations are given below.• Since the goal of an experiment is to

minimise extraneous variables, the bestway to handle this problem is to eliminatethem from the experimental setting. Forexample, the experiment may beconducted in a sound-proof and air-conditioned room to eliminate the effect ofnoise and temperature.

• Elimination is not always possible. In suchcases, effort should be made to hold themconstant so that their effect remains thesame throughout the experiment.

• For controlling organismic (e.g., fear,motivation) and background variables(such as rural/urban, caste, socio-economic status) matching is also used.In this procedure the relevant variables inthe two groups are equated or are heldconstant by taking matched pairs acrossconditions of the experiment.

• Counter-balancing technique is used tominimise the sequence effect. Supposethere are two tasks to be given in anexperiment. Rather than giving the twotasks in the same sequence theexperimenter may interchange the orderof the tasks. Thus, half of the group mayreceive the tasks in the order of A and Bwhile the other half in order of B and A orthe same individual may be given the taskin A, B, B, A order.

• Random assignment of participants todifferent groups eliminates any potentialsystematic differences between groups.

The strength of a well-designed experimentis that it can provide, relatively speaking, aconvincing evidence of a cause-ef fectrelationship between two or more variables.However, experiments are often conducted ina highly controlled laboratory situation. In thissense, they only simulate situations that existin the outside world. They are frequentlycriticised for this reason. The experiments mayproduce results that do not generalise well,or apply to real situations. In other words, theyhave low external validity. Another limitationof the laboratory experiment is that it is notalways feasible to study a particular problemexperimentally. For example, an experimentto study the effect of nutritional deficiency onintelligence level of children cannot beconducted as it would be ethically wrong tostarve anyone. The third problem is that it isdifficult to know and control all the relevantvariables.

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Field Experiments and Quasi Experiments

If a researcher wants to have highgeneralisability or to conduct studies whichare not possible in laboratory settings, s/hemay go to the field or the natural setting wherethe particular phenomenon actually exists. Inother words, s/he may conduct a fieldexperiment. For example, a researcher maywant to know which method would lead tobetter learning among students—lecture ordemonstration method. For this, a researchermay prefer to conduct an experiment in theschool. The researcher may select two groupsof participants; teach one group bydemonstration method and another group bythe normal teaching method for sometime. S/he may compare their performance at the endof the learning session. In such types ofexperiments, the control over relevantvariables is less than what we find inlaboratory experiments. Also, it is more time-consuming and expensive.

Many variables cannot be manipulated inthe laboratory settings. For example, if youwant to study the effect of an earthquake onchildren who lost their parents, you cannotcreate this condition artificially in thelaboratory. In such situations, the researcheradopts the method of quasi (the Latin wordmeaning “as if ”) experimentation. In suchtypes of experiments, the independent variableis selected rather than varied or manipulatedby the experimenter. For example, in theexperimental group we can have children wholost their parents in the earthquake and in

the control group children who experiencedthe earthquake but did not lose their parents.Thus, a quasi experiment attempts tomanipulate an independent variable in anatural setting using naturally occurringgroups to form experimental and controlgroups.

Correlational Research

In psychological research, we often wish todetermine the relationship between twovariables for prediction purposes. Forexample, you may be interested in knowingwhether “the amount of study time” is relatedto the “student’s academic achievement”. Thisquestion is different from the one whichexperimental method seeks to answer in thesense that here you do not manipulate theamount of study time and examine its impacton achievement. Rather, you simply find outthe relationship between the two variables todetermine whether they are associated, orcovary or not. The strength and direction ofthe relationship between the two variables isrepresented by a number, known ascorrelation coefficient. Its value can range from+1.0 through 0.0 to –1.0.

As you can see, the coef ficient ofcorrelation is of three types: positive, negative,and zero. A positive correlation indicates thatas the value of one variable (X) increases, thevalue of the other variable (Y) will also increase.Similarly when variable X decreases, adecrease in Y too takes place. Suppose, it isfound that more time the students spend onstudying, the higher was their achievementscore. Also the less they studied, the lowerwas their achievement score. This type ofassociation will be indicated by a positivenumber, and the stronger the associationbetween studying and achievement, the closerthe number would be to +1.0. You may find acorrelation of +.85, indicating a strong positiveassociation between study time andachievement. On the other hand, a negativecorrelation tells us that as the value of onevariable (X) increases, the value of the other(Y) decreases. For example, you may

Identify the independent and dependent variablesfrom the given hypotheses.1. Teachers’ classroom behaviour affects

students’ performance.2. Healthy parent-child relationship facilitates

emotional adjustment of children.3. Increase in the level of peer pressure increases

the level of anxiety.4. Enriching the environment of young children

with special books and puzzles enhances theirperformance.

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hypothesise that as the hours of study timeincrease, the number of hours spent in otheractivities will decrease. Here, you are expectinga negative correlation, ranging between 0 and–1.0. It is also possible that sometimes nocorrelation may exist between the twovariables. This is called zero correlation.Generally, it is difficult to find zero correlationbut the correlations found may be close tozero, e.g., -.02 or +.03. This indicates that nosignificant relationship exists between twovariables or the two variables are unrelated.

Survey Research

You may have read in the newspapers or seenon the television that during elections surveysare conducted to find out if people would votefor a particular political party, or favour aparticular candidate. Survey research cameinto existence to study opinions, attitudes andsocial facts. Their main concern initially wasto find out the existing reality or baseline. Sothey were used to find out facts such as theliteracy rate at a particular time, religiousaffiliations, income level of a particular groupof people, etc.They were also used to find outthe attitude of people towards family planning,the attitude towards giving powers to the

panchayati raj institutions for runningprogrammes related to health, education,sanitation, etc. However, they have nowevolved into a sophisticated technique whichhelps in inferring various kinds of causalrelationships. Box 2.2 provides an example ofa study using the survey method.

The survey research uses differenttechniques for collecting information. Includedamong these techniques are: personalinterviews, questionnaires, telephonic surveys,and controlled observations. These techniquesare discussed here in some detail.

Personal Interviews

The interview method is one of the mostfrequently used methods for obtaininginformation from people. It is used in diversekinds of situations. It is used by a doctor toobtain information from the patient, anemployer when meeting a prospectiveemployee, a sales person interviewing ahousewife to know why she uses a certainbrand of soap. On television, we often seemedia persons interviewing people on issuesof national and international importance.What happens in an interview? We see thattwo or more persons sit face-to-face with each

In December 2004, a survey was conducted by“Outlook Saptahik” magazine (10 January 2005)to know what makes the people of India happy.The survey was conducted in eight big cities,namely Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Bangalore,Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Jaipur, and Ranchi.817 persons in the age group of 25-55 yearsparticipated in the study. The questionnaireused in the survey contained different types ofquestions. The first question (Are you happy?)required respondents to give their views on a5-point scale (5=extremely happy, 4=more or lesshappy, 3=neither happy nor unhappy, 2=moreor less unhappy, 1=extremely unhappy). About47 per cent people reported that they wereextremely happy, 28 per cent were more or lesshappy, 11 per cent said they were neither happy

BoxBoxBoxBoxBox 2.2 Example of Survey MethodExample of Survey MethodExample of Survey MethodExample of Survey MethodExample of Survey Method

nor unhappy, and 7 per cent each fell in the lasttwo categories, more or less unhappy, and extremelyunhappy. The second question (Can you buyhappiness with money?) had three alternatives (Yes,No, Don’t know). About 80 per cent people expressedthat money can’t buy happiness. Another questiontried to know “what gives them maximumhappiness?” More than 50 per cent respondentsreported that peace of mind (52 per cent) and health(50 per cent) gave them maximum happiness. Thiswas followed by responses such as success in work(43 per cent), and family (40 per cent). Anotherquestion asked was to know ‘what do they do whenthey feel unhappy or sad?” It was reported that 36per cent people opted for listening to music, 23 percent found respite in the company of friends, and15 per cent went for a movie.

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other, in which one person (generally calledinterviewer) asks the questions and the otherperson (called interviewee or respondent)answers the questions related to a problem.An interview is a purposeful activity conductedto derive factual information, opinions andattitudes, and reasons for particularbehaviour, etc. from the respondents. It isgenerally conducted face-to-face but sometimesit can also take place over the phone.

There can be two broad types of interviews:structured or standardised, andunstructured or non-standardised. Thisdistinction is based upon the type ofpreparation we make before conducting theinterview. As we have to ask questions duringthe interview, it is required that we prepare alist of questions before-hand. The list is calledan interview schedule. A structured interviewis one where the questions in the scheduleare written clearly in a particular sequence.The interviewer has little or no liberty to makechanges in the wordings of the questions orthe order in which they are to be asked. Theresponses to these questions are also, in somecases, specified in advance. These are calledclose-ended questions. In contrast, in anunstructured interview the interviewer has theflexibility to take decisions about the questionsto be asked, the wording of the questions, andthe sequence in which questions are to beasked. Since responses are not specified insuch type of interviews, the respondent cananswer the questions in the way s/he choosesto. Such questions are called open-endedquestions. For example, if the researcherwants to know about the happiness level of aperson, s/he may ask: How happy are you?The respondent may reply to this question theway s/he chooses to answer.

An interview may have the followingcombinations of participants in an interviewsituation:(a) Individual to Individual : It is a situation

where one interviewer interviews anotherperson.

(b) Individual to Group : In this situation, oneinterviewer interviews a group of persons.One variant of it is called a Focus GroupDiscussion (FGD).

(c) Group to Individuals : It is a situation whereone group of interviewers interview oneperson. You may experience this type ofsituation when you appear for a jobinterview.

(d) Group to Group : It is a situation whereone group of interviewers interview anothergroup of interviewees.

Interviewing is a skill which requires propertraining. A good interviewer knows how to makethe respondent at ease and get the optimalanswer. S/he remains sensitive to the way aperson responds and, if needed, probes formore information. If the respondent gives vagueanswers, the interviewer may try to get specificand concrete answers.

The interview method helps in obtainingin-depth information. It is flexible andadaptable to individual situations, and canoften be used when no other method ispossible or adequate. It can be used even withchildren, and non-literate persons. Aninterviewer can know whether the respondentunderstands the questions, and can repeat orparaphrase questions. However, interviewsrequire time. Often getting information fromone person may take an hour or more whichmay not be cost-effective.

Questionnaire Survey

The questionnaire is the most common,simple, versatile, and low-cost self-reportmethod of collecting information. It consistsof a predetermined set of questions. Therespondent has to read the questions andmark the answers on paper rather thanrespond verbally to the interviewer. They arein some ways like highly structured interviews.Questionnaires can be distributed to a groupof persons at a time who write down theiranswers to the questions and return to theresearcher or can be sent through mail.Generally, two types of questions are used inthe questionnaire: open-ended and closed-ended. With open-ended questions, therespondent is free to write whatever answers/he considers appropriate. In the closed-ended type, the questions and their probable

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answers are given and the respondent isrequired to select the correct answer.Examples of closed-ended questions requireresponses like: Yes/No, True/False, Multiplechoice, or using a rating scale. In case of ratingscale, a statement is given and the respondentis asked to give her/his views on a 3-point(Agree, Undecided, Disagree), or 5-point(Strongly Agree, Agree, Undecided, Disagree,Strongly Disagree) or 7-point, 9-point, 11-point or 13-point scale. In some cases, theparticipants are asked to rank a number ofthings in a preferential order. Thequestionnaire is used for collectingbackground and demographic information,information about past behaviour, attitudesand opinions, knowledge about a particulartopic, and expectations and aspirations of thepersons. Sometimes a survey is conducted bysending the questionnaire by mail. The mainproblem of a mailed questionnaire is poorresponse from the respondents.

for conducting surveys. Each method has itsown advantages and limitations. Theresearcher needs to exercise caution inselecting a particular method.

The survey method has severaladvantages. First, information can be gatheredquickly and efficiently from thousands ofpersons. Second, since surveys can beconducted quickly, public opinions on newissues can be obtained almost as soon as theissues arise. There are some limitations of asurvey too. First, people may give inaccurateinformation because of memory lapses or theymay not want to let the researcher know whatthey really believe about a particular issue.Second, people sometimes offer responses theythink the researcher wants to hear.

Psychological Testing

Assessment of individual differences hasremained one of the important concerns ofpsychology from the very beginning.Psychologists have constructed different typesof tests for assessment of various humancharacteristics, such as intelligence, aptitude,personality, interest, attitudes, values,educational achievement, etc. These tests areused for various purposes, such as personnelselection, placement, training, guidance,diagnosis, etc., in multiple contexts includingeducational institutions, guidance clinics,industries, defence establishments, and soforth. Have you ever taken a psychologicaltest? If you have, you might have seen that atest contains a number of questions, calleditems, with their probable responses, whichare related to a particular humancharacteristic or attribute. It is important herethat the characteristic for which a test hasbeen developed, should be defined clearly andunambiguously, and all items (questions)should be related to that characteristic only.You might also notice that often a test is meantfor a particular age group. It may or may nothave a fixed time limit for answering thequestions.

Technically speaking, a psychological testis a standardised and objective instrument

An investigator wants to study people’s attitudetowards welfare programmes by circulating aquestionnaire via the Internet. Is this study likelyto reflect the views of the general populationaccurately? Why or why not?

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Telephone Survey

Surveys are also conducted throughtelephone, and now-a-days you must haveseen programmes asking you to send yourviews through mobile phones’ SMS. Thetelephone survey helps in reducing time.However, since the respondents do not knowthe interviewer, the technique is fraught withuncooperativeness, reluctance, and superficialanswers by the respondents. There is also apossibility that those responding may differfrom those not responding, e.g., on age,gender, income levels, education levels, etc.,besides their psychological characteristics.This will lead to very biased kinds of results.

The method of observation have beendiscussed earlier. This method is also used

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which is used to assess an individual’sstanding in relation to others on some mentalor behavioural characteristics. Two things areworth noting in this definition: objectivity andstandardisation. Objectivity refers to the factthat if two or more researchers administer apsychological test on the same group of people,both of them would come up with more orless the same values for each person in thegroup. In order for a psychological test tobecome an objective measure, it is essentialthat items should be worded in such a mannerthat they communicate the same meaning todifferent readers. Also, the instructions to thetest takers about how to answer the test itemsshould be specified in advance. The procedureof administering the test such asenvironmental conditions, time limit, mode ofadministration (individual or group) should bespelt, and the procedure for scoring of theparticipants’ responses need to be described.

The construction of a test is a systematicprocess and involves certain steps. It involvesdetailed analysis of items, and estimatingreliability, validity, and norms of the wholetest.

Reliability of the test refers to theconsistency of scores obtained by an individualon the same test on two different occasions.For example, you administer the test to agroup of students today and re-administer iton the same set of students after some time,let us say 20 days. If the test is reliable, thereshould not be any variation in the scoresobtained by the students on the two occasions.For this, we can compute test-retestreliability, which indicates the temporalstability (or stability of the test scores overtime). It is computed by finding out co-efficientof correlation between the two sets of scoreson the same set of persons. Another kind oftest reliability is called split-half reliability. Itgives an indication about the degree of internalconsistency of the test. This is based on theassumption that items of a test if they are fromthe same domain should correlate with eachother. If they are from different domains, e.g.,are apples and oranges, then they would not.For finding out internal consistency, the test

is divided into two equal halves employing odd-even method (items 1,3,5,— in one group anditems 2,4,6,— in another group) andcorrelation is computed between the scoresof odd and even items.

For a test to be usable, it should also bevalid. Validity refers to the question : “Doesthe test measure what it claims to measure”?For example, if you have constructed a test ofmathematics achievement, whether the testis measuring mathematical achievement orfor example, language proficiency.

Finally, a test becomes a standardised testwhen norms are developed for the test. Asmentioned earlier, norm is the normal oraverage performance of the group. The test isadministered on a large number of students.Their average performance standards are setbased on their age, sex, place of residence,etc. This helps us in comparing theperformance of an individual student withothers of the same group. It also helps ininterpreting individuals’ score obtained on atest.

Types of Tests

Psychological tests are classified on the basisof their language, mode of administration, anddifficulty level. Depending upon the language,we have verbal, non-verbal, and performancetests. Literacy is required for taking verbaltests as the items have to be written in somelanguage. In non-verbal tests, items are madeof symbols or pictures. Performance testsrequire movement of objects from theirrespective places in a particular order.

Depending upon the mode ofadministration, psychological tests are dividedinto individual or group tests. An individualtest is administered by the researcher to oneperson at a time, while group tests can beadministered to large number of persons atthe same time. In individual tests, theresearcher administers the test face to faceand remains seated before the test taker andnotes down the responses. In the group test,the instructions about answering the items,etc., are written on the test, which the test

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taker reads and answers the questionsaccordingly. The test administrator explainsthe instructions to the entire group. Individualtests are time consuming, but are importantways of getting responses from children, andfrom those who do not know the language.Group tests are easy to administer and arealso less time consuming. However, theresponses are fraught with certain limitations.The respondent may not be motivated enoughto answer the questions and may give fakeresponses.

Psychological tests are also classified intospeed and power tests. In a speed test, thereis a time limit within which the test taker isrequired to answer all the items. Such a testevaluates the individual on the basis of timetaken to answer the items accurately. In aspeed test, all the items are of the same degreeof difficulty. On the other hand, power testassesses the underlying ability (or power) ofthe individuals by allowing them sufficienttime, i.e. these tests do not have any time limit.In a power test, the items are generallyarranged in an increasing order of difficulty.If a person, for example, is unable to solve the6th item, s/he will have difficulty in answeringthe subsequent items. It is, however, difficultto construct a pure speed or power test.Majority of the tests are a combination of bothspeed and power.

While tests are often used in research andfor making decisions about people, tests mustbe selected and used with great care. The testuser or the decision maker should not rely onany single test. Test data should be combined

with information about a person’sbackground, interests, and past performance.

Case Study

In this method, the emphasis is given on in-depth study of a particular case. Researchersfocus on cases which can provide criticalinformation or new learning on lessunderstood phenomena. The case can be anindividual with distinguishing characteristics(for example, a patient showing psychologicaldisorders) or a small group of individualshaving some commonality among them (forexample, creative writers like Rabindra NathTagore, and Mahadevi Verma), institutions (forexample, poorly or successfully functioningschool or a corporate office), and specificevents (for example, children exposed todevastation by tsunami, war or vehicularpollution, etc.). The cases that we select forstudy are unique and, therefore, are rich ininformation. A case study employs multiplemethods for collecting information, such asinterview, observation, and psychological testsfrom a variety of respondents who in someway or the other might be associated with thecase and can provide useful information. Withthe help of case studies, psychologists havedone research to understand feelings,fantasies, hopes, fears, traumatic experiences,parental upbringing and so on, that helps tounderstand a person’s mind and behaviour.Case studies provide a narrative or detaileddescriptions of the events that take place in aperson’s life.

A case study is a valuable research tool inthe field of clinical psychology and humandevelopment. Freud’s insights that led to thedevelopment of psychoanalytic theory emergedfrom his observations and showed thatmeticulous records must be maintained onindividual cases. Similarly, Piaget developedhis theory of cognitive development on thebasis of observations of his three children.Case studies have been conducted tounderstand the pattern of socialisation ofchildren. For example, Minturn and Hitchcockconducted a case study of socialisation of

Take a test with its manual and read it carefully,and identify the following :• Number and type of items• Information about reliability, validity, and

norms• Type of test: verbal or otherwise, individual

or groups• Type of test: Speed, power, or mixed• Any other characteristicsDiscuss these with other students and theteacher.

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data. We generally use two methodologicalapproaches for the analysis of data. These are:quantitative and qualitative methods. In thissection, we will briefly discuss theseapproaches.

Quantitative Method

As you may have gathered by now,psychological tests, questionnaires, structuredinterviews, etc. contain a series of close-endedquestions. That is, the questions and theirprobable responses are given in thesemeasures. Generally, these responses aregiven in scaled forms. That is, they indicatethe strength and magnitude of the response.For example, they may vary from 1 (low) to 5,7 or 11 (high). The participants’ task is to selectthe most appropriate response. Sometimesthere are right and wrong responses. Aresearcher assigns a number to each answer(normally “1” for right answers, and “0” forwrong answers). At the end, the researchercalculates the total of all these numbers andarrives at an aggregate score, which tells aboutthe participants’ level on that particularattribute (for example, intelligence, academicintelligence, etc.). In doing so, the researcherconverts the psychological attributes into aquantity (usually numbers).

For the purpose of drawing conclusions,a researcher may compare individual’s scorewith that of the group, or compare the scoresof two groups. This requires use of certainstatistical methods about which you will studylater. You have already read in mathematicsin Class X about the methods of centraltendency (mean, median, and mode), methodsof variability (range, quartile deviation,standard deviation), co-efficients ofcorrelation, and so forth. These and someother advanced statistical methods enable aresearcher to make inferences and to givemeaning to the data.

Qualitative Method

Human experiences are very complex. Thiscomplexity is lost when one elicits information

children among Rajputs of Khalapur.S. Anandalakshmy studied aspects ofchildhood in a weavers’ community in Varanasi.

Case studies provide detailed in-depthdepictions of people’s lives. However, whilegeneralising on the basis of individual casesone needs to be very cautious. The problem ofvalidity in a single case study is quitechallenging. It is recommended that theinformation should be collected using multiplestrategies from different sources of informationby a number of investigators. Careful planningof data collection is also very necessary.Throughout the process of data collection theresearcher is required to maintain a chain ofevidence for linking various data sourceshaving bearing on the research questions.

As you have read, each method has its ownlimitations and advantages. Therefore, it isdesirable that the researcher should notdepend upon only one method. A combinationof two or more methods should be used to getthe real picture. If the methods converge, i.e.they give the same results, one can certainlybe more confident.

Identify the most appropriate method of enquiryfor the following research problems.• Does noise influence the problem solving

ability of the people?• Should there be a dress code for college

students?• Studying the attitude of students, teachers,

and parents towards homework.• Studying the behaviour of a student in a

playgroup and in a classroom.• Tracing the major life events of your favourite

leader.• Assessing the anxiety level of Class XI

students of your school.

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ANALYSIS OF DATA

In the earlier section, we discussed differentmethods for collecting information. After dataare collected, the next job of the researcher isto draw conclusions. This requires analysis of

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from a respondent on the basis of a question.If you want to know how a mother feels aboutthe loss of her child, you will need to hear herstory to understand how her experience isorganised and what meaning she has given toher suffering. Any attempt at its quantificationwill not enable you to get at the principles oforganising such experiences. Psychologistshave developed various qualitative methodsto analyse such data. One of them is NarrativeAnalysis. Also data are not always availablein the form of scores. When the researcheruses the method of participant observation orunstructured interview, the data are generallyin a descriptive form—in participants’ ownwords, field notes taken by the researchers,photographs, interview responses noted by theresearcher or taped/video-recorded, informaltalks, etc. These type of data cannot beconverted into scores or subjected to statisticalanalysis. Rather, the researcher uses thetechnique of content analysis to find outthematic categories and build those categoriestaking examples from the data. It is moredescriptive in nature.

It must be understood that quantitativeand qualitative methods are not contradictory;rather, they are complementary to each other.In order to understand a phenomenon in itstotality, a suitable combination of bothmethods is warranted.

LIMITATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ENQUIRY

The advantages and limitations of eachmethod have been discussed earlier. In thissection, you will read some general problemsfaced by psychological measurement.

1. Lack of True Zero Point : In physicalsciences measurements do start from zero.For example, if you want to measure thelength of the table, you can measure itstarting from zero and can say it is 3' long.Psychological measurements do not havea true zero point. For example, no personin this world has zero intelligence. All ofus have some degree of intelligence. Whatpsychologists do is that they arbitrarily

decide a point as zero point and proceedfurther. As a result, whatever scores weget in psychological studies, are notabsolute in nature; rather, they haverelative value.

In some of the studies ranks are usedas scores. For example, on the basis ofmarks obtained in some test, the teacherarranges the students in an order — 1, 2,3, 4, … , and so on. The problem in suchtype of assessment is that the differencebetween first and second rank holders maynot be the same as is the differencebetween the second and third rankholders. Out of 50, the first rank holdermight score 48, the second 47, and thethird 40. As you can see, the differencebetween the first and the second rankholders is not the same as is the casebetween second and third rank holders.This also illustrates the relative nature ofthe psychological measurement.

2. Relative Nature of Psychological Tools :Psychological tests are developed keepingin view the salient features of a particularcontext. For example, a test developed forurban students may contain items thatdemand familiarity with the stimuliavailable in the urban setting—multistoried buildings, airplanes, metrorailway, etc. Such a test is not suitable foruse with children living in tribal areas whowould be more at ease with items thatdescribe their flora and fauna. Similarly,a test developed in the Western countriesmay or may not be applicable in the Indiancontext. Such tests need to be properlymodified and adapted keeping in view thecharacteristics of the context in which theyare to be used.

3. Subjective Interpretation of QualitativeData : Data from qualitative studies arelargely subjective since they involveinterpretation on the part of the researcheras well as the person providing data. Theinterpretations may vary from oneindividual to the other. It is, therefore,often suggested that in case of qualitative

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studies, the field work should be done bymore than one investigator, who at the endof the day should discuss theirobservations and arrive at an agreementbefore finally giving it a meaning. In fact,one is better off, if the respondents tooare involved in such meaning-makingprocess.

ETHICAL ISSUES

As you know, psychological research isconcerned with human behaviour, theresearcher is expected to follow certain ethics(or moral principles) while conducting thestudies. These principles are: respect forpersons’ privacy and choice to participatein the study, beneficence or protecting theparticipants in the study from any harm,and justice or sharing the benefits ofresearch with all participants. Some of theimportant aspects of these ethical principlesare described as follows.

1. Voluntary Participation : This principlestates that the persons on whom you wantto conduct the study should have thechoice to decide whether to participate ornot to participate in the study. Theparticipants should have the freedom todecide about their participation withoutany coercion or excessive inducement, andthe freedom to withdraw from the researchwithout penalty, once it has begun.

2. Informed Consent : It is essential that theparticipants in a study should understandwhat will happen to them during thestudy. The principle of informed consentstates that potential participants mustreceive this information before data fromthem are collected, so that they make aninformed decision about participation inthe study. In some of the psychologicalexperiments, electric shock is given to theparticipants during the experiment. Stillin some cases obnoxious (e.g., harmful orunpleasant) stimuli are presented. Theymay at times be required to give someprivate information, which is generally not

shared with others. In some studies, thetechnique of deception is used in whichthe participants are given instructions tothink or imagine in certain ways and aregiven false information or feedback abouttheir performance (for example, you arevery intelligent, you are incompetent). Itis, therefore, important that theparticipants are explained the nature ofthe study before its actualcommencement.

3. Debriefing : Once the study is over, theparticipants are provided with necessaryinformation to complete theirunderstanding of research. This isparticularly important if deception hasbeen used in the study. Debriefing ensuresthat participants leave the study in thesame physical and mental state as whenthey entered. It should offer reassuranceto the participants. The researcher shouldmake efforts to remove any anxiety or otheradverse effects that participants may havefelt as a result of being deceived in thecourse of the study.

4. Sharing the Results of the Study : Inpsychological research, after collectinginformation from the participants, we comeback to our places of work, analyse thedata and draw conclusions. It is obligatoryfor the researcher to go back to theparticipants and share the results of thestudy with them. When you go for datacollection, the participants develop certainexpectations from you. One of theexpectations is that you will tell themabout their behaviour that you haveinvestigated in the study. As a researcher,it is our moral duty to go back to theparticipants. This exercise has twoadvantages. One, you fulfil theexpectations of the participants. Second,the participants may tell you their opinionabout the results, which sometimes mayhelp you develop new insights.

5. Confidentiality of Data Source : Theparticipants in a study have the right toprivacy. The researcher must safeguard

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Key TermsKey Terms

Case study, Confidentiality, Control group,Correlational research, Data, Debriefing,Dependent variable, Experimental group,Experimental method, Group test, Hypothesis,Independent variable, Individual test,Interview, Negative correlation, Norms,Objectivity, Observation, Performance tests,Positive correlation, Power test, Psychologicaltest, Qualitative method, Quantitative method,Questionnaire, Reliability, Speed test,Structured interview, Survey, Unstructuredinterview, Validity, Variable

• A psychological research is conducted for the purpose of description, prediction, explanation,control of behaviour, and application of knowledge generated in an objective manner. Itinvolves the following four steps: conceptualising a problem, collection of data, analysingdata, drawing and revising research conclusions. The psychological research is alsoconducted to discover and understand the subjective meanings of events as they occur in aparticular context, and also reflect upon one’s own behaviour and experiences.

• In psychological studies, different types of data including demographic, environmental,physical, physiological, and psychological information are collected. However, the data inpsychological studies remain located in a context and are tied to the theory and methodused for its collection.

• Different methods are used for collecting information. The observation method is used fordescribing the behaviour. It is characterised by selection of a particular behaviour, its recordingand analysis. Observation can be done in a naturalistic or controlled laboratory conditions.It can take the form of a participant or non-participant observation.

• The experimental method helps in establishing cause-effect relationship. The effect of thepresence of independent variable on the dependent variable is studied using experimentaland control groups.

• The purpose of correlational research is investigating association between variables as wellas making predictions. The relationship between two variables can be positive, zero ornegative, and strength of association varies from +1.0 through 0.0 to –1.0.

• The focus of survey research is to inform about the existing reality. Surveys can be conductedby using structured and unstructured interviews, mailed questionnaires, and telephone.

• The psychological tests are standardised and objective instruments which help in knowingone’s standing in comparison to others. Tests can be verbal, non-verbal, and performancetypes, which can be administered individually or to the entire group at a time.

• The method of case study gives detailed in-depth information about a particular case.• The data collected through the use of these methods are analysed through quantitative and

qualitative methods. The quantitative methods allow the use of statistical procedure fordrawing conclusions. Narrative method and method of content analysis are some methodsthat are used in case of qualitative research.

• Lack of absolute zero point, relative nature of psychological tools, and subjective interpretationof qualitative data are some of the limitations of psychological enquiry. Ethical principles ofvoluntary participation of the subjects, their informed consent, and sharing of results withthe participants must be followed by a researcher.

Summary

their privacy by keeping the informationprovided by them in strict confidence. Theinformation should only be used forresearch purposes and, in nocircumstances, it should be passed on toother interested parties. The most effectiveway of protecting the confidentiality ofparticipants is not to record their identities.This is, however, not possible in certainkinds of research. In such cases, codenumbers are given on the data sheet, andthe names with the codes are keptseparately. The identification list should bedestroyed as soon as the research is over.

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1. What are the goals of scientific enquiry?

2. Describe the various steps involved in conducting a scientific enquiry.

3. Explain the nature of psychological data.

4. How do experimental and control groups differ? Explain with the help of an example.

5. A researcher is studying the relationship between speed of cycling and the presence ofpeople. Formulate a relevant hypothesis and identify the independent and dependentvariables.

6. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of experimental method as a method of enquiry.

7. Dr. Krishnan is going to observe and record children’s play behaviour at a nursery schoolwithout attempting to influence or control the behaviour. Which method of research isinvolved? Explain the process and discuss its merits and demerits.

8. Give two examples of the situations where survey method can be used. What are thelimitations of this method?

9. Differentiate between an interview and a questionnaire.

10. Explain the characteristics of a standardised test.

11. Describe the limitations of psychological enquiry.

12. What are the ethical guidelines that a psychologist needs to follow while conducting apsychological enquiry?

Review QuestionsReview QuestionsReview QuestionsReview QuestionsReview Questions

1. Conduct a survey of the after-school activities of Class V and Class IX students taking asample of 10 students in each. Find information about the time devoted by them invarious activities, such as studying, playing, television viewing, hobbies, etc. Do you findany difference? What conclusions do you draw and what suggestions would you offer?

2. Conduct a study in your group to see the effect of recitation on learning of poetry. Take 10six-year olds and divide them into two groups. Give group 1 a new poem to learn andinstruct them to read it loudly for 15 minutes. Take group 2 and give them the same newpoem to learn but instruct them not to read it loudly. After 15 minutes ask the two groupsto recall. Care needs to be taken to see that both the groups are dealt with separately.After the recall has taken place, note down the observation.

Identify what method of research you used, the hypothesis, the variables and thekind of experimental design that were there. Compare notes with the other groups andshare the result with your teacher in the class.

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