lish vers ion ;arian • Akad~miai Kiad6, Bud apest 1989

nbers-Makkai, Gyorgy Donga, Ervin Dunay, ergely MeszOly, Eva D. Palrnai, nyai, Magdalena Seleanu, Christopher Sullivan

,d by

Ervin Dessewffy, Eva D. Piilrnai,

Contents

lllivan

selected I7y

and Zollil.n Szasz

Istvan GyOrgy T6th

nd Lajos Palovics

.d6. Budapest

.... Chambers-Makkai. Cy. Donga, E. Dunay. V. CAthy, C . MkzOly. yai. M. Seleanu, Ch. Sullivan

is. 19ary

part of this book may be reproduced by any means, or transmitted,. :hine language without the written permission of the publisher.

~td, Budapest Akademiai Nyomda. Budapest

Preface to the English Edition - B~LA K o PECZ!. .. .. .. . . . . ........ . XIlJ

PART ONE TRANSYLVANIA IN PREHISTORIC AND ANCIENT TIMES . 1

I. Prehistory and Antiquity ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1. The Prehistory of Dacia - GABOR V~KONY . .. . .. . ... ... . . 3 From the Beginnings to the End of the Stone Age 3 The Copper Age 7 The Bronze Age 10 The Iron Age and the First Historical Nations 13

2. The Dacian Kingdom - ANDRAs MOcsY and GABOR VEKONY 17 The Dacian People 17 The Reign of Burebista 18 The Transition Period 21 The Kingdom of Decebal 24

3. The Roman Province of Dacia - ENORE TOrn. . . . . . . . . . . . 2S Conquest and Organization of the Province 28 Organiza­tion and Administration 34 Economy and Trade 36 The Long War and Recovery in the Severan Age 38 Settlement and Urbanization 41 The Population: Dacians and Settlers 44 Collapse and Evacuation 52 The Fate of the Provincial Population after Evacuation 56

II . From Dacia to Transylvania. The Period of the Great Migrations (271-895) - IsIvAN BONA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

1. The "Men of the Forest" . The Goths in Transylvania (271-380) .. . .. . .. .. . . .. . .. .. . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . .. . . 62 The Decline of Dacia 62 The Carpic Interlude 65 The Goths in Transylvania 66 Collapse 75 TIle Gepids before the Hunnish Conquest (269-424) 76

2. The Huns (376/424-455) . .. ..... ....... .. . ........ .. .. 77

3. The Gepid Kingdom (455-567) ....... . .... . .......... . . Gepid Kings in Transylvania 84 The Gepids at the Time of the Merovingian Civilization 85

79

4. The Avar Period (567-827) ....... ... . 90

5. The Slavs up to the Hungarian Conquest (600-895) .. . The People of the Szilagynagyfal u Kurgans 101

97

6. Southern Transylvania under Bulgar Rule (827-895) 102

PART TWO TRANSYLVANIA IN THE MEDIAEVAL HUNGARIAN KINGDOM. 107

I. The Hungarian-Slav Period (895-1172) - ISTVAN Il6NA . . . . .. 109

1. The Hungarian Conquest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

2. Transylvania and the Eastern Great Hungarian Plain in the Century Following the Hungarian Conquest (895-1003) 114 The Byzantine Orientation and its Supporters 120 The Conquering Hungarians in Transylvania 129

3. Transylvania in the Early Kingdom of Hungary (1003-1172) .. .. .. . .. . . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. . . .. The Eastern Part of the Great Hungarian Plain up to the Last Third of the Twelfth Century 141 Transylvania after 1003 until the Last Quarter of the Twelfth Century 144 Hungarians and Slavs 149 Politics in the Twelfth Century 152 Economy and Population 154 Archaeological Evi­dence from the Times of the Establishment of the State 158 The Emergence of Castles 161 The Early Roman Catholic Church 168 Early Arpadian Villages, Houses and Other Architectural Monuments 169 The First Frontier Guard Deployments to the East 172 Conclusions Drawn from the Study of Hungarian and Slavic Settlements up to the Great Changes of the Late Twelfth Century 174

138

II. The Emergence of the Estates (1172-1526) - LAszL6 MAlcKAI 178

1. The Three Peoples of Transylvania (1172-1241) ......... . The Formation of the Szekely and Saxon Settlements 178 The Peregrine Romanian Homeland 183 Romanians in Transylvania and Cumania until the Mongol Invasion 189 The Mongol Invasion and its Consequences 194 Romanian Kenezes and Voivodes 195

178

2. Nobles and Serfs in Transylvania (1241-1360) . . . . . . . . . . .. The Disintegration of the Royal Counties 199 Anarchy and Consolidation 203 The Noble Counties and the

199

Nobility 206 szekelys and Saxons among the Nobility 208 Ecclesiastical Organization and Education 212 Romanian Landowners and Serfs within, and beyond the Carpathians 214

2213. The Three Nations of Transylvania (1360-1526) . ........ . The Transylvanian Concept of Nation 221 Turkish Threat and Peasant War 223 The Hunyadis 226 The Towns and the Saxon Autonomy 231 The Szekely Fight for Freedom and Gyllrgy Szekely's Peasant War 235 Gothic and Ren­aissance Culture in Transylvania 239

PART THREE 2';"' ::THE PRINCIPALITY OF TRANSy LVANIA .. . .. . .... ··· ·· ·· · ·· ·

I. The Emergence of the Principality and its First Crises 2·,7(1526-1606) - G ABOR BARTA . ... . ....•. .• .. •. .• . .. . •.... .

1. From the Kingdom of Hungary to the Principality 24':'of Transylvania . . .. . .. ... . . ... . . . .. .......... . ...... .

Transylvania and the Disintegration of the Mediaeval Hungarian State 247 Towards the Formation of the Transylvanian State 251 Collapse and Revival 255

26.12. Economy, Society and Culture in the New State .... . .... . The New State 264 The Transylvanian State and the Outside World in the Second Half of the Sixteen th Century 271 Saxon and Hungarian Towns 274 The Serfs 278 The Romanians 281 The Decline of the Szekely Community 282 Power and those Who Held it 285 Culture and Reformation, Religious Tolerance 287

293 3. Transylvania in the Fifteen Years' War ... . ..... . . .. . .. . . Istv.m Bocskai' s Uprising and the Resurrection of the Transylvanian State 297

:',01II. The Golden Age of the PrinCipality (1606-1660) - KATALIN J>trER

30'1 1. The Antecedents .. ... ... . . .. . . ........ . . .. . .. . ...... . Population 301 The Free Election of a Prince and Gabor BMhory's Coup 303 In War and in Peace 306 The Prince without the Support of his People 307

3092. The Reign of Gabor Bethlen . .. . .. . ... .. .. . ... ..... . .. . . The Porte RegainS its Power 309 Gabor Bethlen Stops the War 311 The Professional Prince 313 Gabor Bethlen and his Country 315 Outdated Methods of Taxation and Modern Economic Policy 317

3. Transylvania in the International Coalition against :;".1. f;

the House of Habsburg.

Hungary and the Thirty Years' War 318 G~bor BethJen as Prince of Hungary 319 A King Is Elected but Not Crowned 321 BethJen Loses the Kingdom of Hungary 321 The Struggle for Hungary and G~bor Bethlen's Final Plans 322 The Contest for the Kingdom and Transylvania 324

4. A Prince under the Force of Circumstances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 Political Crisis and the Triumph of GyOrgy R~k6czi I 325 Good External Relations and Internal Conflicts. Economic Policy 326 A Victory over the Turks 329 War with the Habsburg, and Separate Peace 330 The Allies' Mutual Indifference and R~k6czi's Final Plans 331

5. Transylvanian Society under an Absolute Rule . . . . . . . . . . . 332 The Serfs 333 The Lords 333 The Szekelys 335 The Saxons 336 The Romanians 338 Reconstruction 339 The Value of Work 342

6. Culture and Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 344 The Schools 344 The Intellectuals 345 Erudition 348 An Open-Minded Society 351

7. The Miscarriage of Great Hopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 352 Connections with the Romanian Voivodates 352 The Hopes of Politicians in the Kingdom 353 The Polish Campaign and the Beginning of Transylvania's Decline 355 Turkish War in Transylvania 356

III. The End of Turkish Rule in Transylvania and the Reunification of Hungary (1660-1711) - AGNES R. VARKONYI ............ 359

1. Changes in Politics . . .. . .. . . .. . .. .. . ............. . .. . . 359 Prince MiMly Apafi and the Turkish Wars of 1660-1667 359 Apafi's Balancing Act and the Transylvanian-French Alliance 363 Secret Membership in the Holy League 367 Reunion with the Kingdom of Hungary within the Habsburg System 370 Ferenc R~k6czi II, Prince of TransylVania 374

2. Economy and Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 382 Population and the National Economy 382 Production and Governmental Economic Policy 385 Social Mobility in a Society of Estates 396

3. The Varieties of Culture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 Cultural Policy, the Intellectuals, and the Vernacular 400 Schools, Presses, and Science 403 Material Culture and Mentality 406 Art and Literature 408

PART FOUR TRANSYLVANIA UNDER THE HABSBURG EMPIRE . . .. . . .. . . . 413

J. The Long Eighteenth Century (1711-1830) - ZsoLT TROCsANYI and AMBRUS MISKOLCZY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 415

1. The New Order .. .. .. .... . . .. ..... .. ............. ... . Population and Society 417 The Counter-Reformation and its Consequences 423 Romanian Religions and National Movements 426 Feudal Constitutionalism and the Vien­nese Central Government 429

415

2. From the Enlightenment to Liberalism ....... Enlightenment and National Cultures 435 The First Decades of Enlightened Absolutism 440 The Horea­Clo~a Revolt 442 Administrative Reforms 445 Feudal Reaction and Reform 448 Culture and Bureaucracy 454

435

II. The Reform Era (1830-1848) - AMBRUS MiSKOLCZV . . . . . . . . . . . Hungarian Liberalism and the Feudal Constitution 460 The Hungarian Liberals' Attitude toward the Nationalities 464 Attempts at Social Reform 467 The Revival of the Romanian National Movement 471 Romanian Political Aspirations 475 The Saxons' Awakening to their German Identity 478 The Conservative Counter-Offensive 483

459

III. Revolution and the War of Independence (1848-1849) -AMBRUS MiSKOLCZY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

Transylvanian Society in the "Springtime of the Nations" 486 The Bourgeois Revolution in Transylvania 494 Coun­ter-Revolution and Civil War 501 Revolutionary Consoli­dation and its Contradictions 513 Hungarian-Romanian Relations in the Spring and Summer of 1849 517 The Last Days of the War of Independence in Transylvania 522

486

PART FIVE FROM THE EMPIRE TO CIVIC HUNGARY - ZoLTAN SzAsz . . . . .. 525

J. The Era of Neo-Absolutism (1849-1867) . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . 527

1. The Establishment of Despotic Rule. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reprisals and Consolidation 527 The Absolutist System 529

527

2. Political Life during the Absolutist Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Abolition of Saxon Autonomy 531 The Repression of Romanian National Aspirations 532 Hungarian Resistance 533 The Hungarian Exiles and War in Italy 535 The New

331

Terms of the Emancipation of Serfs and the Compensation for the Landlords 536 The Impact of the Crimean War 538

3. Autocracy in Decline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 539 The Italian War and the Actions of the Hungarian Exiles 539 The Conservative Federalist Experiment: The October Diploma 541 The Liberal Centralization of the Empire 543 The Struggle for Local Power 545 The Plan for a Danubian Confederation 547 The Provisorium and the Nagyszeben Diet 548 The Termination of the Provisional Government, and the Kolozsvar Diet 552

n. Population and Economy in the Age of Capitalism. . . . . . . . .. 555

1 . Population ....... , ........ .... , ..... ... ..... , ...... ,. 555 Population Growth and Mobility 555 The Ethnic and Denominational Composition of the Population 559

2. Economy . ... . . ... . ... . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 The Transition to Capitalism 564 The Establishment of a Communication Network 567 The Economic Policy of the State 568 Agriculture in Transition 573 The Moderniza­tion of Industry and Mining 578

3. Cultural Life and the Ethnic Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 583 The Various Societies and their Progranunes 584 Educa­tion 587 The Changing World of Sciences 591 Literature and the Arts 593

III. Political Life and the Nationality Issue in the Age of Dualism (1867-1918) .. . . . ...... , .. , .. , .. , ... ... ... .. . . . , ... . , 599

1. The Dualist System .. . .... . , .. . . . , . . ... . .. ...... , . ... , 599 The Restoration of Constitutionalism and of the Union 599 Liberal Legislation and Patriarchal Power 600 The Atti­tude of the Hungarians 607

2. The Crisis of Accommodation in the Saxon and Romanian National Movements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 610 The Saxons' Position in the Dualist System 610 Romanian Politics: The Road to Passive Resistance 613 The Romani­ans of Transylvania and the Kingdom of Romania 616 The Memorandum Movement 618

3, New Tendencies at the Turn of the Century ............ , 623 Changes in Government Policy at the Tum of the Century 623 Hopes for a Settlement Fade. Renewed Romanian Activity 625 The Coalition Period and Vienna's Last Experiment: The Workshop of Francis Ferdinand 628 The Last Experiment of Budapest: Istvan Tisza's Negotiations with the Romanian National Party 631

4. The First World War .... The First Years of the War 636 Romania's Attempt to Occupy Transylvania 639 The Measures Following the Fighting 641

636

IV. Revolutions and National Movements after the Collapse of the Monarchy (1918-1919) ............. . 643

The Michaelmas Daisy Revolution 643 The Emergence of the Romanian Bourgeoisie's Power Base 647 The Roma­nian National Assembly at Gyulafehervar 650 The End of Hungarian Rule in Transylvania 652 The Socialist Alterna­tive: The Republic of Councils 656 Counter-Revolution and the Treaty of Trianon 659

PART SIX TRANSYLVANIA SINCE 1918 - B~LA KOPEaI 663

Internal Forces 665 Internal Situation of the New Romania 666 Economic Circumstances 669 Romanians in Predomi­nant Situation 670 Sufferings of the Hungarians 673 German Seaking Ways 681 The Second World War and the Divided Transylvania 683 Northern Transylvania 686 Southern Transylvania 688 The Extermination of the Jewish Population 689 Fight against Fascism 690 Once More in Romania 691

List of Abbreviations ....... ..... .. . ... , ........... . ' 693

Bibliography ...............•.............. . . ..•.. .. 698

List of lllustrations ........ . ............ . .. . ... .. ..... . 734

Chronology of the History of Transylvania - KLARA HEGYI and IsrvAN GvORGv TOrn .. ............. .. . ........ . . 745

Index - IsrvAN Soa; ... . . ..... , . . . . . . ...... . .. . 763