ključne stvari u 20 st,timeline

8/13/2019 kljune stvari u 20 st,timeline

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1905The first e>hibition of the Fau-ist artistsis held in &aris at the Balon d2Automne. Amon# the#rou% is =enri 5atisse(1)/*1", Andr 8erain (1))!*1", 5aurice de 0laminc6 (1)+/*1"),and others. In 111, =enri 5atisse %aints The Red Studio(5useum of 5odern Art, New or6, a wor6that demonstrates his non;normati-e use of bri#ht colors, as well as his deliberately erratic use of%ers%ecti-e.

1906Alfred 8reyfus (1)"*1?", a ewish French army officer who had been arrested in 1) andchar#ed with s%yin# for 'ermany, is acuitted. =is trial occasions a nationwide debate on anti;Bemitism, includin# 92accuse,9 a letter %ublished in 1)) by Hmile ola (1)!*1!3 in defense of8reyfus.

1907The Tri%le Entente is si#ned by France, the %ansion of the earlier Entente Cordiale between @ritain and France that resol-ed some dis%utes andestablished di%lomatic relations between the nations. When Russia oins, the three countries form thecore of the forces that will o%%ose the Central &owers (Austria;=un#ary and 'ermany in World War I.

19077ouis 7umiGre (1)/*1) de-elo%s a %rocess for color %hoto#ra%hy usin# a three;colorscreen. The %rocess %ro-es to be ada%table to the industrial %roduction of ima#esand is one of thefew a-ailable for nearly thirty years. With his brother Au#uste 7umiGre (1)/3*1", 7ouis is alsocredited with ha-in# -irtually in-ented the motion %icture.

1907 &ablo &icasso(1))1*1+? %aints Les Demoiselles d'Avignon(5o5A, New or6, in which hisfractured treatment of three;dimensional form heralds the ad-ent of Cubism. =e li6ewise demonstrateshis interest in African mas6s in the treatment of some of the fi#ures2 faces.

1907The first e>hibition of wor6 by Cubist artistsis held in &aris, althou#h the term will not bea%%lied to the #rou% until the followin# year (1!), when it is coined by critic 7ouis 0au>celles (born1)+!. In 11?, %oet 'uillaume A%ollinaire (1))!*11) %ublishes The Cubist Painters, which codifiesthe common obecti-es of the #rou%.

1909French a-iator 7ouis @lriot (1)+3*1?/ crosses the En#lish Channel from Calais to 8o-er,

En#land, in thirty;se-en minutes by air%lane. 8urin# World War I, his manufacturin# com%any%roduces the B.&.A.8. fi#hter %lane used by the Allies.

1913Irish;born furniture desi#ner Eileen 'ray (1)+*1+/ attracts fa-orable attention at the Balondes Artistes 8corateurs in &aris with lu>urious modernist %ieces combinin# lacuer and rare woods,#eometric abstractionand a%anese;ins%ired motifs. In the 13!s, 'ray will reect the Art 8ecosensibility in fa-or of a functionalist -ocabulary, incor%oratin# modern materials such as tubular steeland aluminum in her furnishin#s.

19135arcel &roust (1)+1*133 %ublishes Swann's Wa, the first -olume of his lar#er %roect,Remembran!e o" Things Past. In this wor6, &roust offers a fictionali$ed memoir of -isits to family inAuteuil outside of &aris.

1913The Rite o" Spring, a balletby com%oser I#or Btra-ins6y (1))3*1+1, %remieres in &aris. It is%erformed by the @allets Russes, founded by Russian mi#r im%resario Ber#e 8ia#hile- (1)+3*13, with whom Btra-ins6y is associated throu#h 13. This association leads to collaborations witha number of a-ant;#arde -isual artists. In 11+, &ablo &icasso (1))1*1+? desi#ns sets andcostumes for com%oser Eri6 Batie2s (1)//*13" ballet Parade, which %remieres at the @alletsRusses.

1914World War I be#ins. 'ermany in-ades France. In February 11/, 'ermans attac6 0erdun andthousands of troo%s are 6illed there throu#h uly, when the 'ermans end their offensi-e. In France,the @attle of the Bomme is also fou#ht in 11/. In 11+, the


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1918Bwiss;born architect Charles;Hdouard eanneret (1))+*1/", later 6nown as 97e Corbusier9and Amde D$enfant (1))/*1// %ublishApr#s le !ubisme(After Cubism, a manifesto of the&urist mo-ement. The aesthetic %urity of industrially manufactured obects cham%ioned in &urism ismanifested in %aintin#s and architecture incor%oratin# forms that echo common consumer #oods. In13?, 7e Corbusier%ublishes $ers une ar!hite!ture, a manifesto of his conce%tion of modernarchitecture.

1919The first &an;African Con#ress, or#ani$ed by W. E. @. 8u @ois (1)/)*1/?, o%ens in &ariswith fifty;se-en dele#ates from si>teen countries and colonies.

1921'abrielle 9Coco9 Chanel(1))?*1+1 introduces Chanel No. ", which becomes the world2sbest;sellin# %erfume. In 13), Chanel ma6es her first tweed women2s suit, a casual style stressin#sim%licity and comfort with which she will become closely identified.

192325Conflict with 'ermany o-er un%aid re%arations, sti%ulated by the Treaty of 0ersailles,moti-ates the French and @el#ian occu%ation of the Ruhr 0alley, territory which is e-entuallyrelinuished.

1924The film L'%nhumaine, directed by 5arcel 72=erbier (1)))*1+, is %roduced with sets bymodernist architect Robert 5allet;Bte-ens (1))/*1" and %ainter Fernand 7#er (1))1*1"".

1924Andr @reton (1)/*1// issues the first Burrealist manifesto. Two additional manifestos willfollow in 1?! and 13, ma6in# @reton the most im%ortant theorist of the mo-ement.

1925The E>%osition des Arts 8coratifs et Industriels 5odernes, or Art 8eco E>hibition, o%ens in&aris. The term 9Art 8eco9 will become associated with the style embodied in, for e>am%le, the wor6 ofdesi#ners ean 8unand (1)++*13 and Hmile;acues Ruhlmann (1)+*1??.

1929The French be#in construction on the 5a#inot 7ine of defense a#ainst 'ermany, commencin#a lon# %eriod of %olitical tension between the countries that culminates in World War II.

19297i6e other Western Euro%ean and North American countries, France is sei$ed by economicde%ression in the wa6e of the %osition Coloniale in &aris %reci%itates %rotest by the Burrealists, who or#ani$e acounter;e>hibition.

1931Construction on the ocean liner &ormandie, an a%o#ee of Art 8eco style, be#ins.

19317e Corbusier (1))+*1/" com%letes the 0illa Ba-oye in &oissy, outside &aris. The %eriod ofeconomic and %olitical instability between the World Wars brin#s about a number of com%etin# stylesin the arts, includin# architecture. Widely obser-ed as a 9turn toward the or#anic,9 which entails are%udiation of the 5achine A#e forms fa-ored in the arts of the 13!s. In the 0illa Ba-oye, thistransformation is si#naled by the %resence of rectilinear, rationalist forms as well as more cur-in#,or#anic elements.

1935The Nobel &ri$e for chemistry is awarded to Frdric oliot;Curie (1!!*1") and IrGne Curie(1)+*1"/ for the synthesis of new radioacti-e elements.

1936The &o%ular Front, a %olitical %arty, comes to %ower in France. It res%onds to wor6in#;classdissatisfaction by ad-ocatin# %aid -acations and the forty;hour wor6 wee6.

1937ean Renoir (1)*1+, son of the %ainter Au#uste Renoir, directs The rand %llusion. Theantiwar film is banned in 'ermany and Italy.

1937&ablo &icasso(1))1*1+? %aints uerni!a(5useo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina BofLa,5adrid, which dramati$es the bombin# of the @asue ca%ital durin# the B%anish Ci-il War.
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1939World War II be#ins when 'erman troo%s in-ade &oland. France and @ritain declare war on'ermany. In 1!, Italy declares war on @ritain and France. 'erman troo%s enter &aris, be#innin# itsDccu%ation in that year. The northern two;thirds of France are controlled by the 'ermans, while thesouthern third is under the collaborationist #o-ernment of 5arshall &hili%%e &tain (1)"/*1"1. In13, southern France is occu%ied by 'ermany. In 1, Allied forces land on the Normandy beacheson 8;8ay and &aris and Rome are liberated from their 'erman occu%iers. Charles de 'aulle (1)!*

1+! becomes head of the %ro-isional #o-ernment. In 1/, the Fourth Re%ublic is created with anew constitution.

1945France is a charter member of the 9 (France, 'ermany,@el#ium, Italy, the Netherlands, and 7u>embour# si#n the Rome Treaty establishin# the Euro%eanEconomic Community.

1954The com%letion of the Cha%el of Notre;8ame;du;=aut in Roncham% by 7e Corbusier (1))+*1/" si#nals the emer#ence of a more scul%tural and e>%ressionistic modern architecture.

1957The Bituationist International is founded in &aris. In res%onse to %ostwar rebuildin#, itsmembers %ro%ose uto%ian urban %roects in ma%s, models, and other forms o-er a fifteen;year %eriod.

195762&arisian artist -es Jlein (13)*1/3 %resents The $oidin a series of fi-e wor6s thatblend %erformance and installation. Jlein2s wor6s embody a tendency amon# %ostwar French artists tocreate art that en#a#es not ust the flat can-as, but three;dimensional s%ace as well.

1958The Fifth Re%ublic is established under a new constitution. The %resident, Charles de 'aulle(1)!*1+!, is #i-en #reater %ower. 8e 'aulle will remain in office until his resi#nation in 1/, whichis followed by the election of 'eor#es &om%idou (111*1+ as his successor.

195860The first feature films by directors associated with the 9New Wa-e9 a%%ear, includin# The+,, -lows(1" by Fran4ois Truffaut (1?3*1) and -reathless(1" by ean;7uc 'odard (born1?!. The films are mar6ed by s%ontaneity and directorial control of all as%ects of %roduction.
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1960An e>hibition of 7eonardo da 0inci2s(1"3*1"1 Mona Lisa(7ou-re in New or6 andWashin#ton, 8.C., is brou#ht about by 5inister of Culture Andr 5alrau> (1!1*1+/ as %art of acam%ai#n to bolster France2s international standin# on the basis of its cultural herita#e.

1960The D% Art mo-emente>%lores the effects that can be created throu#h o%tical illusions. Amon#the French artists associated with it is the =un#arian;born 0ictor 0asarely (1!)*1++.

1967Film director acues Tati (1!)*1)3 %remieres Platime, in which he calls attention to thehollow tastelessness of %ostwar French architecture, urban %lannin#, and American;style consumerculture.

1968In 5ay, students demonstrate a#ainst de 'aulle (1)!*1+! in &aris, touchin# off nationwidedemonstrations and stri6es in-ol-in# some 1! million %eo%le, rou#hly two;thirds of the wor6force. The98ays of 5ay9 %rom%t wides%read institutional, %olitical, and social reform in France. The state;su%%orted art school, the Hcole des @eau>;Arts, which has dominated academic trainin# since thenineteenth century, is reor#ani$ed and decentrali$ed.

1968Fashion desi#ner Andr CourrG#es (born 13? introduces the 5oon 'irl loo6, featurin# flared

minidresses with%lastic%ortholes at the waistline, %latter;sha%ed hats, and calf;hi#h white %lasticboots:soon to be dubbed the 'o;'o boot.

1970sWritin#s by French feminist theorists, includin# 7uce Iri#aray (born 1? and =lGne Ci>ous(born 1?+, ins%ire the %roduction of feminist art from the 1+!s onward, by Annette 5essa#er (born1? and others.

1971'eor#es &om%idou (111*1+ allows the ternali$ed structure and mechanical systems, stands out from its traditionalnei#hborhood.

1980The national tele%hone com%any, France Telecom, introduces the Teltel -ideote>t networ6, bywhich subscribers can -iew tele%hone listin#s, news, and other information on their 5initel terminals.

19815ar#uerite ourcenar (1!?*1)+ is the first woman to be elected to the Acadmie Fran4aise.ourcenar is best 6nown for her historical no-els.

1981Elections brin# the Bocialist %arty to %ower and Fran4ois 5itterand (11/*1/ becomes%resident, ser-in# until 1". 5any industrialists and financiers fear that 5itterand will instituteswee%in# economic chan#es harmful to business interests, but such fears %ro-e to be unwarranted.

1983Former Na$i Jlaus @arbie (9The @utcher of 7yon,9 11?*11 is e>tradited from @oli-ia toFrance to stand trial for crimes committed under the Na$i re#ime durin# World War II. =e is con-ictedand #i-en a life sentence.

1983The Institut &asteur identifies the =I0 -irus, an im%ortant ste% toward the eradication of AI8B,

which reaches e%idemic %ro%ortions, es%ecially in the #ay community, by the 1)!s.
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1983=i#h;s%eed T'0 (Train M #rande -itesse commences o%eration between &aris and 7yon, ats%eeds u% to 1/) miles %er hour. Additional hi#h;s%eed train lines are constructed and facilitate tra-elthrou#hout France and Euro%e.

1983&hili%%e Btarc6(born 1 desi#ns an a%artment in the &alais de l2Hlyse in &aris for 5adame5itterand and recei-es instant reco#nition as a desi#ner. =is uniue 9uicy Balif9 lemon suee$er

(3!!1."3? is desi#ned in 1! and is amon# the wor6s he %roduces for mass consum%tion.

1985Christo (born 1?" wra%s the &ont Neuf, &aris. It is %art of his on#oin# %roect to inter-ene ona lar#e scale in built and natural en-ironments. =is wor6 is carried out in collaboration with his wifeeanne;Claude (born 1?".

1987The Institut du 5onde Arabe,desi#ned by ean Nou-el (born 1", is com%leted in &aris. The7yon D%ra, also desi#ned by Nou-el, is com%leted in 1?, and the Fondation Cartier buildin# in&aris in 1. Nou-el uses forms and materials (li6e steel and #lass associated with hi#h modernistarchitecture, but in e>%ressi-e rather than %urely rationalist ways.

1989The @icentennial of the French Re-olution is celebrated. In connection with the @icentennial,

se-eral of the grands projets(or grands travau* are com%leted, includin# the new %yramidal entranceto the 7ou-re (1), desi#ned by I. 5. &ei (born 11+, and the 5use d2Drsay (1)/ by architect'ae Aulenti (born 13+ to accommodate the state museum of French art from 1)) to 11.

1991The continued im%ortance of installation artin France is si#naled by ean;5arc @ustamante2s(born 1"3 wor6 Lumi#re(13."1").

1991The fifteen member nations of the Euro%ean


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2000A crash of the su%ersonic Concorde air%lane 6ills 11? %eo%le. Dri#inally hailed as are-olutionary form of air trans%ortation, Concorde ser-ice between Euro%e and North America isdiscontinued followin# the crash.

B&AIN

The countries of the Iberian &eninsula, B%ain and &ortu#al, ma6e im%ortant contributions to twentieth;century culture, des%ite the disru%tions and isolation caused by re%ressi-e %olitical re#imes throu#houtmuch of the %eriod. &ablo &icasso(1))1*1+?, %erha%s the most influential artist of the twentiethcentury, be#ins his earliest %eriod of e>%erimentation in @arcelona and 5adrid, before settlin# in &arisin 1!. The B%anish Ci-il War and the e-entual em%owerment of 'eneral Francisco Franco (1)3*1+" in 1?, in %articular, be#in a %eriod of economic and %olitical isolation in B%ain which is notconduci-e to art %roduction. A number of artists are e>iled as a result of the Ci-il War, includin# theCatalan %ainter oan 5irO (1)?*1)?, who is associated with the Burrealists in &arisbut returns toB%ain with the outbrea6 of World War II. D-er the course of its lon# duration, the Franco re#imeendorses an academic style of art that it belie-es to be consistent with its %olitical ideolo#y.Nonetheless, artists and #rou%s with connections to a-ant;#arde mo-ements elsewhere in Euro%e doemer#e, es%ecially in the %ostwar years.

8urin# the early years of the century, B%ain is an im%ortant center for Art Nou-eau in architecture anddesi#n.Throu#h the 1?!s, centers of Burrealist art %roduction, in both literature and -isual arts, thri-ein the Iberian &eninsula. In &ortu#al, a %articular sort of modernist architecture is de-elo%ed that%ossesses aesthetic ties with a-ant;#arde desi#n elsewhere on the continent yet simultaneouslyres%onds to the distincti-e local -ernacular. @etween 1/ and 1)1, the B%anish Eui%o CrOnica, a#rou% of artists led by Rafael Bolbes (1!*1)1 and 5anolo 0alds (born 13, ma6es art ins%iredby American and Euro%ean &o% Art, but directed a#ainst the Franco re#ime. The #rou% is associatedwith Estam%a &o%ular, a collecti-e of %rintma6ers with a similarly critical %olitical %osition.

In the years followin# the end of the B%anish dictatorshi% and &ortu#uese fascism in the 1+!s, both

countries are more fully inte#rated into the world economy. B%ain and &ortu#al each be#ins to %lay amore im%ortant role in contem%orary art, as new e>hibition -enues are established, and as -isualartists, writers, and filmma6ers from the Iberian &eninsula become more re#ular %artici%ants ininternational e-ents.

1900The first solo e>hibition of 5Pla#a;born artist &ablo &icasso (1))1*1+? is held at Els Quatre'ats in @arcelona. Althou#h &icasso is closely associated with &arisian a-ant;#ardemo-ements, hereturns %eriodically to B%ain and maintains an interest in B%anish concerns.

19024uan 'ris (1))+*13+ studies mechanical drawin# at the Escuela de Artes y 5anufacturasin 5adrid. In 1!/, he mo-es to France and subseuently contributes to the de-elo%ment of Cubismin&aris.

190510The Casa 5ilM, desi#ned by architect Antoni 'audL (1)"3*13/, is constructed in@arcelona. Also 6nown as 7a &edrera (9The Quarry9, the buildin# features undulatin# stone facadeswith biomor%hic o-ertones. The wor6 of 'audL re%resents Art Nou-eau architecture in B%ain, 6nownas 5odernisme in Catalonia, where he is acti-e.

1910A %olitical re-olution in &ortu#al to%%les the monarchy and initiates the First Re%ublic. In 13/,a military cou% be#ins a half;century of %olitical domination by Fascist re#imes and re%ressi-e#o-ernments.
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1938'eor#e Drwell (1!?*1"! %ublishes 2omage to Catalonia, a first;%erson account of theB%anish Ci-il War and his admiration for the re-olutionary %olitics of @arcelona.

1941'eneral Francisco Franco (1)3*1+" e>%resses solidarity with the 'erman cause in WorldWar II. Franco su%%orts a -olunteer military force, the @lue 8i-ision (later the @lue 7e#ion, but B%ainremains officially neutral durin# the war.

19475Prio Cesariny (born 13? is amon# the founders of the 'ru%o Burrealista de 7isboa (7isbonBurrealist 'rou%. 7i6e others of his contem%oraries in the &ortu#uese art world, includin# %ainterAntOnio &edro (1!*1//, Cesariny is 6eenly interested in &arisian a-ant;#arde art mo-ements.

194856Ins%ired by 8ada and Burrealism, the @arcelona;based artistic and literary #rou% 8au al Bet(98ie at Be-en9 %romotes contem%orary Catalan art. Amon# the %ainter members are oan &on4(13+*1) and Antoni TM%ies (born 13?.

1955B%ain oins the %and in 1+! and 1 with the anne>ation of adoinin# buildin#s.

1969The Funda4Vo Calouste 'ulben6ian o%ens in 7isbon. It is considered the #reatest collection offorei#n art in &ortu#al. In 1)?, the Foundation o%ens the Centro de Arte 5oderna to house twentieth;century art.

1972Bhoe desi#ner5anolo @lahni6, born in the Canary Islands in 1?, %roduces his first collection.In the 1)!s and 2!s, @lahni62s shoes will be made famous by the many celebrities who wear themand their a%%earance in %o%ular tele-ision %ro#rams in 'reat @ritain and the ecution by the B%anish#o-ernment of @asue se%aratists.

1974The Carnation Re-olution (Re-olu4Vo dos Cra-os brin#s about an end to the fascist re#ime in&ortu#al and establishes a liberal democracy. The ne>t year, 1+", inde%endence is #ranted to itsAfrican colonies. Followin# a %eriod of reform, &ortu#al oins the Euro%ean


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1977&ortu#uese architect Al-aro Bi$a (born 1?? desi#ns the 5ala#ueira Quarter =ousin# &roectat E-ora. In reco#nition of this and other wor6s, Bi$a is awarded the &rit$6er Architecture &ri$e in13.

1977a-ier 5ariscal (born 1"! has his first one;man show in @arcelona. Included are drawin#s,scul%tures, -ideos, and wor6s in other media. The followin# year he e>hibits desi#ns for %ostmodern

furniture.

1978The B%anish Constitution #rants some autonomy to the @asue Country, Catalonia, and'alicia. These re#ions %ossess distincti-e cultural and lin#uistic identities.

198086The 5useo Nacional de Arte Romano (National 5useum of Roman Art in 5rida, B%ain,desi#ned by Rafael 5oneo (born 1?+, is constructed. 5oneo wins the &rit$6er Architecture &ri$e in1/.

1981The first annual ARCD International Contem%orary Art Fair is held in 5adrid. It will become a%remier -enue for the e>hibition of contem%orary art in B%ain.

198388The Ne-o#ilde =ouse is built in D%orto, &ortu#al, to the desi#n of Eduardo Bouto 5oura(born 1"3. The house embodies the architect2s dual interest in international modernismand the local-ernacular.

1986&ortu#al2s inte#ration into the world economy and %olitics is si#naled by its membershi% in theEuro%ean Economic Community (now the Euro%ean


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1992The E>%osiciOn hibits a com%le> fi#ural installation at the 8ia Centerin New or6 entitledA Pla!e Called Abroad. In 3!!!, he wins B%ain2s %resti#ious %ri$e, the &remioNacional de @ellas Artes.

1998@arcelona desi#ner 5artL 'ui> (born 1/ be#ins an on#oin# collaboration with the B%anishshoeretailer Cam%er that results in store interiors and %roduct desi#n. =is humorous conce%tual wor6is critical of consumer culture.

1998The %osition (E>%o ) is held in 7isbon. The %a-ilion dedicated to oceano#ra%hicresearch is desi#ned by architect oVo 7uLs Carrilho da 'ra4a (born 1"3, and the &ortu#uese%a-ilion by Al-aro Bi$a (born 1??.

19995acao, the oldest Euro%ean colony in China, is transferred by &ortu#al to the &eo%le2sRe%ublic of China. The island, adoinin# 'uan#don# &ro-ince, becomes a B%ecial Administrati-eRe#ion within the &RC.

1999B%ain is amon# the first #rou% of countries to ado%t a common Euro%ean sin#le currency (theEuro.

2000Fernando TP-ora (born 13? desi#ns the am%hitheater for the faculty of law at thets.

ITALY

As in other %arts of Western Euro%e, the twentieth century in Italy is characteri$ed by industriali$ation,urbani$ation, and moderni$ation.


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At mid;century, Italy emer#es as one of the world centers of modern desi#n. In the fields of furnitureand industrial desi#n, fashion, and others, Italy is 6nown for its stylish %roducts which are mar6etedworldwide in the %ostwar %eriod. The country2s %reeminence in desi#n throu#h the end of the centuryis secured in the 1)!s by %ostmodern inno-ators. In other fields of the -isual arts, for instance%aintin# and architecture, Italians also contribute to the de-elo%ment of %ostmodernism. 5uch of thisnew wor6 is e>hibited at the 0enice @iennale, which throu#h the century ser-es as one of the most

si#nificant international -enues for showin# modern and contem%orary art.

18981903Arturo Toscanini (1)/+*1"+ ser-es as director of 7a Bcala in 5ilan, where he is 6nownfor su%%ortin# modern music. The conductor returns to the %osition in 1!/*) and 13!*3.

1900Jin# teenth;century %alace on the 'rand Canal. It is intended as an e>hibition s%ace for youn#er artists.

19038ecorati-e artsare included in the @iennale for the first time and, be#innin# in 1!+, forei#n

%a-ilions are constructed.

19038The Italian commercial film industry is born. Amon# the early %roects is Filoteo Alberini2s(1)/+*1?+ La presa di Roma8 9, settembre :;


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Eu#Gne;Emmanuel 0iollet;le;8uc (1)1*1)+. Rembrandt @u#atti (1))*11/, another of Carlo2ssons, is a well;6nown scul%tor s%eciali$in# in animals.

1909Writer Fili%%o Tommaso 5arinetti (1)+/*1 %ublishes 9The Foundation and 5anifesto ofFuturism9 in the French news%a%er Le 6igaro. This foundin# te>t of the mo-ement calls for theembrace of -iolence and mechani$ation. In 11!, 9The Technical 5anifesto of Futurist &aintin#9 is

si#ned by


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modernism, but some members %roduce wor6s in sym%athy with the Fascist re#ime of 5ussolini(1))?*1".

1926'ru%%o + is formed by architects who embrace both rationalist %rinci%les and certain as%ects ofmodernist aesthetics. The #rou%2s intellectual %osition is formulated by critic Edoardo &ersico (1!!*1?/ and architect 'iuse%%e &a#ano (1)/*1", both of whom are associated with the ournal

Casabella. &a#ano #oes on to desi#n the rationalist &hysics @uildin# at the ation of Austria and %arts of C$echoslo-a6ia, and recei-es'ermany2s su%%ort for its anne>ation of Albania. Italy further allies itself with 'ermany durin# WorldWar II when it declares war on France and @ritain in 1!. When the Americans and @ritish defeatItalian and 'erman forces in North Africa in 1?, Jin# 0ittorio Emanuele III (1)/*1+ has5ussolini arrested and re%laces him with 5arshal &ietro @ado#lio (1)+1*1"/ as %rime minister. Italysubseuently declares an armistice with the Allies, and 'ermany occu%ies %arts of the country, whichare liberated in 1".

1940En$o Ferrari (1))*1)) lea-es the em%loy of Alfa Romeo to be#in the com%any Auto;A-ioCostru$ioni Ferrari in 5odena. After World War II, the com%any %roduces its first automobile, the 13"B%ort, and becomes 6nown for its winnin# race cars.
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1942The E3E>%osition (or Eero, 1+. The three films deal with World War II and its aftermath.

1945Architect and critic @runo e-i (11)*3!!! %ublishes Towards an 0rgani! Ar!hite!ture, aninfluential te>t in which he ad-ocates a more naturalistic modern architecture, ins%ired by the wor6 ofFran6 7loyd Wri#ht(1)/*1" and others. e-i is the central fi#ure in the Associa$ione %erl2Architettura Dr#anica (Association for Dr#anic Architecture.

1946A referendum on the Italian #o-ernment de%oses the monarchy and leads to the establishmentof a re%ublic. The new Italian constitution ta6es effect in 1).

19465obster Charles 97uc6y9 7uciano (1)+*1/3 is %ardoned by the


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central themes of the trilo#y, and of Antonioni2s wor6 in #eneral, is the alienation of modern inhabitantsof industriali$ed Western societies.

1960The film La Dol!e $ita, a wry loo6 at decadence amon# the %ri-ile#ed class, is directed byFederico Fellini (13!*1? and stars 5arcello 5astroianni (13*1/. Fellini and 5astroianniteam u% a#ain for the e>uberant ; :?9, made in 1/?.

1961Tenor 7uciano &a-arotti (born 1?" ma6es his o%eradebut in the role of Rudolfo in &uccini2so%era La -oh#me. &a-arotti #oes on to %erform worldwide with the most renowned sin#ers,musicians, and conductors of the century.

1961Actress Bo%hia 7oren (born 1? recei-es an award at the Cannes Film Festi-al, and in 1/3an Academy Award, for her %erformance in the film Two Women.

1961Bicilian ournalist, essayist, and fiction writer 7eonardo Bciascia (131*1) %ublishes %lgiorno della Civita(The Da o" the 0wl, the first of his no-els in which he uses the detecti-e #enre toanaly$e contem%orary Bicilian society.

1961The Balone Interna$ionale del 5obile (International Furniture Fair o%ens in 5ilan andcontinues on an annual basis. @y 1/", the %rominent manufacturerswho show their wares at the fairinclude @offi, Cassina, and Jartell.

1962Writer hibited at the Dli-etti Com%any showroom in 5ilan by artists includin# @runo 5unari (1!+*1), En$o 5ari (born 1?3, and other members of two #rou%s founded se-eral years earlier'ru%%o N and 'ru%%o T. The wor6s are ins%ired by 6inetic art and are often %roduced in multi%les.

1964Bcul%tor, litho#ra%her, etcher, and %ainter 'iacomo 5an$X (1!)*11 com%letes %ortals(Porta della Morte with relief scul%ture for Baint &eter2s @asilica at the 0atican in Rome. Thescul%tural %ro#ram includes ten e%isodes e>%lainin# the Christian conce%t of death.

1964&oet, no-elist, and filmma6er &ier &aolo &asolini (133*1+" directs the film %l $angelose!ondo Matteo(The ospel A!!ording to Saint Matthew.

196574Fashion desi#ner Emilio &ucci(11*13 is hired to %roduce fli#ht attendant uniforms for@raniff International Airways. Earlier, in the late 1!s, &ucci had been 9disco-ered9 at ermatt,Bwit$erland, by fashion editor 8iana 0reeland (1!/*1) when she noticed the s6i outfits hedesi#ned and wore there. &ucci is synonymous with chic Italian style in the 1/!s, and es%eciallyrenowned for his bri#htly colored sil6 scar-es and ties.

1966The #rou%s of desi#ners 6nown as Archi$oom and Bu%erstudio are founded in Florence. Themembers of the two #rou%s e>%ress their critical -iews of modernist architecture and desi#nin theBu%erarchitecture e>hibition in &istoia in 1// and in a second e>hibition in 5odena in 1/+.

1967The term arte povera(9%oor art9 is coined by critic 'ermano Celant (born 1! to describe thewor6 of thirteen Italian artists who to#ether e>hibit their scul%tures and installations in the late 1/!s.Amon# the #rou% are Emilio &rini (born 1? and 'ilberto orio (born 1. Their wor6 ise>%erimental, incor%oratin# a -ariety of materials and media, and embodyin# a critiue of %ostwarconsumer culture.

1971Architect Aldo Rossi (1?1*1+ recei-es the commission for the Ban Cataldo cemetery in5odena. It becomes a maor statement of %ostmodernism in architecture, and #i-es -isual form tosome of the ar#uments made in Rossi2s influential %ublication The Ar!hite!ture o" the Cit(1//.

1972The 5useum of 5odern Art in New or6 %resents the e>hibition %tal@ The &ew Domesti!

Lands!apeA!hievements and Problems o" %talian Design. Architect 'ae Aulenti (born 13+%artici%ates in the e>hibition desi#n. In 1)+, she will transform the 'are d2Drsay in &aris into the5use d2Drsay.
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19945edia mo#ul Bil-io @erlusconi (born 1?/ founds the For$a Italia %olitical %arty and is elected%rime minister. =e ser-es only briefly before the coalition of %olitical %arties that su%%ort him be#ins tounra-el.

1997The Minimaliae>hibition is held in 0enice and tra-els to New or6, to the &.B. 1 Contem%oraryArt Center, in 1. Curated by Achille @onito Dli-a (born 1?, the show demonstrates the central

%lace of Italian artists in twentieth;century 5inimalist art.

1997Fashion desi#ner 'ianni 0ersace (1/*1+ is murdered in Florida. 0ersace is 6nown for hissta#e costumes desi#ned for the @ritish %erformer Elton ohn (born 1+ and other celebrities, aswell as for his flamboyant collections featurin# metallic fabrics and outra#eous details.

1998The French %refect, or #o-ernmental re%resentati-e, Claude Eri#nac (1?+*1) isassassinated in Corsica. The murder is %art of the on#oin# stru##le for Corsican %olitical autonomy. In3!!!, France a#rees to #i-e Corsica #reater autonomy if -iolence is curtailed.

BALKAN

This re#ion of former Austrian and Dttoman %ro-incesstru##les with inde%endence, with no setinternational borders or system for re%resentin# the different ethnic #rou%s found here. The countriesof the @al6an &eninsula are ra-a#ed by wars and %olitical u%hea-als throu#hout the twentieth century,from the @al6an Wars of the century2s second decade throu#h the ethnic conflicts of the last. Inbetween, re%ressi-e Communist re#imes in many countries create a chillin# climate for the arts. Inmany areas there e>ist local traditional cultures that are melded with international influences. InTur6ey, for e>am%le, in the 1?!s, the 8 'rou% of %ainters and scul%tors see6 to synthesi$e Tur6ishtradition with elements of a-ant;#arde Euro%ean art. Followin# the colla%se of the Bo-iet %el the Dttomans fromJoso-o, 5acedonia, and Albania. The di-ision of the conuered territory is contested and @ul#aria isforced to return a #reat deal of what had been %romised in the ori#inal scheme. The wars create%olitical tensions that contribute to the outbrea6 of World War I.

1914'erman &rince Wilhelm ser-es briefly as head of a newly inde%endent Albania, but falls from

%ower with the outbrea6 of World War I.
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1914Berbia turns a#ainst its @al6an nei#hbors and occu%ies Joso-o and 5acedonia. WhenArchdu6e Fran$ Ferdinand (1)/?*11 of the Austro;=un#arian em%ire arri-es to %romote %eace inBarae-o, he is assassinated by a Berbian nationalist. World War I be#ins and Austria;=un#arydeclares war on Berbia. Austria;=un#ary is ali#ned with 'ermany, Tur6ey, and @ul#aria as the A>is%owers a#ainst the Allies 'reat @ritain, France, Russia, Italy, and the ecutes ?!! Armenian nationalistleaders, then orchestrates the de%ortation of 1.) million Armenians from Anatolia to Byria and5eso%otamia. It is estimated that in the %rocess, some 1." million Armenians are massacred or die ofstar-ation, disease, or e>haustion.

191922After World War I, the Treaty of 0ersailles sets terms for the former %ro-inces of thedefeated Austro;=un#arian and Dttoman em%ires. The Jin#dom of Berbs, Croats, and Blo-enes isfoundedK its name is chan#ed in 13 to u#osla-ia, meanin# 9the land of the Bouthern Bla-s.9 The'reco;Tur6ish War is fou#ht o-er %romises made to 'reece of former lands of the Dttoman em%ire,made by the Allies who wanted 'ree6 su%%ort in World War I. D-er the ne>t se-eral years, ethnic'ree6s and Tur6s in both countries are forced to return to their land of ori#in.

191920Re%resentati-es to the Treaty of &aris decide to di-ide Albania amon# 'reece, Italy, andu#osla-ia. The Albanians reect the %lan and Albania is reco#ni$ed as an inde%endent state with itsadmission to the 7ea#ue of Nations.

1921The a-ant;#arde 9enitism9 mo-ement is founded by 7ubomir 5icic (1)"*1+1. WesternEuro%ean culture is s%iritually ban6ru%t, accordin# to 5icic, but enitism, the embodiment of the@al6an 9barbaro;#enius,9 will re-itali$e it. The #rou%2s manifesto is %ublished in its ma#a$ine >enit(enith, which, des%ite 5icic2s insistence on the su%eriority of 9@al6ani$ation,9 routinely re%roduceswor6 by Cubists,Futurists, 8adaists, and E>%ressionists.

1923Jemal AtatYr6(born 5ustafa Jemal, 1))1*1?) becomes the first %resident of the newly

%roclaimed Re%ublic of Tur6ey, launchin# an ambitious cam%ai#n to moderni$e, seculari$e, andWesterni$e the country. =e re%laces Islamic shari!alaw with Western le#al codes, thus se%aratin#church and stateK abolishes the cali%hate and theolo#ical schools, seculari$in# educationK #rants eualri#hts to womenK con-erts written Tur6ish from an Arabic to 7atin scri%tK and bans the fe$, encoura#in#Euro%ean dress. AtatYr6 is an enthusiastic %ro%onent of culture as an inte#ral element of nationalde-elo%ment, and encoura#es a synthesis of the nation2s creati-e le#acy, indi#enous cultures, andWestern artistic %ractices.

1924'ree6s -ote for the abolition of the monarchy and the Becond Re%ublic is born. The monarchyis restored in 1?"K the ne>t year, the 6in# establishes a ri#ht;win# dictatorshi% under the leadershi% of'eneral Ioannis 5eta>as (1)+1*11. The monarchy is finally abolished only in 1+.

1925@enito 5ussolini (1))?*1", dictator of Italy, be#ins a cam%ai#n to ta6e o-er Albania,culminatin# in his 'erman;su%%orted occu%ation of the country in 1?.

192935The 5ar>ist;oriented Croatian #rou% emla (Earth is acti-e in a#reb, es%ousin# a-ernacular culture based in the immediate social milieu, and reectin# the im%orted styles of westernEuro%e. Althou#h the #rou% is o%%osed to formalism, it does not su%%ort Bocialist Realism.

1931The New Artists2 Bociety is founded in Bofia, @ul#aria, to foster a-ant;#arde trends in art alliedwith western Euro%ean mo-ements of the 13!s and 2?!s. The society o%erates until 1, when it isabsorbed into the Communist;controlled


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1933Architect 0ladimir Bubic (1)*1/ desi#ns the first Blo-enian s6yscra%er, in 7ublana.Btandin# +!.?" meters in hei#ht, the buildin# is the tallest in u#osla-ia.

1933The 8 'rou% is formed in Istanbul to %romote contem%orary Euro%ean aesthetic ideas inTur6ey. 5ost of the #rou%2s members, includin# %ainter Zemal Tollu (1)*1/) and scul%tor YhtY5Yrido#lu (1!/*13, are former students of the Istanbul Academy of Fine Arts who also recei-ed

trainin# in Euro%e.

193641The National ha is res%onsible for Albania2s industriali$ation, but also for its estran#ement from the Bo-iet is %owers, led by Adolf =itler (1))*1", attac6 u#osla-ia and 'reece durin# WorldWar II. u#osla-ia is di-ided when 'ermany %roclaims a 9'reater Croatia,9 to which it anne>es mostof @osnia and western Berbia. The fascist %u%%et #o-ernment, attem%tin# to create a Catholic, all;Croat re%ublic, sends hundreds of thousands of ews, 'y%sies, and Berbs to death cam%s. Twose%arate mo-ements battle the forei#ners and each other for control of the country:the Communists,led by osi% @ro$ Tito (1)3*1)!, and the ethnic Berbians, led by 8ra#olub 5ihailo-ic (1)?*1/.

1941Tur6ish %ainter Nuri Iyem (born 11" founds the eniler 'rubu (New 'rou%, em%hasi$in# thee>%loration of aesthetic styles and social content rele-ant to the Tur6ish conte>t, in o%%osition to the

Euro%ean;ins%ired formalism of the 8 'rou%.

1944After the 'erman de%arture from 'reece, the e>iled monarchy returns, only to face aCommunist insur#ency. The re%ublics Croatia, 5ontene#ro, Berbia, Blo-enia,@osnia;=er$e#o-ina, and 5acedoniaK and two autonomous %ro-inces Joso-o and 0o-odina. Aseach re%ublic de-elo%s with -aryin# de#rees of success, ethnic tensions rise. These are 6e%t in chec6by Tito but e>%lode within a few years of his death in 1)!.

1946The monarchy is abolished in @ul#aria and the Communist %arty is elected to %ower. 'eor#i

8imitro- (1))3*1 becomes %rime minister. A Communist state or#ani$ed alon# the lines of theBo-iet ormpa(>orba the ree5. Theno-el, which establishes Ja$ant$a6is2 international re%utation, concerns the encounter between a%assionate 8ionysian and a more contem%lati-e fi#ure.

1948Ideolo#ical dis%utes between u#osla-ia and the Bo-iet Communist &arty result in thecountry2s e>%ulsion from the Cominform. u#osla-ia %ursues an inde%endent course in forei#nrelations and economic %olicy, and, althou#h intellectual freedom is restricted, there is a #reaterde#ree of o%enness than in other countries of the Eastern @loc.

1948Art swindler Ante To%ic 5imara (1))*1)+ %resents a false list of 1// wor6s alle#edly stolenby the Na$is from u#osla-ia to authorities at the Central Collectin# &oint in 5unich. 5imara2s scam is


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later e>%osed, althou#h he and the wor6s of art disa%%ear. A 3!!1 re%ort re-eals that some do$en ofthe wor6s are in the collections of museums in @el#rade and a#reb.

1950sIn @ul#aria, art %roduction and e>hibition are ti#htly controlled by the %ression. 7imitedartistic freedom is #ranted in se-eral brief 9thaws,9 notably the mid;1/!s and late 2+!s.

1950Ri#ht;win# #uerrillas, bac6ed by the


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19678eclarin# Albania an atheist state, En-er =o>ha (1!)*1)" be#ins the seculari$ation of thecountry with the destruction or con-ersion of thousands of reli#ious buildin#s.

1967The military sei$es %ower in 'reece in a cou% d2tat, establishin# the 9Re#ime of the Colonels.9The unta rules throu#h terror, its chief aim to %ur#e the country of left;win# dissidents. Elections aresus%ended, demonstrations and stri6es made ille#al, and s%eech critical of the #o-ernment

criminali$ed. The dictatorshi% colla%ses in 1+ and, followin# a referendum that abolishes themonarchy, a democratic re%ublic is established in 1+".

1968@ul#arian troo%s %artici%ate in the Bo-iet in-asion of C$echoslo-a6ia, while Albania withdrawsfrom the Warsaw &act in %rotest.

1968Btudents at @el#rade


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news%a%ers as well as Radio;T0 @el#rade consolidates his %ower, and he is elected %resident in1). 5ilose-ic and his cohorts will %lay a critical role in the dissolution of u#osla-ia after the fall ofcommunism.

1990Blobodan 5ilose-ic (born 11 abolishes the autonomy of Joso-o and institutes a %ur#e ofethnic Albanians in the %ro-ince.

1991Ismail Jadare (born 1?/, a %rominent Albanian writer, defects to France ust %rior to the fall ofthe Communist re#ime in his home country. Amon# the wor6s by Jadare that ser-e as somewhat-eiled critiues of En-er =o>ha (1!)*1)" and his re#ime is The eneral o" the Dead Arm(1/?.

1991The u#osla- wars eru%t when military forces controlled by the Berb Blobodan 5ilose-ic (born11 attem%t to %re-ent the secession from u#osla-ia of, first, Blo-enia, then Croatia, 5acedonia,and @osnia;=er$e#o-ina (the @osnia6 and Croat #rou%s in the latter state. The Bie#e of Barae-obe#ins on A%ril ", 13, when thousands of %eace demonstrators are attac6ed by #unmenK for thene>t three years, the city is relentlessly bombarded by the @osnian Berb Army. NATD enters theconflict in 1 with the first air stri6es in its history, tar#eted at @osnian Berbs. The chaotic andbloody wars continue until 1", with casualties in the hundreds of thousands, wides%read use ofethnic cleansin#, and incalculable destruction to archaeolo#ical and cultural sites.

1992Albania is the first former Warsaw &act country to reuest NATD membershi%. The reuestfollows the brea6u% of the Bo-iet hibition of contem%orary art, adacent to the city2s olduarter, &sirri.

1995Film director Emir Justurica (born 1" ma6es .nderground, the %lot of which centers on amunitions factory in @el#rade that be#ins durin# World War II and continues for a half;century. The filmis a reflection on the tra#ic history of conflict in the @al6an &eninsula durin# the twentieth century.

1996 In the =a#ue, the International Criminal Tribunal related to the former u#osla-ia be#ins.

@osnian Berb leader Rado-an Jarad$ic (born 1" is indicted for crimes committed in connectionwith the 13*" war. Rat6o 5ladic (born 1?, the leader of the Berb military who is consideredres%onsible for the murder of a%%ro>imately +,"!! 5uslims in Brebrenica, is also char#ed.

199699The Joso-o 7iberation Army (J7A fi#hts to restore the autonomy of Joso-o from thecountry of Berbia and 5ontene#roK &resident Blobodan 5ilose-ic is accused of atrocities by Joso-arAlbanian refu#ees esca%in# the fi#htin#. NATD inter-enes in the re#ion once a#ain in 1, with airstri6es in @el#rade. Bhortly after, the Berbs withdraw from Joso-o and the J7A a#rees to disarm.

1997Albania2s #o-ernment, led by the 8emocratic &arty, is forced to resi#n after the colla%se of a%yramid in-estment scheme in which thousands of Albanians lose their life sa-in#s. After a %eriod ofci-il disorder in which some 3,!!! Albanians die, a Bocialist;led coalition swee%s the elections.

1997@el#rade;born %erformance artist 5arina Abramo-ic (born 1/ is selected to show in theu#osla-ian %a-ilion at the 0enice @iennale. =er selection is contested by the 5ontene#rin 5inister of


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Culture, who obects to Abramo-ic2s confrontational art. E-entually, her -ideo installation -al5an-aro4ueis shown in the e>hibition s%ace curated by 'ermano Celant (born 1! and the artist winsthe International 0enice @iennale Award.

1999Barae-o author =a$im A6mad$ic (born 1" %ublishes the no-el Mislio sam da je mese! )ut(I Thou#ht It Was a ellow 5oon, which draws com%arisons between the =olocaust and the recent

atrocities in @osnia.

1999Btudents and faculty at the A%%lied Arts and 8esi#n Academy in @el#rade underta6e a seriesof e>hibitions calledArt Rat(Art War durin# the NATD bombin# of u#osla-ia. The e>hibitions include%osters and other wor6s desi#ned to %romote antiwar acti-ism.

2000%nside?0utside, an e>hibition of recent u#osla-ian art, is held in Warsaw, &oland, at theacheta 'allery. Included are artists associated with the resur#ence of an a-ant;#arde art scene inJoso-o followin# the war.

2000The new nation of Berbia and 5ontene#ro re%laces the old one of u#osla-ia. When Blobodan5ilose-ic (born 11 does not acce%t his defeat in the elections, he is forced out by mass %rotests. In

3!!?, he is handed o-er to the


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1900In 'las#ow, Bcotland, architect Charles Rennie 5ac6intosh(1)/)*13) desi#ns buildin#s,interiors, and furnishin#s that embody a concern with the total domestic en-ironment. =is aestheticstems from the Arts and Crafts mo-ement and includes naturalistic forms, often crafted from IndustrialA#e materials li6e iron, associated with Art Nou-eau. 5ac6intosh himself sha%es an entire house withits furnishin#s when he is commissioned in 1!3 to desi#n =ill =ouse in the 'las#ow suburb of=elensbur#h.

1901Queen 0ictoria(1)1*1!1 dies and is succeeded by Edward, &rince of Wales (1)1*11!.Edward 0II will rei#n until his death in 11!, when he is succeeded by 'eor#e 0 (1)/"*1?/. 8es%itethe short duration of his rei#n, the term 9Edwardian9 is widely used to describe a tendency towardo%ulent ele#ance in the -isual arts of the %eriod.

1901'u#lielmo 5arconi (1)+*1?+ transmits the first tele#ra%hic radio messa#es from Cornwall,En#land, to Newfoundland, Canada. The tele#ra%h is one of the in-entions that transformscommunications in the twentieth century.

1903Archibald Jno> (1)/*1?? creates desi#ns for the Tudric line of %ewterware %roduced by7iberty Co., in which he uses Runic %atterns ins%ired by Celtic art. D-er the ne>t decade, Jno> willcreate hundreds of te>tile, sil-er, %ottery, and ewelry desi#ns for 7iberty, a com%any founded bymerchant Arthur 7asenby 7iberty (1)?*11+ in the 1)+!s and a trendsetter in interior decoration.

1903Emmeline &an6hurst (1)")*13) forms the Women2s Bocial and &olitical


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#rou%2s ideas are a-idly su%%orted by %oet E$ra &ound (1))"*1+3. Influenced es%ecially by ItalianFuturism, 0orticism celebrates industrial and technolo#ical %ro#ress and the machine a#e, and stri-esto ca%ture the dynamic flu> of urban life. The 0orticist manifesto is %ublished in the first issue of the#rou%2s ournal, -last(une 11.

1915American;born #ra%hic artist Edward 5cJni#ht Jauffer (1)!*1" recei-es his first maor

commission, a %oster for the 7ondon t three decades.

1916 Irish author ames oyce (1))3*11 %ublishes the autobio#ra%hical no-el Portrait o" theArtist as a 1oung Man. oyce2s modernist no-el .lssesis %ublished in &aris in 133 and challen#esmany of the narrati-e con-entions of the #enre.

1919American;born Nancy Witcher 7an#horne, 0iscountess Astor (1)+*1/, becomes the firstwoman member of the =ouse of Commons and ser-es until 1".

1920The first roadside #as station o%ens in @ritain, in Aldermaston on the @ath Road. Not until 1"

will the first section of the 51 motorway (or hi#hway o%en. As in other %arts of the industriali$edworld, in 'reat @ritain the landsca%e will be transformed by the ad-ent of wides%read automobileownershi%.

1922T. B. Eliot (1)))*1/" %ublishes The Waste Land. Althou#h born in the %erimental basis. The state;su%%orted @@C will %lay an im%ortant roleinternationally in %ro-idin# hi#h;uality radio and tele-ision %ro#rams throu#hout the century.

1922 @ritish E#y%tolo#ist =oward Carter (1)+?*1? disco-ers Jin# Tutan6hamun2stomb. Thedisco-ery launches an enormous -o#ue for E#y%tian;ins%ired desi#n in ewelry, furniture, and otherdecorati-e arts.

1923@ritish economist ohn 5aynard Jeynes (1))?*1/ %ublishesA Tra!t on Monetar Re"orm.=is most influential wor6, The eneral Theor o" 7mploment8 %nterest8 and Mone, will be %ublishedin 1?/. Jeynes is credited with the ori#ination of the 9New Economics.9

1928 @ritish scul%tor =enry 5oore (1))*1)/ recei-es his first %ublic commission, a relief to beinstalled in a 7ondon Trans%ort facility. From di-erse influences includin# Abstraction, Burrealism, and&rimiti-ism, 5oore de-elo%s a uniue aesthetic that e-entually ma6es him one of the most well 6nownand admired scul%tors of the twentieth century.

19288. =. 7awrence (1))"*1?! %ublishes Lad Chatterle's Lover, one of the wor6s in which hesu##ests that se>uality, the subconscious, and nature can ease human bein#s2 relationshi% to themodern world.

1931'erman;born %hoto#ra%her @ill @randt (1!*1)?, whose wor6 is informed by contact withtheBurrealists, settles in 7ondon, where he becomes the %reeminent @ritish %hoto#ra%her of thetwentieth century.

1932The @ritish


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1936'eor#e 0 (1)/"*1?/ dies on anuary 3! and Edward 0III (1)*1+3 succeeds him as6in#. Edward 0III abdicates on 8ecember " to marry American socialite @essie Wallis Bim%son (1)/*1)/. =e is succeeded by his brother 'eor#e 0I (1)"*1"3.

1936The ocean liner Bueen Marma6es her maiden -oya#e. The Bueen 7li)abeth, at that time thelar#est ocean liner e-er built, is launched in 1?+.

1937Ne-ille Chamberlain (1)/*1! becomes %rime minister of @ritain and %ursues a %olicy ofa%%easement toward Adolf =itler (1))*1". In the followin# year (1?), @ritain and France si#nthe 5unich &act acce%tin# =itler2s claims to %redominantly 'erman territories in C$echoslo-a6ia.

1939World War II be#ins when 'erman troo%s in-ade &oland. France and @ritain declare war on'ermany. In 1!, Italy declares war on @ritain and France. A National 'o-ernment is formed underthe leadershi% of Winston Churchill (1)+*1/". The 9@lit$9 bombin# of @ritain by 'ermany be#ins.

1941Followin# the bombin# of the American military installation at &earl =arbor, =awaii, on8ecember +, 11, the


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1951The Festi-al of @ritain is held in 7ondon to celebrate the centennial of the #reat Crystal &alacee>hibition of 1)"1. Amon# the structures included in the fair#rounds are the saucer;sha%ed 8ome of8isco-ery desi#ned by Ral%h Tubbs (113*1/ and the needle;sha%ed B6ylon desi#ned by &hili%&owell (131*3!!? and =idal#o 5oya (13!*1. These structures are li6ely intended to recall thefamous Trylon and &eris%here of the 1? New or6 World2s Fair.

19517ucian Freud (born 133 wins a %ri$e at the Festi-al of @ritain for his %aintin# %nterior atPaddington(Wal6er Art 'allery, 7i-er%ool, which si#nals his emer#ence as one of the foremost @ritishfi#ural %ainters of the %ostwar %eriod.

1952'eor#e 0I (1)"*1"3 dies and Eli$abeth II (born 13/ is coronated une 3, 1"?. =er rei#nwill continue throu#h the end of the century. Eli$abeth2s son, Charles (born 1), is made &rince ofWales in 1").

1953The structure of 8NA is disco-ered by two de l2Architecture 5oderne conference of 1"/.

1953Ian Flemin# (1!)*1/ %ublishes the first ames @ond no-el, Casino Roale. The sua-e@ond is the %erfect %ostwar character a debonair %layboy who battles the forces of e-il with theassistance of %re%osterous futuristic #ad#etry.

1954Food rationin#, be#un durin# World War II, officially ends in @ritain. An era of materialde%ri-ation is thus comin# to an end.

1955Fashion desi#ner 5ary Quant (born 1? o%ens a sho% called @a$aar, which is %atroni$ed bythe 9Chelsea Bet9 of 9Bwin#in# Bi>ties97ondon. The city e-entually su%ercedes &aris as the center offashion desi#nas Quant, whose s6irt desi#ns start #ettin# shorter in 1"), is credited by some within-entin# the minis6irt.

1956Loo5 -a!5 in Anger, a %lay by ohn Dsborne (13*1, o%ens in 7ondon. Dsborne2s wor6 isat the center of a literary mo-ement that includes no-elists Jin#sley Amis (133*1", ohn @raine(133*1)/, Alan Billitoe (born 13), and others, collecti-ely referred to as the 9an#ry youn# men.9In wor6s such as Lu!5 (im(Amis, 1"?, Room at the Top(@raine, 1"+, and Saturda &ight andSunda Morning(Billitoe, 1", they challen#e bour#eois elitism and cham%ion the wor6in# classes.5any of their wor6s are translated to film by members of the Free Cinema mo-ement, ins%ired byItalian Neorealism.

1956@ritain and France in-ade Bue$ to defend Israeli interests in the Canal, which had been

nationali$ed by E#y%t. The Bue$;Binai War ends with the withdrawal of @ritain and France under%ressure from the


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19620arious Flu>us artists or#ani$e the 6estival o" Mis"itse>hibition at 'allery Dne in 7ondon. Thehi#hli#ht of the show is the installation[%erformance %iece Living S!ulpture, in which the artist @en0autier (born 1?" mo-es into the dis%lay window of the #allery for two wee6s and offers himself forsale for the %rice of ]3"!.

1963Jenya #ains inde%endence from @ritain as %art of a #eneral mo-e of former @ritish colonies

toward %olitical autonomy.

1964The Centre for Contem%orary Cultural Btudies o%ens at the ism,%oststructuralism, feminism, and critical race theory.

1965@ritain enacts the Race Relations Act, which %rohibits discrimination on the basis of race in%ublic %laces such as restaurants and on %ublic trans%ortation. The sco%e of the %rohibitions ise>%anded in amendments made in 1/) and 1+/.

19687ondon @rid#e is sold and mo-ed to Ari$ona. Bince the 13!s, Americans had been a-id%urchasers of En#lish houses, barns, and other architectural monuments.

1968Art 7an#ua#e is formed by Terry At6inson (born 1?, 8a-id @ainbrid#e (born 11,5ichael @aldwin (born 1", and =arold =urrell (born 1!, who %roduce collaborati-e wor6s underthe #rou% name addressin# in %articular the relationshi% between art, society, and the mar6et. 7ateroined by American ose%h Josuth (born 1" and Australian Ian @urn (1?*1?, amon# others,the #rou% has a si#nificant influence on the %roduction of Conce%tual artin @ritain and the


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continually ser-in# %rime minister in 1"! years. Thatcher will for#e close ties to Iranian dissidents, o%%osed to the Ayatollah Jhomeini, hold twenty;si> %eo%le hosta#e inthe Iranian embassy in 7ondon. The @ritish BAB storms the embassy and frees the hosta#es.

1981&rince Charles (born 1) marries 7ady 8iana B%encer (1/1*1+ in 7ondon. 8iana willha-e an im%ortant influence on desi#n in the last two decades of the twentieth century as a %atron ofyoun# @ritish couturiers, includin# Catherine Wal6er (born 1", @ruce Dldfield (born 1"!, andothers. In 1+, 8iana is 6illed in a car crash in &aris.

1981A &ew Spirit in Painting, an e>hibition held at theRoyal Academy in 7ondon,showcases Neo;E>%ressionist wor6s that are richly te>tural and directly con-ey the subecti-ity of the artists2 -isions.

1981Israeli;born architect and desi#ner Ron Arad (born 1"1 establishes Dne Dff in 7ondon, astudio and showroom where he %roduces 9art furniture9 in a =i#h;Tech style. Two of his mostinno-ati-e desi#ns are the Tom 0ac -acuum;formed aluminum chair and the Fantastic &lasticElasticchair (both 1).

1982The Fal6lands War between 'reat @ritain and Ar#entina ta6es %lace when Ar#entina in-adesand ta6es control of the Fal6land Islands followin# se-enteen years of ne#otiations.

1987The stoc6 mar6et crashes in 7ondon on Dctober 1, 9@lac6 5onday.9 This is %art of aworldwide %reci%itous decline in stoc6 -alues that si#nals the end of a %eriod of %ros%erity and thebe#innin# of a recession.

1993The 5aastricht Treaty establishin# the Euro%ean hibition will later tra-el to New or6, where some of the wor6s#enerate %ublic contro-ersy.

1998Actress Jate Winslet (born 1+" wears the Titani!dress desi#ned by Ale>ander 5cQueen(born 1/ to the Academy Awards Ceremony in 7os An#eles. 8urin# the 1!s, 5cQueen emer#esas one of the foremost @ritish a-ant;#arde desi#ners of women2s fashion.

2000The 5illennium 8ome at 'reenwich, the 5illennium Wheel, and the 5illennium Footbrid#e

o-er the Thames in 7ondon are o%ened. The dome, considered the lar#est in the world, is desi#ned byarchitect Richard Ro#ers (born 1??.
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CE

'ermany, Bwit$erland, and Austria are all dee%ly touched by world wars, althou#h Bwit$erlandmaintains its neutrality throu#hout. The se-ere %enalties %laced on 'ermany by the Allies after WorldWar I create harsh economic conditions that fuel the rise to %ower of Adolf =itler (1))*1", who willlead 'ermany into fascism and World War II in 1?. =itler also heads a re#ime that orchestrates the=olocaust, a horrific le#acy with which subseuent #enerations will stru##le to come to terms. The%eriod immediately followin# World War II is occu%ied with rebuildin# the de-astated country, which isnow s%lit into two se%arate entities, the Federal Re%ublic of 'ermany (West 'ermany and the'erman 8emocratic Re%ublic (East 'ermany, the latter a member of the Warsaw &act allied with theBo-iet %eriences of its attendant horrors.Cultural %roduction in East 'ermany is subect to the %olitical climate, fluctuatin# between %eriods of-i#ilant ideolo#ical scrutiny and liberal thaws. Reunification of the nation, and %articularly of the city of

@erlin, occasions an enormous buildin# cam%ai#n by internationally reco#ni$ed architects, %roducin#im%ortant %ostmodern monuments.

18981905E>hibitions of modernist desi#nby the 0ienna Becession are held in the #rou%2s buildin#,desi#ned by ose%h 5aria Dlbrich (1)/+*1!). At the head of the #rou%, founded in 1)+, is 'usta-Jlimt (1)/3*11). osef =offmann (1)+!*1"/ is also a foundin# member. In 1!+*), Jlimt will%aint one of his best;6nown wor6s, The Eiss(^sterreichische 'alerie @el-edere, 0ienna.

1900'erman %hysicist 5a> &lanc6 (1)")*1+ formulates uantum theory. =is wor6 mar6s a

turnin# %oint in the de-elo%ment of %hysics in the twentieth century. In 11), &lanc6 recei-es theNobel &ri$e for %hysics.

1900Bi#mund Freud2s (Austrian, 1)"/*1? %nterpretation o" Dreamsis %ublished, followed in 1!"by Three 7ssas on Se*ualit. These are amon# the te>ts in which Freud de-elo%s the new disci%lineof %sychoanalysis.

1903The Weiner Wer6st_tte is founded in 0ienna by osef =offmann (1)+!*1"/ and Jolo 5oser(1)/)*11), embracin# both machine %roduction and the Arts and Crafts %rinci%les of William 5orris(1)?*1)/.

1904Construction of the &ostal Ba-in#s @an6, desi#ned by Dtto Wa#ner (1)1*11), is be#un in0ienna. The buildin# re%resents the architect2s incor%oration of rationalist elements, such as fran6lye>%ressed modern materials li6e steel, within an o-erall conce%tion that is classical in ins%iration.
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19058ie @rYc6e (The @rid#e, a #rou% of %ainters and %rintma6ers who contribute to thede-elo%ment of E>%ressionism, is founded in 8resden, continuin# there and in @erlin until 11?.5embers include Ernst 7udwi# Jirchner (1))!*1?), Erich =ec6el (1))?*1+!, and Emil Nolde(1)/+*1"/. %ressionists %ri-ile#e the artist2s inner emotional state,focusin# on the an>ieties of modern life and taboo subects such as se>uality, e>%ressed in bri#ht,unnatural colors and distorted forms.

19057The &alais Btoclet in @russels is constructed by 'erman architect osef =offmann (1)+!*1"/, embodyin# the contem%orary 'erman conce%t of the esamt5unstwer5(9total wor6 of art9 withfurnishin#s desi#ned by the architect and murals by 'usta- Jlimt (1)/3*11).

1907The 8eutscher Wer6bund, %redecessor of the @auhaus, is founded in 5unich, led by FriedrichNaumann (1)/!*11, Jarl Bchmidt (1)+?*1", and =ermann 5uthesius (1)/1*13+. 8edicatedto combinin# the s6ills of art, craft, and industry, the Wer6bund2s membershi% includes architects,industrialists, economists, artists, and craftsmen. Its initial #oals are modest ornamentation andfunctionalism in all as%ects of the decorati-e arts, but a ra%idly e>%andin# membershi% will lead todis%utes o-er mass %roduction and standardi$ation. In 11, the Deuts!her Wer5bund Ausstellunge>hibition of modern decorati-e arts is held in Colo#ne.

19080iennese architect Adolf 7oos (1)+!*1??, an early %ro%onent of Functionalism, writes theessay 9Drnament and Crime.9 It will be ta6en u% by some modernist architects as a manifesto and adenunciation of the su%%osedly decorati-e traditional architecture they des%ise. In 11!, 7ooscom%letes the Bteiner =ouse in 0ienna, which, des%ite its unornamented facade, includes Arts andCrafts elements such as %anelin# and lar#e fire%laces in the interior.

1908The =och$eitsturm (9weddin# tower9 at 8armstadt, the focal %oint of the artists2 colonyfounded there by Archdu6e Ernst 7udwi# of =esse (1)/)*1?+, is com%leted by ose%h 5ariaDlbrich (1)/+*1!). 8armstadt becomes the center of the u#endstil, the 'erman eui-alent of theArt Nou-eau mo-ement.

1909&eter @ehrens (1)/)*1! com%letes the AE' Turbine Factory, @erlin. @ehrens also desi#ns

some of the %roducts manufactured by the AE', as well as the com%any2s %ublicity materials. In thisconnection, as well as throu#h trainin# a number of modernist architects, @ehrens %lays a central rolein desi#n and architecture in the first uarter of the twentieth century.

1910The ournal Der Sturmbe#ins %ublication in @erlin, combinin# essays on to%ical issues such aswomen2s ri#hts and nationalism, cuttin#;ed#e art criticism, and wor6 by leadin# Euro%ean a-ant;#ardeartists and writers. Editor =erwarth Walden (1)+)*11 o%ens 'alerie Bturm in 111.

1911The arri-al of the 'erman #unboat Pantherin A#adir, 5orocco, which re%resents a threat toFrench interests there, creates an international crisis. War is a-erted when the 'ermans relinuishclaims to 5orocco in e>chan#e for French;controlled land in the Con#o with access to the sea.

1911The %aintin#s of Austrian artist Ds6ar Jo6osch6a (1))/*1)! are included in the =a#enbunde>hibition in 0ienna. Critic Arthur Roessler (1)++*1"" refers to them as 9massacres in %aint.9Jo6osch6a is the leadin# e>%onent of Austrian E>%ressionism, alon# with E#on Bchiele (1)!*11),whose erotically char#ed fi#urati-e wor6s cause a sensation.

1911The @laue Reiter (@lue Rider #rou% of a-ant;#arde artists is founded in 5unich and willcontinue until 11. Amon# its members are Russian artist Wassily Jandins6y (1)//*1, the title ofwhose %aintin# #i-es the #rou% its name, as well as 'erman artists Fran$ 5arc (1))!*11/, &aulJlee(1)+*1!, and Au#ust 5ac6e (1))+*11. The #rou% is united, not by a sin#le style ortheme, but by a search for aesthetic forms throu#h which to con-ey s%iritual ideals.

1913A concert of atonal musical wor6s by Arnold Bchoenber# (1)+*1"1 and followers Alban@er# (1))"*1?", and Anton Webern (1))?*1", held in 0ienna, so incenses the audience that

fi#hts brea6 out and %olice are called in to subdue the fracas. After World War I, Bchoenber# will
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de-elo% the twel-e;tone methodK he and his followers, who com%rise the Becond 0iennese Bchool ofcom%osers, are dee%ly influenced by the E>%ressionist mo-ement.

1914The assassination of Archdu6e Fran$ Ferdinand (1)/?*11 and his wife in Barae-o sets offWorld War I. Austria;=un#ary attac6s Berbia, and 'ermany in-ades @el#ium. The 'ermans defeat theRussians in the @attle of Tannenber# and the Russians defeat the Austrians at the @attle of 7ember#.

Also in 11, the First @attle of the 5arne is fou#ht. Althou#h 'erman troo%s are %re-ented fromenterin# &aris, the successful 'erman retreat means that the war will be %rolon#ed. The 'ermans areen#a#ed in bloody battles in @el#ium, France, and elsewhere from 11" until 11), when the Alliesare -ictorious and Armistice is si#ned, thus mar6in# the demise of the 'erman and =absbur# em%ires.

1916The 8ada mo-ement be#ins in urich at the Cabaret 0oltaire:a #atherin# %lace for artists,%erformers, and intellectuals:and flourishes in France, Bwit$erland, and 'ermany until about 13!.Romanian;born %oet Tristan T$ara (1)/*1/? writes the foundin# manifesto. A%%alled by thedestruction of World War I and the nationalist and materialist -alues that %roduced it, 8adaistscelebrate irrationality and anarchy in wor6s of -isual art and sta#ed e-ents. Austrian artist Raoul=ausmann (1))/*1+1 and 'erman artists Jurt Bchwitters (1))+*1) and =annah =`ch (1))*1+) are amon# those associated with the mo-ement.

1918'erman artist Christian Bchad (1)*1)3 creates his first 9Bchado#ra%h,9 a cameraless%hoto#ra%h that re%roduces the ne#ati-e ima#e of te>tures %laced on %hotosensiti-e %a%er.

191819The No-ember ('erman Re-olution is tri##ered by a mutiny of sailors in Jiel who set u%Bo-iet;style wor6ers2 councils. The 6aiser abdicates and the Bocial;8emocratic &arty (B&8 heads thenew #o-ernment, fracturin# left unity by allyin# with conser-ati-e forces. The rebellion s%reads tomaor %orts and cities, includin# @erlin, where the B%artacist embur# (1)+!*11 and Jarl 7ieb6necht (1)+1*11, both of whom are assassinated by#o-ernment militia. The re-olt is ultimately su%%ressed and the Weimar Re%ublic %roclaimed.

1918Allied with the No-ember Re-olution and its ideals, artists and architects form theNo-ember#ru%%e (No-ember 'rou% and the Arbeitsrat fYr Junst (Wor6ers2 Council for Art in @erlin.

Their %ro#rams for state su%%ort of art and other %roects are later ta6en u% at the Weimar @auhaus,founded in 11 by Walter 'ro%ius (1))?*1/. The educational %ro#ram is based on the inte#rationof the arts and crafts and aims at nothin# less than a re-olution in 'erman culture, from bour#eois%arochialism to a socially transformati-e art.

1918349Red 0ienna,9 the stron#hold of the Bocial 8emocratic &arty in Austria, becomes aninternationally acclaimed model of socialist munici%al #o-ernment. Embar6in# on a radical %ro#ram ofdemocrati$ation and redistribution, the administration focuses on the %ro-ision of housin# eui%%edwith modern amenities, #reen s%ace, and community infrastructure such as libraries and6inder#artens. The %ro#ram2s as%irations are e>em%lified by the =eili#enstadt =ouses (Jarl 5ar> =of,13+*?!, desi#ned by Jarl Ehn (1))*1"+, a student of Dtto Wa#ner.

1919'erman architect and urban %lanner @runo Taut (1))!*1?), a member of theNo-ember#ru%%e, %ublishes his uto%ian drawin#s,Alpine Ar!hite!ture, in which he rein-entsarchitecture in res%onse to the de-astation of World War I and demonstrates his E>%ressionista%%roach to desi#n. Taut2s ability to use modern materials to achie-e E>%ressionistic effects is alsoa%%arent in his 'lass &a-ilion at the 11 Wer6bund E>hibition.

1919The 'erman E>%ressionist film The Cabinet o" DrF Caligariis directed by Robert Wiene (1))!*1?). The unner-in# effect of the film is a conseuence of its multilayered %lot and its sets, whichcon-ey the feelin# of a twisted and distorted medie-al -illa#e.

1920sThe Weimar Re%ublic %ro-es more hos%itable to elements of the old military;industrial re#imethan socialists and other %ro%onents of radical chan#e. Artists res%ond with increasin#ly harsh %ictorialattac6s on the 9New 'ermany9 throu#h %rints, broadsides, and illustrated ma#a$ines. @erlin 8adaists

'eor#e 'ros$ (1)?*1" and ohn =eartfield (1)1*1/), both members of the Communist %arty,collaborate on -arious %ublications featurin# bitter caricatures of the 9%illars of bour#eois society9:


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corru%t ca%italists, the military, and the cler#y:for which they incur the wrath of authorities. @othartists are also early and -ociferous critics of the Na$is, who or#ani$e as a %arty in 13!.

1920The 7ea#ue of Nations is established in &aris, with Bwit$erland as one of the ori#inal members.Austria becomes a member later in the same year.

1920Bwiss %sychiatrist =ermann Rorschach (1))*133 de-ises the 9in6blot9 test. =is boo6Ps!hodiagnosti5is %ublished in 131 and uic6ly becomes a classic %sychoanalytic te>t.

1920Erwin &iscator (1)?*1// o%ens the &roletarian Theater in @erlin. &ioneerin# the use ofmechani$ed sets and films in his dramatic %roductions, &iscator en-isions an a#itational,%ro%a#andistic theater whose socio%olitical conte>t su%ersedes emoti-e content or aesthetics.

1920'erman;born choreo#ra%her 5ary Wi#man (1))/*1+?, creator of E>%ressionist dance,o%ens a school in 8resden. Em%loyin# s%ontaneous mo-ement, re%etiti-e %attern, and oftenmusicless choreo#ra%hy, Wi#man2s inno-ations will influence Euro%ean and American modern dancefor decades.

1921'erman astronomer 5a> Wolf (1)/?*1?3 shows the true structure of the 5il6y Way for thefirst time.

1922Naum 'abo (1)!*1++ brin#s Constructi-ismfrom his nati-e Russia to 'ermany, where heli-es until 1?3.

1923Adolf =itler (1))*1" ma6es his first attem%t to sei$e %ower, in the @eer =all &utsch in5unich. 8urin# a brief im%risonment for treason, he writes Mein Eamp". The -alue of the 'ermanmar6 dro%s dramatically and the ensuin# economic instability contributes to the %o%ularity of the Na$i%arty, which =itler reor#ani$es in 13".

1924'erman artist Dtto 8i> (1)1*1/ records the horrors of trench warfare in a boo6 of etchin#s

called The War. 7i6e fellow -eteran 'eor#e 'ros$, 8i> de-otes his art to stin#in# social commentary,focusin# on the social ne#ation of disabled e>;soldiers in %aintin#s such as War Cripples(13!.When The Tren!h(13?, a de%iction of decom%osed cor%ses, is shown at the Wallraf;Richart$;5useum in Colo#ne, %ublic outcry forces the museum2s director to resi#n.

1925Austrian;born industrial and #ra%hic desi#ner =erbert @ayer (1!!*1)" becomes director of%rintin# and ad-ertisin# at the @auhaus. In 1?), @ayer will emi#rate to the ercise a %rofound influence on #ra%hic and industrial art.

1925The Neue Bachlich6eit (New Dbecti-ity e>hibition o%ens in 5annheim. The socially en#a#edmo-ement is based on the use of star6 realism to con-ey the sense of disillusionment en#endered bythe 'reat War and the failures of the Weimar Re%ublic. Amon# the artists associated with themo-ement is 5a> @ec6mann (1))*1"!.

1926'ermany is admitted to the 7ea#ue of Nations but withdraws in 1??, the year in which Adolf=itler (1))*1" is declared chancellor, combinin# that %osition with that of %resident in 1? tobecome FYhrer (97eader9. In 1?), =itler declares himself war minister.

1926The @auhausschool buildin#, desi#ned by Walter 'ro%ius (1))?*1/, is com%leted in8essau, 'ermany. First established in Weimar in 11, the @auhaus relocates to 8essau in 13",then to @erlin in 1?3. It will be closed by the Na$is in 1?? because its %ro#ressi-e education%ro#ram and modernist aesthetics are considered threats to the re#ime. Amon# the teachers at the@auhaus is %ainter &aul Jlee (1)+*1!, who oined in 131 and teaches in a -ariety of fields,includin# boo6bindin#, %aintin#, and wea-in#, throu#h 1?1.

1926The film Metropolisby 'erman director Frit$ 7an# (1)!*1+/ %remieres in @erlin. The%o%ular futuristic film ima#ines a world transformed by modern %roduction methods in which ca%italistsli-e comfortably on the surface of the Earth while wor6ers toil in de%ri-ation below #round.
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1927-erlin8 Smphon o" a Cit, a film directed by Walter Ruttmann (1))+*11, %remieres. Thefilm documents one day in the life of contem%orary @erlin and uses a -ariety of effects to ca%ture thee>citement, s%eed, and -ibrancy of the 'erman ca%ital.

1927The Weissenhofsiedlun# model housin# e>hibit, directed by architect 7udwi# 5ies -an derRohe(1))/*1/, o%ens in Btutt#art. In 13, 5ies e>hibits his 9@arcelona9 chair in the 'erman

&a-ilion (also of his desi#n at the @arcelona International E>%osition. The buildin# is com%osed ofabstract %lanes that intersect under its flat roof. 8es%ite its manifest modernism, the structure em%loysmaterials, such as tra-ertine marble, associated with traditional monumental %ublic buildin#s. In 1?+,5ies lea-es 'ermany for Chica#o, where he heads the Architecture 8e%artment at the ArmourInstitute of Technolo#y (later the Illinois Institute of Technolo#y from 1?) to 1").

1927Euatin# modernism with de#eneracy, and de#eneracy with ews and @olshe-i6s, Na$iideolo#ist Alfred Rosenber# (1)?*1/ founds the Jam%fbund fYr 8eutsche Jultur (5ilitant 7ea#uefor 'erman Culture to %ur#e the arts of 9corru%t9 elements.

1928@ertolt @recht (1))*1"/ writes The Threepenn 0perawith com%oser Jurt Weill (1!!*1"!, in which he em%loys 9alienatin# effects9 intended to destroy theatrical illusion and maintain theaudience2s critical detachment. The %lay is the #reatest theatrical 9hit9 of 13!s @erlin. With the rise to%ower of the Na$i %arty, @recht will become a %rominent member of the antifascist mo-ement.

1928The Jello##;@riand &act declarin# an end to war is si#ned by si>ty;fi-e countries, includin#'ermany. Althou#h the %act does not %re-ent World War II, it does establish the le#al conce%t ofcrimes committed a#ainst %eace, for which a number of defendants in the Nurember# Trials (1"*/are con-icted.

1928CIA5 (Con#rGs Internationau> dArchitecture 5oderne is founded at the Chteau de 7a Barra$in Bwit$erland by twenty;ei#ht Euro%ean architects or#ani$ed by 7e Corbusier (1))+*1/" andhistorian Bie#fried 'iedion (1)))*1/) to formali$e the %rinci%les of modern architecture and%romote functionalist desi#n in urban %lannin#. CIA52s ideas are widely ado%ted by city %lanners inthe rebuildin# of Euro%e followin# World War II.

1929The 8eutscher Wer6bund or#ani$es the #roundbrea6in# 6ilm und 6otoe>hibition in Btutt#art,an international showcase for a-ant;#arde %hoto#ra%hyand film.

1929Erich 5aria Remarue (1))*1+! %ublishes All Quiet on the Western Front, a boo6 laterbanned and burned by the Na$is. In the late 1?!s, Remarue flees 'ermany for Bwit$erland, thenthe eitung(Wor6ers2 Illustrated News%a%er, orA%>, for which he creates do$ens of%hotomonta#es, often ruthless satires of =itler and the Na$is. 5any of these %hotomonta#es:atechniue in which =eartfield has become a master:will be featured in his solo e>hibition 0ne Man'sWar Against 2itler, mounted in 1! at the Arcade 'allery in 7ondon.

1930The 'erman %roduction of The -lue Angel, directed by osef -on Bternber# (1)*1/ andstarrin# 5arlene 8ietrich (1!1*13, is released. The film, in which 8ietrich %lays 7ola, a cabaretsin#er, and famously %erforms the son# 9Fallin# in 7o-e A#ain9 which will become her trademar6,ma6es the star2s career.

1933The Nobel &ri$e for %hysics is awarded to the Bwiss;En#lish &aul 8irac (1!3*1) and theAustrian Erwin Bchr`din#er (1))+*1/1 for the disco-ery of new forms of atomic ener#y.

193345Adolf =itler (1))*1" becomes chancellor of 'ermany and creates a one;%arty stateunder the National Bocialist (Na$i re#ime. The doctrine of an Aryan 9master race,9 central to Na$i
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ideolo#y, is translated into concrete %olicies desi#ned to e>terminate 'erman ews. In 5arch 1??,the first concentration cam% o%ens at 8achau. In 1?", the Nurember# 7aws de%ri-e 'erman ews ofciti$enshi%. @efore the end of World War II, some si> million ews in Na$i;occu%ied Euro%e will bede%orted and murdered in a systematic %ro#ram of #enocide. 'y%sies, homose>uals, communists, thementally ill, and other #rou%s will also be tar#eted.

1934In Austria, a clerical;fascist dictatorshi% is established in a cou% d2tat orchestrated byChancellor En#elber# 8ollfuss. &arliament is dismissed and all %olitical %arties are banned e>ce%t forthe Fatherland Front.

1934The 0ol6swa#en @eetle is introduced in 'ermany. D-er the ne>t se-en decades, 31 million ofthe economical 9%eo%le2s car9 will be %roduced. In the 1/!s, the @eetle becomes the -ehicle of choicefor counterculture members.

1935'erman director 7eni Riefenstahl2s (1!3*3!!? film Triumph o" the Will%remieres, a#lorification of =itler and his re#ime. The ne>t year, her film of the Dlym%ics in @erlin, titled 0lmpia, isa %aean to 9Aryan su%eriority.9 Riefenstahl2s willin#ness to %ro%a#andi$e for the Na$is ma6es her acontro-ersial fi#ure after World War II.

1936'erman 5ar>ist social and cultural critic Walter @enamin (1)3*1! writes the essay 9TheWor6 of Art in the A#e of Its Technolo#ical Re%roducibility9 (also commonly translated as 9The Wor6 ofArt in the A#e of 5echanical Re%roduction9. In this influential essay, @enamin theori$es the loss ofthe aura of the ori#inal artwor6 in the a#e of %hoto#ra%hy and film. In 1!, he commits suicide at theFrench;B%anish border while fleein# the Na$is.

1937The National Bocialist (Na$i #o-ernment or#ani$es the e>hibition 7ntartete Eunst(DegenerateArt, which includes the wor6 of many modernist artists. D%enin# in 5unich, the e>hibition is attendedby literally millions of -isitors in its do$en 'erman and Austrian -enues. The show includes only afraction of the 1/,!!! artwor6s confiscated from 'erman museums by order of 5inister of &ro%a#andaose%h 'oebbels (1)+*1"K thousands of these wor6s are burned, the rest auctioned off. Amon#the artists deemed 9de#enerate9 are the E>%ressionists Jirchner, 5arc, Jo6osch6a, and Nolde, as well

as @ec6mann, Jlee, Cha#all, 8i>, 'ros$, &icasso, 0an 'o#h, and Jandins6y. Dther cultural forms aresubected to the same rites of 9%urification.9 For instance, a Degenerate Musi!e>hibit is mounted in1?) to educate the listenin# %ublic on the dan#ers of atonalism and a$$.

1937'ermans %artici%ate in the bombin# of the @asue town of 'uernica by fascist forces, an e-entmemoriali$ed the same year in a lar#e;scale %aintin# (uerni!a by B%anish artist &ablo &icasso(1))1*1+?. In 1, the 'erman #o-ernment officially a%olo#i$es to the citi$ens of 'uernica for its%art in the bombin#.

193845Austria is anne>ed by 'ermany. In 1?, World War II starts when 'erman troo%s in-ade&oland, and France and @ritain declare war on 'ermany. =itler (1))*1" and 5ussolini (1))?*1" si#n a ten;year 9&act of Bteel.9 The same year, the =itler;Btalin &act of nona##ression between

'ermany and the Bo-iet


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1946The Art Club is founded in 0ienna by a #rou% of modern %ainters*some of whom had been ine>ile durin# the war:as a s%ace for reco-erin# and redisco-erin# Euro%ean a-ant;#arde art. The clubbecomes the center of %ro#ressi-e tendencies in Austrian culture for the ne>t decade.

194849The Bo-iet


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1959The @itterfeld Conference formulates a%%ro%riate artistic subect matter and the obli#ations ofartists in East 'ermany. Artists[writers and wor6ers should 9e>chan#e their tools,9 so that the formercan better understand and de%ict the life of the %roletariat.

1959West 'erman writer 'Ynter 'rass (born 13+ %ublishes the no-el Die -le!htrommel(The TinDrum, a %icaresue account of one man2s ourney throu#h the ni#htmare of Na$i 'ermany and the

country2s %ostwar 9economic miracle.9

1960Bwiss artist ean Tin#uely (13"*11 is amon# the si#ners of a 9Constituti-e 8eclaration ofthe New Realism.9 The mo-ement su%%orts wor6 that embraces realism throu#h assembla#es offound obects. Dne out#rowth of Nou-eau Ralisme (New Realism is 6inetic scul%ture, by artists suchas Tin#uely, and it is the subect of e>hibitions throu#hout Euro%e.

1961The construction of the @erlin Wall di-ides the city into Communist East @erlin and 8emocraticWest @erlin. The wall stands for nearly thirty years.

196162The Flu>us Internationale Fests%iele, held in Wiesbaden, 'ermany, mar6s the officiallaunch of the Flu>us mo-ement, or#ani$ed by American artist 'eor#e 5aciunas (1?1*1+). Flu>us

continues into the 1+!s, based %rimarily in 'ermany but ha-in# adherents throu#hout Euro%e andNorth America. Closely related to the 8ada mo-ement, Flu>us artists aim for a 9total art9 thattrans#resses traditional aesthetic boundaries, combinin# -isual art, music, %oetry, and electronicmedia into sta#ed e-ents or 9ha%%enin#s.9 &artici%ants in 'ermany include -ideo artist Nam une &ai6(born 1?3 and ose%h @euys (131*1)/. In the 1+!s, @euys %resents %erformance wor6sconcernin# national history and %ersonal bio#ra%hy.

1963'erhard Richter (born 1?3, Bi#mar &ol6e (born 11, and Jonrad 7ue# (1?*1/res%ond to American &o% with the formation of the #rou% Ca%italist Realism in 8Ysseldorf.7ue# andRichter (who, li6e &ol6e, immi#rated from East 'ermany or#ani$e their first e-ent, Li"e with Pop@ ADemonstration "or Capitalist Realism, in a de%artment store, in-itin# friends to -iew the artists sittin#on furniture from the store2s in-entory dis%layed as wor6s of art.

1963The @erlin &hilharmonic =all is com%leted by =ans Bcharoun (1)?*1+3, who has lon# beenaffiliated with the E>%ressionist mo-ement. This first maor wor6 by the architect leads to commissionsin the last decade of his life.

1965668urin# a liberali$ation in cultural %olicy, the East 'erman film com%any 8EFA %roduces anumber of films critical of contem%orary socialist life, includin# % Am a Rabbitby Jurt 5aet$i# (born111 and Tra!es o" Stoneby Fran6 @eyer (born 1?3. Althou#h both films are banned in asubseuent crac6down, they are ultimately -oted amon# the to% 1!! 'erman films of all time by aninternational ury.

1968Construction is com%leted on the Neue National#alerie, @erlin, desi#ned by 7udwi# 5ies -ander Rohe (1))/*1/. The minimalist sensibility of 5ies2 buildin# stands in shar% contrast to the other

structures in the Julturforum com%le>, all desi#ned in an e>%ressionist mode by =ans Bcharoun(1)?*1+3.

1969When Attitudes -e!ome 6orm, a landmar6 e>hibition ofConce%tual Art, o%ens at theJunsthalle @ern in Bwit$erland. The show %ro-o6es a national scandal and curator =arald B$eemann(born 1?? is forced to resi#n.

late 1960s'70s0arious manifestations of Conce%tual Art flourish in East 'ermany, %articularly 5ailArt, in which official e>hibition -enues (and censors are by%assed in fa-or of distributin# wor6 -ia the%ostal system in the form of illustrated letters, %ostcards, $ines, and stam%s. Amon# the %ractitionersare Robert Rehfeldt (1?1*1?, who establishes an archi-e of Conce%tual Art in East @erlin, andose%h W. =uber (1"1*3!!1, whose %roect &ature %s Li"eSave %t(1++ consists of mailin#sunflower seeds to artists all o-er the world for %lantin#.
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1970'erman %ainter Anselm Jiefer (born 1" %roduces a watercolor entitled 7verone Stands.nder 2is 0wn Dome o" 2eaven(1".1., in which he de%icts himself enactin# a %arody of the9=eil =itler9 salute. An early wor6 by Jiefer, it illustrates his on#oin# concern to come to #ri%s with theNa$i le#acy, an obecti-e shared with other %ainters associated with Neo;E&

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