RESEARCH ARTICLE

Managing grazing animals to achieve nutrient cyclingand soil improvement in no-till integrated systems

Paulo Cesar de Faccio Carvalho • Ibanor Anghinoni • Anibal de Moraes •

Edicarlos Damacena de Souza • Reuben Mark Sulc • Claudete Reisdorfer Lang •

Joao Paulo Cassol Flores • Marılia Lazzarotto Terra Lopes • Jamir Luis Silva da Silva •

Osmar Conte • Cristiane de Lima Wesp • Renato Levien • Renato Serena Fontaneli •

Cimelio Bayer

Received: 23 May 2009 / Accepted: 17 March 2010 / Published online: 30 April 2010

� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010

Abstract Crop-livestock systems are regaining their

importance as an alternative to unsustainable inten-

sive farming systems. Loss of biodiversity, nutrient

pollution and habitat fragmentation are a few of many

concerns recently reported with modern agriculture.

Integrating crops and pastures in no-till systems can

result in better environmental services, since

conservation agriculture is improved by system

diversity, paths of nutrient flux, and other processes

common in nature. The presence of large herbivores

can positively modify nutrient pathways and soil

aggregation, increasing soil quality. Despite the low

diversity involved, the integration of crops and

pastures enhances nature’s biomimicry and allows

attainment of a higher system organization level. This

paper illustrates these benefits focusing on the use of

grazing animals integrated with crops under no-tillage

systems characteristic of southern Brazil.

Keywords Conservation agriculture �Grazing intensity � Mixed systems �Nutrient cycling � Soil quality

Introduction

In the last century, particularly since the so-called

green revolution, crop and livestock production

systems became increasingly specialized (Entz et al.

2005). Emphasis was put on technical efficiency,

leading to significant effects on productivity, and

farming systems were transformed into large-scale,

specialized, energy-intensive farming operations

(Kirschenmann 2007). This specialization occurred

not only in farming systems, but also in the research

supporting agricultural production systems (Lemaire

et al. 2005).

P. C. de Faccio Carvalho (&) � I. Anghinoni �M. L. Terra Lopes � O. Conte � C. de Lima Wesp �R. Levien � C. Bayer

Faculty of Agronomy, Universidade Federal do Rio

Grande do Sul, Av. Bento Goncalves 7712 Cx Postal 776,

Porto Alegre, RS CEP 91501-970, Brazil

e-mail: paulocfc@ufrgs.br

A. de Moraes � C. R. Lang

Universidade Federal do Parana, Curitiba, Brazil

J. P. C. Flores

Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University,

Blacksburg, VA, USA

E. D. de Souza

Universidade Federal de Goias, Jatai, Brazil

R. M. Sulc

Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA

J. L. S. da Silva

Embrapa Clima Temperado, Pelotas, Brazil

R. S. Fontaneli

Embrapa, Centro Nacional de Pesquisa de Trigo, Passo

Fundo, Brazil

123

Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst (2010) 88:259–273

DOI 10.1007/s10705-010-9360-x

During this same period, mixed systems have

become synonymous with extensive systems, which

are concentrated in the poorer areas of the world with

declining technical support because they are per-

ceived as being the opposite of what is considered

modern intensified agriculture. However, mixed sys-

tems have a huge social significance. Sixty percent of

rural poor populations use mixed systems (Thomas

2001). Depending on how we define mixed systems

(Schiere and Kater 2001), they represent 2.5 billion

hectares across the globe, and are responsible for

more than 50% of the meat and 90% of the milk

consumed (Keulen and Schiere 2004).

Short-term consequences of intensification were

highly positive and the world increased grain produc-

tion massively. However, long-term consequences of

intensified agriculture have not all been positive,

and include lack of sustainability, primarily through

the loss of biodiversity and pollution via inefficient

nutrient management (Lemaire et al. 2005). Russelle

and Franzluebbers (2007) presented the growing

concern with specialized agricultural systems, because

of increasingly negative responses from the environ-

ment that are manifested in (1) water contamination

with excessive nutrients, pesticides, and pathogens; (2)

decreasing groundwater levels due to high demand and

competition from a variety of stakeholders, including

specialized crop production; (3) rising greenhouse gas

concentrations from soils depleted in organic matter;

and (4) dysfunctional soils that have become degraded

from excessive tillage, salt accumulation, and pesti-

cide inputs.

Thus, intensive agriculture and livestock produc-

tion have recently become the center of debate

because of their negative effects on the environment.

Production is no longer the sole objective of farming

systems. Environmental regulations are becoming a

crucial aspect of production systems and trade

markets in response to new requirements demanded

by the general public.

This recent concern over environmental quality

has led to a renewed interest in crop-livestock

systems, primarily because they provide opportunities

for diversification of rotations, perenniality, nutrient

recycling, and greater energy efficiency (Entz et al.

2005). A number of studies have confirmed that

integrated systems tend to be more sustainable, use

less energy per unit area and have higher energy

efficiency than either specialized crop or livestock

systems (e.g. Vilela et al. 2003; Entz et al. 2005).

Moreover, integrated crop-livestock systems can

positively change the biophysical and socio-eco-

nomic dynamics of farming systems (Keulen and

Schiere 2004), reestablishing sustainable rural devel-

opment (Lemaire et al. 2003) and promoting higher

overall farm profitability (Entz et al. 2005).

Complex integrated arrangements can be designed

according to the nature of the components, the objec-

tives and the agricultural culture involved, as well as

according to spatial scales in which the integration

occurs (within-farm or area-wide scale). For the

purposes of this review, we consider within farm

integrated crop-livestock systems typical of southern

Brazil (cash crop/grazing cattle rotations), in which not

only does a rotation of components exist, but the

components are specifically managed and oriented to

provide synergistic benefits at the landscape level.

Numerous publications have dealt with the integration

of crops and livestock; however, there is almost no

information about the use of grazing animals integrated

with crops under no-tillage systems, which typifies

agricultural production in southern Brazil. In this

context, our paper aims to present some of the southern

Brazilian research and experiences with integrated

crop-livestock production systems.

Integrated crop-livestock systems in perspective

The integration of crops and livestock is not a new

technology; rather, it is a re-emerging concept. Since

the domestication of plants and animals, there is

evidence that integrated crop-livestock systems

where the most common pattern in the Neolithic

age when humans first gathered into small village and

farmstead groups. Crop production was probably first

combined with animal husbandry 8–10 millennia ago

(Russelle et al. 2007).

In Latin America, integrated crop-livestock systems

originally were used to establish pastures in a

rotational sequence beginning with a grain crop,

usually rice (Oryza sativa L.), to take advantage of

the increased fertility in the short term after clearing

forested land (Entz et al. 2005). Recently, integrated

crop-livestock systems have been conceived as a

means for reclaiming pastures degraded by overstock-

ing and lack of fertility, which improves productivity

through land use intensification and mitigates the

260 Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst (2010) 88:259–273

123

clearing of native vegetation, particularly in the

Cerrados and Amazon regions (Landers 2007; Zimmer

et al. 2004). In those integrated systems, grain crops

established on the degraded pasture lands provide the

cash flow necessary for the substantial investment in

lime and fertilizer needed to correct the soil fertility

status. Annuals (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench, Pen-

nisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.) and perennial forages

(Brachiaria spp., Panicum spp.) are often used in

rotation with soybean (Glycine max L.), maize (Zea

mays L.), cotton (Gossypium L.), sunflower (Helian-

thus annuus L.) and bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.).

In southern Brazil, integrated crop-livestock sys-

tems have been adopted traditionally in irrigated rice

grown in rotation with Italian ryegrass (Lolium

multiflorum Lam) or native pastures (Reis and Saibro

2004). In recent times integrated systems have been

used as an alternative for reducing risk due to

frequent summer cash crop failures and low winter

grain cash crop market prices, thus providing the

potential for increased profits and land use efficiency

(Carvalho et al. 2006).

This Brazilian subtropical region has 8.0 million

hectares annually cultivated with soybean, 3.4 million

hectares with maize and around 1.1 million hectares

with rice (Moraes et al. 2007). Hence, soybean, maize

and rice represent 29% of cultivated area in summer.

In the last few years, approximately 3.5 million

hectares have been cultivated with winter crops such

as wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), oat (Avena sativa L.),

barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), triticale (X triticosecale

Witt.), and rye (Secale cereale L.). The remaining

area, i.e. 9.0 million hectares, represents potential

income lost during winter, with soils being exposed or

simply seeded to cover crops. The cover crops used

are primarily forage species, but they are rarely

grazed. During that winter period, livestock face lack

of feed and the existing pastures are under harsh

conditions in general. Hence, there is still a vast area

that could potentially integrate livestock grazing on

winter cover crops in rotation with summer crops

under no-tillage management in southern Brazil.

No-tillage soil management is an alternative to the

traditional rehabilitation of production systems, which

have lead to high and unsustainable inputs (Kluthcouski

and Stone 2003). No-till technology is an environ-

mentally friendly system offsetting most of modern

agriculture’s negative impacts. No-till systems are

well recognized for controlling soil erosion, increasing

carbon sequestration, lowering energy consumption

and carbon dioxide emission, and decreasing the

pollution of surface waters (Holland 2004).

Despite the positive aspects of no-tillage soil

management, there are recent reports showing in

some cases, particularly on tropical oxisols, that no-

tillage is not sufficient for maintaining soil quality

and a positive carbon balance within a succession of

annual crops. Landers (2007) stated that crop suc-

cessions must maintain on average over 6 Mg/ha dry

matter in crop residues within rotations. However,

most rotations are not capable of maintaining that

minimum level of crop residue on the soil. Salton

(2007) reported that crop rotations have had negative

carbon balance, and continuous cropping is not able

to increase, nor maintain, soil carbon stocks.

According to Landers (2007), incorporating pas-

tures and animals in rotation with crops cultivated in

no-tillage systems optimizes even more the beneficial

characteristics of conservation agriculture, particu-

larly via the capacity of pastures to sequester carbon

(Salton 2007), but also by increasing biodiversity,

improving nutrient cycling, and reducing economic

risk (Moraes et al. 2007).

Russelle et al. (2007) stated that multiple agro-

nomic and environmental benefits can be realized

when land is converted from low diverse cropping

systems to rotations that include forages. The author

cited Randall et al. (1997) and Shiftlet and Darby

(1985) to illustrate that introduction of perennial

crops into previous annual crop systems reduces the

risk of environmental damage during the cropping

phase by decreasing nitrate leaching up to 96% and

nearly eliminating soil erosion by water.

Lemaire et al. (2003) cited that pastures have

analogous effects as forests and can help agricultural

systems regulate environmental fluxes to achieve

multiple environmental benefits through positive

effects with regard to: (1) hydrological impacts and

maintenance of surface and subterranean water quality;

(2) carbon sequestration; (3) nitrogen flux regulation;

(4) gas emission regulation (N2O, NH3, CH4…); (5)

organic matter stability and soil quality maintenance;

(6) stimulation of soil biological activity; (7) immobi-

lization and retention of pesticides and heavy metals.

Concerning the integration of pastures in crop

rotations in southern Brazil, Moraes et al. (2002)

reported several advantages, including maintenance of

physical, chemical and biological soil characteristics,

Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst (2010) 88:259–273 261

123

erosion control, more efficient use of natural resources

and pollution control. In addition, the authors men-

tioned improvements in crop protection, increased

animal and crop production, greater economic returns,

better weed control and break in disease and insect

cycles. Indeed, Costa and Rava (2003) reported a 75%

reduction in Rhizoctonia and Sclerotinia bean infec-

tions using rotations with perennial tropical forages.

Integrated crop-livestock systems can increase

biodiversity via the attributes of organic matter pro-

vided by pastures (Lemaire et al. 2003). The resulting

flora and fauna diversity, as well as microbial and

faunal soil communities, change the soil and its

physio-chemical properties (Lemaire et al. 2003).

The pastoral environment is particularly important to

the colonization/extinction metapopulational pro-

cesses of many organisms (eg. insects, mollusks) and

is a forage resource for many birds and mammals,

frequently being their reproduction site. For these

reasons, Lemaire et al. (2003) consider pastures

essential for biodiversity maintenance at the landscape

level, being the habitat of invertebrates that are

important to carbon and nitrogen cycles.

Despite the potential benefits reported for crop-

livestock integration, this technology can only be

successful if some basic concepts are followed.

According to Moraes et al. (2002) some of the key

principles that must be adopted include: (1) no-

tillage, (2) crop rotation, (3) nutrient inputs, (4)

improved animal and crop genetics, and (5) sound

grazing management. From all those requirements,

the pasture phase and related grazing management is

commonly considered to be essential in defining the

nature and intensity of potential relationships.

Managing pastures and grazing animals

in no-till integrated crop-livestock systems

The potential effects of pastures in integrated crop-

livestock systems depends on the pasture phase model,

where management options include grazing and/or

harvesting, annual and/or perennial forages, grasses

and/or legumes. In short, a huge number of combina-

tions can be planned depending on crop type and

objectives. Annual crop rotations typical of southern

Brazil have alternative forage species defined accord-

ing to the cash crop cycle. Oat is commonly used as the

preceding crop to maize, because its early maturity fits

well with early planting dates required for full season

maize, whereas oat and/or Italian ryegrass are often

used preceding soybean, which is planted later than

maize. Italian ryegrass has the potential to perennate in

those systems by annual reseeding (Carvalho et al.

2005). With regard to legume utilization, Vicia spp.

have been used with oats in rotation with maize aiming

to increase soil nitrogen availability, whilst Trifolium

spp. and Lotus spp. are most commonly seen in

rotation with irrigated rice, because rice yield after

those species can be equivalent to or even greater than

rice fertilized with 90 kg/ha of nitrogen (Saibro and

Silva 1999).

There is some conflict over how much residue cover

is needed for no-till establishment of cash crops

following forage cover crops that are grazed. In the

pasture phase, the aboveground biomass is consumed

by the grazing animal, which is the same biomass vital

to the health and functioning of the no-tillage crop

production system. The positive linear relationship

between residual biomass of the preceding cover crop

and yield of the succeeding crop (Landers 2007) in no-

till systems does not encompass pastures being used by

grazing animals, which has been cause for debate. This

technical dilemma, together with the concern that

grazing animals will compact the soil, generates

resistance to the adoption of grazing within no-tillage

production areas in southern Brazil (Carvalho et al.

2007). Probably the most common perception of

farmers, who are hesitant to participate in integrated

systems, is that cattle trampling has a negative effect

on soil physical properties. This has proven to be a

major obstacle to the adoption of the integrated

system, despite studies that refute this claim (Moraes

et al. 2002; Flores et al. 2007; Cardoso et al. 2007;

Souto 2008).

Bayer (1996) estimated that 10–12 Mg/ha of crop

residue dry matter was needed in southern Brazil if

the objective was to maintain or increase carbon

stocks in no-tillage systems without grazing. Thus,

the resulting question is how much, if any, and with

what intensity, should biomass be removed by

grazing animals in integrated crop-livestock produc-

tion systems? There are no simple answers, in that the

more biomass left for the succeeding crop, the less

animal production can be expected.

A schematic representation of grazing animal

impacts on the success of crop-livestock integration

262 Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst (2010) 88:259–273

123

is illustrated in Fig. 1, which is helpful in discussing

overall relationships.

Grazing intensity determines the mean herbage

mass/sward height existing during the pasture utiliza-

tion phase, which in turn affects solar energy inter-

cepted, herbage accumulation rate and carbon

sequestration by consequence. The same grazing

intensity, by defining herbage allowance per animal

and sward structure, affects herbage intake per animal

and per unit area. Hence, the amount of nutrient

cycling by the animal is defined by grazing intensity.

In general, the more animals per unit area the fewer

nutrients are fixed in animal products per unit of

herbage ingested. In such situations, usually the

amount of nutrients recycled per unit area increases,

but it depends on how long forage production is

negatively affected by higher grazing intensities.

Ultimately, animal production is a result of the herbage

consumed and converted into animal products.

Therefore, the resulting aboveground biomass left

after the pasture phase (residue cover) is an outcome of

grazing management. Biomass residues in no-till

systems, and the soil physical (aggregation, compac-

tion), chemical (nutrient cycling, carbon stocks) and

biological (microbiological activity and diversity)

environment at the moment of sowing the succeeding

crops, are all defined by the average grazing intensity

used during pasture utilization. Thus, crop development

is partially due to conditions created by grazing

management. As a result, both crop and livestock

productions are strongly affected by the way grazing

animals are managed in those systems.

As described above, grazing intensity is one of the

main variables affecting the success of integrated crop-

livestock systems using no-tillage technology. Conse-

quently, much effort has been invested in evaluating

the impact of grazing animals in integrated systems in

southern Brazil (e.g. Baggio et al. 2009; Silva et al.

2008; Moraes et al. 2002; Cassol 2003; Flores 2004).

In general, considering what is usually managed at

the farm level, animals and the grazing processes can

be manipulated essentially by two management

actions: defining grazing intensity by establishing the

amount of animal live weight per unit area (stocking

rate) in relation to available forage; and distribution

of animals within the area (continuous or rotational

stocking management). Thus, to control grazing there

are few variables to be effectively handled. From the

above discussion, defining the grazing intensity to be

used seems to be the most important management

action affecting overall system productivity and sus-

tainability (Carvalho et al. 2005).

Fig. 1 Schematic

representation of how

grazing intensity affects

integrated crop-livestock

systems under no-tillage

soil management (adapted

from Carvalho et al. 2005)

Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst (2010) 88:259–273 263

123

In general, farming systems use high grazing

pressures and stocking rates are set higher than

pasture carrying capacity, which negatively affects

both pasture and crops in the rotation. Consequences

can include steers with low carcass quality at slaugh-

ter (Aguinaga et al. 2006), lack of residue cover for

the crop grown in succession (Cassol 2003), higher

weed populations (Lunardi et al. 2008) and lower

water holding capacity of the soil (Conte et al. 2007).

The impact of grazing pressure on animal perfor-

mance during the pasture phase is illustrated by a

steer fattening/soybean integrated system using an

oat ? Italian ryegrass pasture mixture (Fig. 2).

The average stocking rates were around 4.4, 3.3,

2.0, and 1.1 steers/ha for pasture grazing heights of 10,

20, 30 and 40 cm, respectively. Daily animal gain was

similar for the 20, 30 and 40 cm pasture height

treatments; however, the optimal animal performance

was considered to occur at 30 cm (1.12 kg/steer/day)

because it resulted in the best carcass quality (Agui-

naga et al. 2006). There was a linear decline in animal

performance per area with increasing pasture height,

resulting from declining stocking rates on those high

nutritive value pastures. In this experiment, individual

animal gain varied little, thus animal gain per unit area

was correlated directly with stocking rate.

Results showed negative effects of higher grazing

intensities on soybean yield only in the first year,

when the system was not yet stable (Fig. 3). By the

second year of integration, the system started to

behave according to expected pasture/crop succession

relationships, and soybean yield became less affected

by grazing intensity, despite the fact that biomass

residue cover at the time of soybean sowing varied

from around 1.5 to 6 Mg/ha (Carvalho et al. 2005).

These results indicate that the yield of successive

crops in no-tillage systems is less dependent on

residue cover when the preceding cover is grazed by

animals than when it is grown as a cover crop only.

These results have been confirmed by many similar

experiments conducted in southern Brazil (e.g. Vieira

2004), the hypothesis being that the nature of nutrient

cycling occurring in those systems has a greater

overall positive effect that overcomes any negative

effects associated with a reduction in residue cover

(discussed in more detail later).

With regard to grazing methods, continuous and

rotational stocking are the most common used in crop-

livestock systems in southern Brazil. The continuous

stocking method is usual on large farms while

rotational stocking is used mainly on small dairy farms.

Although the method of grazing is a matter of

debate, there is scientific consensus that both methods

are similar when optimum grazing intensities are

used (Briske et al. 2008). However, little information

is available regarding the impact of grazing method

on performance of crop-livestock systems under no-

y = -0,0007x2 + 0,0408x + 0,4853R² = 0,9293

0,60

0,70

0,80

0,90

1,00

1,10

1,20 600

500

400

300

200

100

00 10 20 30 40 50

Ani

mal

dai

ly g

ain

(kg)

Pasture height (cm)0 10 20 30 40 50

Pasture height (cm)

y = -11,702x + 648,4R² = 0,9779

Ani

mal

gai

n (k

g liv

e w

t./h

a)

(a) (b)

Fig. 2 Steer performance [liveweight gain per animal (a) and

per unit area (b)] during the pasture phase of a crop-livestock

system. Data are 8-year averages, calculated from Cassol

(2003), Aguinaga et al. (2006), Rocha (2007), Bravo et al.

(2007), Lopes et al. (2008) and Wesp (unpublished data)

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

0 10 20 30 40 50

Soyb

en g

rain

yie

ld (

kg/h

a)

Pasture height (cm)

Fig. 3 Soybean grain yield grown after cover crop pastures

that were grazed at different intensities (defined by sward

height). Data are 6-year yields from Cassol (2003), Flores

(2004), Flores et al. (2007), Rocha (2007), Lopes (2008) and

Conte (unpublished data)

264 Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst (2010) 88:259–273

123

tillage management. This issue will be exemplified

using a small holder integrated crop-livestock system

model based on a lamb fattening operation using

Italian ryegrass for winter pasture in rotation with

maize or soybean in summer (Fig. 4).

Continuous stocking allows greater individual

animal selectivity and individual animal intake, and

thus continuous stocking with high allowance (C 5.0)

results in higher animal daily gains (Carvalho et al.

2007). However, gain per unit area was higher with

rotational stocking at lower forage allowance (R 2.5),

a result of a higher stocking rate (1,504, 1,238, 909,

and 854 kg LWG/ha in R2.5, C2.5, R5.0, and C5.0,

respectively).

While the animal performance response to grazing

intensity and method followed the expected classical

patterns, the impact of grazing treatments on the

succeeding crop was unusual. Grazing intensity

clearly affected soybean yield more than the grazing

method. The higher the forage allowance, the more

biomass residue cover was left after the pasture phase

for the succeeding grain crop phase, resulting in

higher soybean yield in the first year, similar to

results presented earlier (Fig. 3). However, with

maize the effect of grazing intensity and method is

less evident, although maize yield tended to be

slightly higher with high forage allowance with

continuous stocking (C5.0). No evidence was found

of grazing method effects and it is noteworthy that

the non-grazed treatments yielded similarly or even

less than the grazed treatments (Carvalho et al. 2007).

Pizzolo (2005) reported the response of soil mineral

nitrogen pool to those grazing regimes. Extractable

nitrogen (0–90 cm soil depth) at the end of the pasture

phase was higher in the continuous stocking managed

at higher grazing intensities (179 ± 12.5, 140 ± 3.5,

99 ± 1.1 and 123 ± 0.1 kg/ha of nitrogen, respec-

tively for C2.5, R2.5, C5.0 and R5.0). Increased

stocking rate increases the excretal returns, accelerat-

ing nitrogen cycling rates and increasing soil nitrogen

in mineral forms (NH4?-N). Throughout the soybean

rotation, soil mineral nitrogen remained high (100 kg/

ha N), reaching a peak of more than 500 kg/ha of

nitrogen after harvest, with the adsorbed NH4?-N form

839

1354

946

1185

700

0

250

500

750

1000

1250

1500

C 2.5 C 5.0 R 2.5 R 5.0 NGSoyb

ean

grai

n yi

eld

(kg/

ha)

Grazing management

5443

6424

55175668

5469

4800

5100

5400

5700

6000

6300

6600

C 2.5 C 5.0 R 2.5 R 5.0 NG

Mai

ze g

rain

yie

ld (

kg/h

a)

Grazing management

117

156

112

134

0

30

60

90

120

150

180

C 2.5 C 5.0 R 2.5 R 5.0

Ani

mal

dai

ly g

ain

(g)

Grazing management

439373

540

350

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

C 2.5 C 5.0 R 2.5 R 5.0

Ani

mal

gai

n (k

g/ha

)

Grazing management

(b)

(c) (d)

(a)

Fig. 4 Effect of grazing intensity and method on animal (a, b)

and crop performance (c, d) in a small holder crop-livestock

system model. C and R refer to continuous or rotational

stocking methods, NG refer to non grazing, while ‘‘2.5’’ and

‘‘5.0’’ refer to multiplier factor that the forage allowance

exceeded potential intake of the animals (data from animal

performance are 4-year averages, soybean and maize from

1 year rotation, Carvalho et al. 2007)

Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst (2010) 88:259–273 265

123

predominating over the mobile NO3--N. Pizzolo

(2005) concluded that soil nitrogen conservation could

be accomplished in a management scheme including

leniently grazed pasture followed by a high N-demand

crop such as maize.

Indeed, Fig. 4d illustrates the potential behavior of

such a system. Lenient grazing intensities had

significantly lower extractable mineral nitrogen,

associated with increased levels of slow-release

nitrogen in the soil organic matter. Leaving sufficient

plant residues on the field favored immobilization

and soil moisture, thereby providing healthy condi-

tions for microbial biomass growth and ensuring

long-term soil N reserves (Pizzolo 2005). A crop with

high nitrogen demand, such as maize, usually yields

better after a pasture phase that is moderately grazed

(Lustosa 1998; Assmann et al. 2003).

In general, southern Brazilian studies have shown

that winter grazing does not compromise performance

of succeeding crops and may even increase yield

provided animal stocking and grazing are managed

appropriately (Moraes et al. 2003). Data from systems

where the pasture phase operation includes beef

backgrounding and/or fattening, lamb fattening and

dairy cattle integrated with production of soybean,

maize and bean demonstrate that moderate grazing is

not deleterious to the succeeding crop (Lustosa 1998;

Bona Filho 2002; Flores et al. 2007; Souto 2008;

Lopes et al. 2008). When compared with cover crop-

ping options, which aim only to produce biomass for

residue cover in no-till systems, the utilization of

cover crops for grazing should be considered because

it increases profits and improves soil quality.

Nutrient cycling and soil properties

Calculations of nutrient fluxes in farm production

systems can furnish basic information about sustain-

ability of those systems. Evaluations of nutrient

cycling and balance are more complex in integrated

crop-livestock systems under no-tillage and few have

been conducted in the Brazilian subtropical region. It

is expected, in such systems, that the capacity of

pastures for carbon sequestration and nutrient cycling

is related to its management for a specific climatic

zone. For example, in situations with overstocking of

animals, a lower amount of aboveground residues left

on the soil surface results in lower stocks of carbon

input to the soil, and of other nutrients such as nitrogen,

phosphorus and potassium, with a resultant decline in

soil quality.

It is important to consider long term studies when

evaluating nutrient cycling, because addition or loss

of organic matter and energy in the soil over time will

modify the functioning of the soil system and the

fertility status. Considering the soil as an open system

in non-equilibrium, and based on its dissipative

structures and auto-organization processes, emergent

properties can result from order level changes

mediated by fluxes of matter and energy, which are

important for the regulation of soil functions and

quality, as well as for the sustainability of farm

production systems (Mielniczuk et al. 2003).

A long-term crop-livestock experiment in southern

Brazil: soil carbon and nitrogen

The research was conducted for 7 years in a Rhodic

Hapludox (Oxisol). The previous cropping system

was a soybean/oat rotation without grazing. The

experimental design was a completely randomized

block with three replicates.

Total and particulate carbon and nitrogen stocks

increased with time in an integrated crop-livestock

system under no-tillage (Fig. 5).

The integrated system consisted of a summer crop of

soybean grain in rotation with an oat/Italian ryegrass

winter cover crop continuously grazed at different

intensities (10, 20, 30 and 40 cm pasture height) by

yearling beef steers. The rates of total carbon

(1.16 Mg ha-1 year-1) and nitrogen (0.12 Mg ha-1

year-1) stocks increase are considered high (Corazza

et al. 1999) even for subtropical conditions. It would be

expected that an increase would occur only in the

particulate fractions, which are most affected by

management practices, but not for total content in a

relatively short time (6 years).

Moderate grazing intensities (annual temperate

pastures managed at 20 and 40 cm sward height)

promoted an increase in all carbon and nitrogen

stocks (total and particulate) in a similar fashion as

occurred in the no-grazing control treatment (Fig. 6).

However, in the highest grazing intensity (10 cm

sward height), losses of carbon and nitrogen were

observed after the third year of the experiment.

266 Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst (2010) 88:259–273

123

A long-term crop-livestock experiment in southern

Brazil: phosphorus fractions and availability

In the same experiment previously described, total

phosphorus content was high at the beginning of

the experiment (Fig. 7a), reaching 880 mg kg-1 in the

0–20 cm soil layer. Such high values, even for a highly

weathered basalt oxisol, resulted from phosphate

fertilizer applications that exceeded the amount of

phosphorus exported in soybean grain and beef steers.

Phosphorus forms (inorganic and organic—Fig. 7a)

and fractions (labile, moderately labile and low

labile—Fig. 7b) increased in a similar fashion in the

grazed and no-grazing treatments over the 6 years of

the experiment, with phosphorus being accumulated

primarily in the inorganic, moderately labile fraction.

While the inorganic form was accumulated to the

20 cm soil depth, the organic form was accumulated

only to 10 cm deep (data not shown). However,

negative effects of grazing were observed in the more

labile (resin and bicarbonate—Fig. 8) phosphorus

fraction, primarily in the 0–10 cm soil depth layer

(Table 1).

A long-term crop-livestock experiment in southern

Brazil: potassium balance and cycling

Available potassium content, exception made for G-10

treatment, was initially high in the experimental

area, above the critical level for high CEC soils

(90 mg kg-1—CQFS RS/SC, 2004) and was main-

tained over the 7 years of the experiment (Fig. 9).

While there were no significant differences (P [ 0.05)

among grazing treatments for available soil potassium

content, a contrasting behavior among the treatments

was clear: in the no-grazing (NG) treatment there was

a trend for potassium content to increase, but in all

grazing treatments, especially in the G-10, there was a

trend for available potassium content to decrease over

Fig. 5 Carbon (a) and

nitrogen (b) stocks in the

total (COT e NT) and

particulate (C-MOP and

N-MOP) fractions of the

organic matter in the

0–20 cm soil layer over

time under no-tillage

(Souza 2008)

Fig. 6 Carbon (a) and nitrogen (b) stocks in the total (COT

and NT) and particulate (C-POM and N-MOP) fractions of the

organic matter after 6 years (2007) in the 0–20 cm soil layer,

as affected by grazing intensity under no-tillage. Treatments

were grazed sward heights of 10 cm (G-10), 20 cm (G-20),

30 cm (G-30) and 40 cm (G-40 cm), and no-grazing (NG)

control (Souza 2008)

Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst (2010) 88:259–273 267

123

time. Declines in available soil potassium in integrated

crop-livestock systems have been observed under

subtropical conditions (Fontaneli et al. 2000), charac-

terizing a negative balance in the soil, which is related

to losses, primarily as animal wastes (Wilkinson and

Lowrey 1973).

A potassium gradient developed in the soil profile,

with levels being higher near the soil surface after

pasture than after the soybean phase of the rotation

(Fig. 10). In the no-grazing area, despite having less

cycled potassium (Fig. 11), levels of this nutrient were

higher in the soil profile than in the grazed areas,

especially in those more intensively grazed, which

probably was due to losses in the system under grazing.

Amounts of accumulated potassium in different

pools (soybean, pastures and animals) in one cycle of

the crop-livestock system were high (Fig. 11). In fact,

they were higher than crop demand because, as

pointed out by Mielniczuk (2005), more than 80% of

K in plant residues is released within 30 days.

A lower amount of cycled K (210 kg ha-1) was

detected in the no-grazing area, in contrast with the

most intensively grazed area (G-10, with 327 kg

ha-1). The observed values are comparable with those

found by Rossato (2004), in a corn/wheat/black oat

(Avena strigosa) system in a subtropical environment.

Fig. 7 Distribution of soil

phosphorus forms over time

(a) and after 6 years of

different grazing intensities

(b) in the 0–20 cm soil

layer, under no-tillage.

Treatments were grazed

sward heights of 10 cm

(G-10), 20 cm (G-20),

30 cm (G-30) and 40 cm

(G-40 cm), and no-grazing

(NG) control (Souza 2008)

Fig. 8 Labile soil phosphorus (resin paper ? NaHCO3 extrac-

tors, Hedley et al. 1982) evolution in the 0–20 cm soil layer

affected by grazing intensity (G-10; G-20; G-30 and G-40 cm)

and no-grazing (NG) under no-tillage (Souza 2008)

Table 1 Phosphorus availability (resin paper method) in soil

layers after 6 years of different grazing intensities (G-10; G-20;

G-30 and G-40 cm) and no-grazing (NG) under no-tillage

(Souza 2008)

Grazing

intensity

Soil layer (cm)

0–10

(mg kg-1)

10–20

(mg kg-1)

0–20

(mg kg-1)

G-10 33 b 11 a 22 a

G-20 46 a 8 a 27 a

G-40 43 a 12 a 28 a

NG 46 a 9 a 27 a

Grazing intensityG-10 G-20 G-40 NG

K a

vaila

ble,

mg

dm-3

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180 May/01

May/08n.s.

n.s.n.s.

n.s.

Fig. 9 Available potassium (Mehlich 1) in the 0–20 cm soil

layer over time as affected by grazing intensity (G-10; G-20;

G-30 and G-40 cm) and no-grazing (NG) under no-tillage

(Ferreira 2009)

268 Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst (2010) 88:259–273

123

Higher values for cycled potassium in grazed areas are

expected due to higher accumulated biomass and

potassium content (Ferreira 2009).

A long-term crop-livestock experiment in southern

Brazil: soil properties and quality indicators

Microbial biomass and activity

Microbial biomass and basal respiration were stim-

ulated with increasing grazing intensity (Table 2).

According to Cattelan and Vidor (1990), microbial

biomass increases with accumulation of organic

residues in the soil. In this research, besides the

increase of animal wastes, there was also a higher

pasture root mass at the end of the pasture phase with

increasing grazing intensity (Souza 2008).

The C-MB/TOC comprised only 2–4% of TOC

(Gama-Rodrigues 1999). However, this is a very

dynamic fraction with significant variations without

affecting such labile pool of the soil organic matter,

which is essential for nutrient cycling and for the

dynamics of other soil organic matter fractions.

Metabolic quotient (qCO2) measurements are

important in detecting stressful environmental con-

ditions; however, they were not affected by grazing.

Non significant effects may also be related to the

small portion (15–30%) of the microbial biomass

being catabolically active (Mac Donald 1986), since

the rest of the microorganisms remain in latent or

inactive forms (Moreira and Siqueira 2006).

Microbial diversity

Integrated crop-livestock systems which use no-tillage

and are managed under different grazing intensities

can maintain similar levels of microbiological quality

as those under no-tillage cash/cover crop production

only. The capacity of carbon substrate utilization by

soil microorganisms, as expressed by Shannon diver-

sity index, based on the capacity of carbon substrate

utilization by soil microorganisms, was not affected

(P [ 0.05) by grazing treatments. Despite that, the

numerically lower Shannon index found for the no

grazing control (6.52) and highest grazing intensity

(6.93) treatment, may indicate that moderate grazing

intensity stimulates microbial diversity. Pastures being

grazed, especially Italian ryegrass, promote exudation

of organic compounds by roots (Tisdall and Oades

1982), serving as energy sources for microorganisms.

This positive effect on microbial activity would occur

only up to the point where grazing intensity becomes

great enough to cause soil compaction and a conse-

quent decline in macroporosity and oxygen supply, as

K available , mg dm-3

0 50 150 250 350 450

0 50 150 250 350 450

0 50 150 250 350 450

0

5

10

15

20

After soybean

F testTreat. (p>0,05; LSD= 80)Depth (p<0,05; LSD= 63)Treat.x Depth (p>0,05; LSD= 139)

0

5

10

20

30

40

G-10

G-20G-30

G-40

NG

F testTreat. (p<0,05; LSD= 59)Depth (p<0,05; LSD= 59)Treat.x Depth (p>0,05; LSD= 131)

Soi

l dep

th, c

m

0

5

10

20

30

40

F testTreat. (p>0,05; LSD= 66)Depth (p<0,05; LSD= 66)Treat.x Depth (p>0,05; LSD= 147)

After soybean

After grazing

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 10 Available potassium (Mehlich 1) in the soil profile

under different grazing intensities (G-10; G-20; G-30 and

G-40 cm) and no grazing (NG) in May 2007 (a), November

2007 (b), and May 2008 (c) (Ferreira 2009). Treat. treatment,

MSD minimum significant difference by Tukey (P \ 0.05)

Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst (2010) 88:259–273 269

123

may have occurred in the G-10 treatment (Flores et al.

2007). It is important emphasize the spatial variability

of grazed systems that would require future studies

involving more intensive sampling to avoid missing

biologically meaningful differences that fail to be

statistically significant.

Soil aggregation

Crop-livestock systems at moderate grazing intensi-

ties (20 and 40 cm sward height) promoted better soil

aggregation than non grazed or intensively grazed

treatments (Table 3).

The beneficial grazing effects on soil aggregation

were observed in the 0–20 cm layer, but especially in

the 5–10 cm soil layer, and increased with time the

animals were kept on pasture. In general, grazing at

20 cm sward height promoted the best soil aggrega-

tion, by a higher proportion of larger size ([2 mm) or

weighted mean values of water soluble aggregates.

Such an effect agrees with the literature (Haynes and

Beare 1996) relating improvements in aggregate

stability to crop residues, soil organic matter, and

greater soil microbial activity, all of which contribute

to increases in the production of various binding

agents for soil aggregation.

Carbon management index

The carbon management index (CMI) is an indicator

of the quality of soil management, which allows

evaluation of the process of gain or loss of soil

quality: high CMI values indicate high soil quality

(Blair et al. 1995). In pastures grazed at 20 and

40 cm, CMI was similar to the reference (100, for no-

grazing) (Table 4), indicating those areas maintained

high lability of the organic matter.

The most intensive grazing (10 cm) treatment had

significantly lower CMI (65), indicating degradation

in the quality of the soil organic matter. Low CMI

values (around 56) were found by Diekow et al.

(2005) for soil under fallow and black oat/corn

without nitrogen addition as compared to a native

pasture soil (reference = 100). The CMI is a widely

used indicator to characterize soil and cultural

management system effects on soil properties and

quality.

Table 2 Microbial biomass, basal respiration and metabolic

quotient (qCO2), and microbial biomass/total organic carbon

ratios (C-MB/TOC) in a soil under a no-tillage crop-livestock

integration system with different grazing intensities (G-10;

G-20; and G-40 cm) and a no-grazing (NG) control (Souza

et al. 2008)

Microbial attributes G-10a G-20a G-40a NGb

Microbial biomass (mg C kg-1 of soil) 648 a 574 b 515 c 465 d

Basal respiration (daily mg C-CO2 kg-1 of soil) 8.1 a 7.6 b 7.4 b 6.3 c

Metabolic quotient (mg CO2/mg C day-1) 9 10-3 12.5 ns 13.2 14.3 13.5

C-MB/TOC (%) 1.98 a 1.82 a 1.51 b 1.47 b

Mean values followed by the same letter on the line are not different by Duncan test (P \ 0.05)a Pasture sward heightb No-grazing area

Grazing intensityG-10 G-20 G-30 G-40 NG

K c

yclin

g, k

g ha

-1

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

14

4

176

60

71

2

8

57

85

60

16

11

74

78

77

111

7

75

76

67

215

5

116

83

71

327

292

237247

210a ab

bb

b

Soybean shoot 2006/07 (n.s.)Soybean grain 2006/07 (n.s.)Herbage mass (*)Mulch (n.s.) Animal carcass (n.s.) Animal wastes (n.s.)

Fig. 11 Potassium cycled in different pools of pasture,

soybean and animal (carcass and wastes) under different

grazing intensities (G-10; G-20; G-30 and G-40 cm) and no-

grazing (NG) under no-tillage (Ferreira 2009). * and NSindicate significant and not significant by F test (P \ 0.05),

respectively. Means with same letter within each pool are not

significantly different, by Tukey test (P [ 0.05)

270 Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst (2010) 88:259–273

123

Final comments

The presence of grazing animals in grain cropped

areas under no-tillage soil management with cover

crops affects the system properties. Such effects can

be positive or negative, depending on grazing man-

agement. The soil is the central component of the

processes that indicates the direction (? or -) of such

modifications. The catalyzing component is the

animal, which recycles the vegetative material and

modifies the dynamics of nutrient cycling when

compared with systems where winter cover crops are

grown solely for production of plant residues for soil

cover. When grazing livestock were integrated into a

cash crop rotation, and when this was done using

moderate, controlled grazing intensities, soil aggre-

gation was significantly improved, as well as the soil

microbial activity. Positive impacts were also

observed in the chemical attributes of associated

variables, such as total and particulate organic carbon

and nitrogen, phosphorus availability and potassium

cycling and balance. Some soil properties, primarily

the physical ones, can be negatively impacted.

Despite this, crop productivity is not necessarily

reduced by the presence of grazing animals during

the previous winter cover crop cycle. In the final

analysis, we conclude that summer grain production

integrated with animal production on cover crops

during the winter season in a subtropical environment

is in essence an additional harvest gathered from the

same area, which increases soil quality and the

efficiency of land use.

Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to CNPq,

FAPERGS, Fundacao AGRISUS, MAPA and Agropecuaria

Cerro Coroado for funds, Caterina Batello and Eric Kueneman

from FAO Crop and Grassland Service for their support to

disseminate information in conservation agriculture, and Gilles

Lemaire for being responsible for a new research generation in

southern Brazil.

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